MODULE-III

Ocean Energy Resources:

More than 70% of the solar radiation reaching Earth falls on the ocean, heating the upper
layers of the seas. This thermal energy, combined with wind and the forces of our solar system,
causes currents, waves, and tides. Together these forms of thermal and mechanical energy make
up a huge energy resource.

Ocean energy resource is divided into:

The mechanical forms of ocean energy the tides, waves, and currents and
Ocean Thermal Energy.

The mechanical forms of ocean energythe tides, waves, and currentsoffer significant
potential energy in specific regions around the world. Several nations have tried to harness this
energy, but low efficiencies and high cost have limited application in most cases.

To convert ocean thermal and mechanical energy, the following systems are used:

1. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) systems Here the temperature

difference between the surface and in-depth water is used to drive the turbine to generate
electricity.
2. Ocean wave Energy Conversion - Wave energy technologies extract energy directly
from surface waves or from pressure fluctuations below the surface.
3. Ocean Tidal Energy Conversion system - All coastal areas experience two high tides
and two low tides over a period of slightly more than 24 hours. The level difference
between high tide and low tide is utilized to run the turbine to produce electricity.

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) systems:

The process called ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) uses the heat energy stored in the
Earth's oceans to generate electricity. OTEC works best when the temperature difference between
the warmer, top layer of the ocean and the colder, deep ocean water is about 20C. These
conditions exist in tropical coastal areas, roughly between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Tropic
of Cancer.

There are three kinds of OTEC systems:

Closed-cycle,
Open-cycle, and
 Hybrid.

CLOSED-CYCLE SYSTEM:
Closed-cycle systems use fluids with a low boiling point, such as ammonia, to rotate a
turbine to generate electricity. Warm surface seawater is pumped through a heat exchanger,
where the low-boiling-point fluid is vaporized. The expanding vapor turns the turbo-generator.
Cold deep seawaterwhich is pumped through a second heat exchangerthen condenses the
vapor back into a liquid that is then recycled through the system.

OPEN-CYCLE SYSTEM:

Open-cycle systems use the tropical oceans' warm surface water to make electricity.
When warm seawater is placed in a low-pressure container, it boils. The expanding steam drives
a low-pressure turbine attached to an electrical generator. The steam, which has left its salt
behind in the low-pressure container, is almost pure, fresh water. It is condensed back into a
liquid by exposure to cold temperatures from deep-ocean water.

HYBRID SYSTEM:

Hybrid systems combine the features of closed- and open-cycle systems. In a hybrid
system, warm seawater enters a vacuum chamber, where it is flash-evaporated into steam, similar
to the open-cycle evaporation process. The steam vaporizes a low-boiling-point fluid (in a
closed-cycle loop) that drives a turbine to produce electricity.

COMPLEMENTARY TECHNOLOGIES (BYPRODUCTS OF OTEC)

OTEC has potential benefits beyond power production. For example, spent cold seawater
from an OTEC plant can chill fresh water in a heat exchanger or flow directly into a cooling
system. Simple systems of this type can be used for air-conditioning buildings.

OTEC technology also supports chilled-soil agriculture. When cold seawater flows
through underground pipes, it chills the surrounding soil. The temperature difference between
plant roots in the cool soil and plant leaves in the warm air allows many plants that evolved in
temperate climates to be grown in the subtropics.

Aquaculture is perhaps the most well-known byproduct of OTEC. Cold-water delicacies,

such as salmon and lobster, thrive in the nutrient-rich, deep seawater discarded from the OTEC
process. Microalgae such as Spirulina, a health food supplement, also can be cultivated in the
deep-ocean water.

Finally, an advantage of open or hybrid-cycle OTEC plants is the production of fresh

water from seawater.
CLOSED-CYCLE OTEC SYSTEM:
The important components are the heat exchangers, turbo generator, and seawater supply
system. In this system, heat transfer from warm surface sea water occurs in the evaporator,
producing a saturated vapor from the working fluid. Electricity is generated when this gas
expands to lower pressure through the turbine. Latent heat is transferred from the vapor to the
cold sea water in the condenser and the resulting liquid is pressurized with a pump to repeat the
cycle.

The working fluid which passes through the components is a low boiling point one. In
OTEC system the temperature difference between the surface and deep sea water is utilized. That
is, the surface water at a higher temperature is used as the heat source and cold deep water is
used as the heat sink.

Warm surface sea water is pumped through the evaporator. The working fluid absorbs
heat from this and evaporates. This vapor, at comparatively higher pressure, is expanded in a
turbine to produce work. This work output of the turbine is given to electric generator. The
turbine and generator together is shown as turbo generator in the figure. So, electric power is
available from turbo generator as output. The expanded working fluid from turbine is passed
through the condenser. Deep sea cold water is circulated through the condenser, which absorbs
latent heat of condensation from the working fluid. The condensed working fluid is then pumped
to the evaporator and the cycle continues.

OPEN-CYCLE OTEC SYSTEM:

 The steps of the Claude, or open, cycle are: (1) Splash evaporation of warm sea water in a
partial vacuum; (2) expansion of the steam through a turbine to generate power; (3) condensation
of the vapor by direct contact heat transfer to cold sea water; and (4) compression and discharge
of the condensate and any residual non-condensable gases. Unless fresh water is a desired by-
product, open cycle OTEC eliminates the need for surface heat exchangers. The name open
cycle comes from the fact that the working fluid (steam) is discharged after a single pass and has
different initial and final thermo-dynamic states; hence, the flow path and process are open.

The entire system, from evaporator to condenser, operates at partial vacuum, typically at
pressures of 1 to 3% of atmospheric. Initial evacuation of the system and removal of non-
condensable gases during operation are performed by the vacuum compressor, which, along with
the sea water and discharge pumps, accounts for the bulk of the open cycle OTEC parasitic
power consumption.

Flash evaporation is accomplished by exposing the sea water to pressures below the
saturation pressure corresponding to its temperature. This is usually accomplished by pumping it
into an evacuated chamber through spouts designed to maximize heat and mass transfer surface
area. Vapor produced in the flash evaporator is relatively pure steam. The heat of vaporization is
extracted from the liquid phase, lowering its temperature and preventing any further boiling.
Less than 0.5% of the mass of warm sea water entering the evaporator is converted into steam.

The pressure drop across the turbine is established by the cold seawater temperature. At
4C, steam condenses at 813 Pa. The turbine (or turbine diffuser) exit pressure cannot fall below
this value. Condensation of the low-pressure steam leaving the turbine may employ a direct
contact condenser (DCC), in which cold sea water is sprayed over the vapor, or a conventional
surface condenser that physically separates the coolant and the condensate.

HYBRID OTEC SYSTEM:

 Some marketing studies have suggested that OTEC systems that can provide both
electricity and water may be able to penetrate the marketplace more readily than plants dedicated
solely to power generation. Hybrid cycle OTEC was conceived as a response to these studies.
Hybrid cycles combine the potable water production capabilities of open cycle OTEC with the
potential for large electricity generation capacities offered by the closed cycle. Several hybrid
cycle variants have been proposed.

In one of them, as in the Claude cycle, warm surface seawater is flash evaporated in a
partial vacuum. This low pressure steam flows into a heat exchanger where it is employed to
vaporize a pressurized, low-boiling-point fluid such as ammonia. During this process, most of
the steam condenses, yielding desalinated potable water. The ammonia vapor flows through a
simple closed-cycle power loop and is condensed using cold sea water. The uncondensed steam
and other gases exiting the ammonia evaporator may be further cooled by heat transfer to either
the liquid ammonia leaving the ammonia condenser or cold sea water. The non-condensable are
then compressed and discharged to the atmosphere.

Advantages:

1. As steam is used as an intermediary heat transfer medium between the warm sea water
and the ammonia; consequently, the potential for bio-fouling in the ammonia evaporator
is reduced significantly.
2. Another advantage of the hybrid cycle is that condensation occurs at significantly higher
pressures than in an open cycle OTEC condenser, due to the elimination of the turbine
from the steam flow path. This may, in turn, yield some savings in the amount of power
consumed to compress and discharge the non-condensable gases from the system. These
savings (relative to a simple Claude cycle producing electricity and water).
3. Potable water is available as a byproduct, which is as important as energy now a days.

Drawbacks:

1. One drawback of the hybrid cycle is that water production and power generation are
closely coupled. Changes or problems in either the water or power subsystem will
compromise performance of the other.
2. There is a risk that the potable water may be contaminated by an ammonia leak.

Alternate Hybrid Cycle:

The alternative hybrid cycle proposed de-coupled power and water production
components. The basis for this concept lies in the fact that warm sea water leaving a closed cycle
evaporator is still sufficiently warm, and cold seawater exiting the condenser is sufficiently cold,
to sustain an independent freshwater production process.

The alternative hybrid cycle consists of a conventional closed-cycle OTEC system that
produces electricity and a downstream flash-evaporation-based desalination system. Water
production and electricity generation can be adjusted independently, and either can operate
should a subsystem fail or require servicing.

The primary drawbacks are that the ammonia evaporator uses warm seawater directly and
is subject to bio-fouling; and additional equipment, such as the potable water surface condenser,
is required, thus increasing capital expenses.

Wave Energy Conversion Systems:

Wave Energy is a non-polluting and renewable source of energy, created by natural
transfer of wind energy above the oceans, which itself is created by the effects of the suns solar
energy. As the wind blows across the oceans surface, moving air particles transfer their energy
to the water molecules that they touch. As the wind continues to blow, more and more of its
kinetic energy is transferred to the oceans surface and the waves grow bigger. These larger
waves are called gravity waves because their potential energy is due to the gravitational force of
the Earth. There is a lot of potential energy in the waves generated by the wind, to the point
where large storm waves can lift ships high out of the water. The periodic or oscillatory nature of
ocean waves means that we can use a variety of different Wave Energy Devices to harness the energy
produced by the oceans waves.

As an ocean wave passes a stationary position the surface of the sea changes in height,
water near the surface moves as it loses its kinetic and potential energy, which affects the
pressure under the surface. The periodic or oscillatory nature of ocean waves means that we can
use a variety of different Wave Energy Devices to harness the energy produced by the oceans
waves.

There are three fundamental but very different wave energy devices used in converting wave
power into electric power, and these are:

1. Wave Profile Devices: These are wave energy devices which turn the oscillating height
of the oceans surface into mechanical energy.

2. Oscillating Water Columns: These are wave energy devices which convert the energy
of the waves into air pressure.

3. Wave Capture Devices: These are wave energy devices which convert the energy of the
waves into potential energy.

Wave Profile Devices:

Wave profile devices are a class of wave energy device which floats on or near to the sea
surface and moves in response to the shape of the incident wave or, for submersible devices, it
moves up and down under the influence of the variations in underwater pressure as a wave
moves by. Most types of wave profile devices float on the surface absorbing the wave energy in
all directions by following the movements of waves at or near the sea surface, just like a float.

If the physical size of the wave profile device is very small compared to the periodic
length of the wave, this type of wave energy device is called a point absorber. If the size of the
device is larger or longer than the typical periodic wavelength, it is called a linear absorber, but
more commonly they are collectively known as wave attenuators.

The pitching and heaving of the waves causes a relative motion between an absorber and
reaction point. The left hand wave energy device above uses a heavy ballast plate suspended
below the floating buoy. The buoy is prevented from floating away by a mooring line attached to
a sea-floor anchor. This mooring line allows the point absorber to operate offshore in deeper
waters.

As the buoy bobs up-and-down in the waves, a oscillatory mutual force reaction is
generated between the freely moving absorber and the heavy plate causing a hydraulic pump in
between to rotate a generator producing electricity. The middle wave energy device operates in a
similar manner to the previous floating buoy device. The difference this time is that the freely
heaving buoy reacts against a fixed reaction point such as a fixed dead-weight on the ocean floor.
As this type of point absorber is bottom mounted, it is operated in shallower near shore locations.

The third device is an example of a linear absorber (wave attenuator) which floats on the
surface of the water. It too is tethered to the ocean floor so that it can swing perpendicularly
towards the incoming waves. As the waves pass along the length of this snake like wave energy
device, they cause the long cylindrical body to sag downwards into the troughs of the waves and
arch upwards when the waves crest is passing. Connecting joints along the body of the device
flex in the waves exerting a great deal of force which is used to power a hydraulic ram at each
joint. The hydraulic ram drives oil through a hydraulic motor which drives a generator,
producing the electricity.

Oscillating Water Column type converter:The structure used to capture the waves energy
could be a natural cave with a blow hole or a manmade chamber or duct with a wind turbine
generator located at the top well above the waters surface.

As the incident waves outside enter and exit the chamber, changes in wave movement on
the opening cause the water level within the enclosure to oscillate up and down acting like a
giant piston on the air above the surface of the water, pushing it back and forth. This air is
compressed and decompressed by this movement every cycle. The air is channeled through a
wind turbine generator to produce electricity as shown. the type of wind turbine used in
oscillating water column schemes is called a Wells Turbine, which rotate in the same direction
even if the air flow direction reverses.

Wave Capture Devices:

As the waves hit the structure they flow up a ramp and over the top (hence the name
overtopping), into a raised water impoundment reservoir on the device in order to fill it. Once
captured, the potential energy of the trapped water in the reservoir is extracted using gravity as
the water returns to the sea via a low-head Kaplan turbine generator located at the bottom of the
wave capture device.
Tidal Energy Conversion:
Because of the effect of gravitational attraction of moon and sun on earth, sea water level
increases and decreases depending on the relative position of sun, moon and earth. High tide and
low tide happens twice in approximate 24 hours. This level difference is utilized to run water
turbines to generate electricity. 70% of this energy is moons contribution. It is similar to an
hydro-electric PP, the only difference is that water flows in both direction in tidal PP compared to
one direction in hydro-electric. Tidal turbines work like an underwater wind turbine, using the
tides to turn blades and generate electricity.

Principle of operation:
uringun

A dam or barrage is built to form a basin between the sea and shore. Openings are
provided in the dam, which carry turbine generator assembly and sluice gates. During the high
tide, lower openings fitted with turbine is closed and sluice gates of upper opening is opened as
shown in figure (a). This allows the basin to be filled with water up to the sea water level of high
tide. When the sea water level falls during low tide, sluice gates for turbine is opened and water
is allowed to drain towards sea through the turbine as shown in figure (b). This produces
mechanical work, which is used to run the generator to generate electricity. This process
continues till the water level in the basin falls so that no effective head is available between the
basin water level and sea water level. The generation of electricity is not continuous and that is
the main drawback of this scheme.
Components of tidal power plant:
The main components of a tidal power plan are:
The powerhouse
The dam or barrage to form the pool or basin and
The sluice ways from the sea to basin and back.

The turbines, generator, transformers, controls and other auxiliary equipment are the
main components of the powerhouse. The function of the dam is to form a barrier
between the sea and basin in case of single basin scheme. Dam forms a barrier between
the two basins also in the case of twin basin scheme. The turbines mainly used are bulb
turbines, which is a hermetically sealed assembly of turbine and generator. The sluice
ways are the openings to fill the basin or drain the basin as per the operational
requirement. These openings are controlled by gates.

Types of Tidal Plants:

The power generation from the tidal scheme is not continuous. In order to make the
power output more or less continuous, a number of arrangements are employed. The main types
are:

1. Single basin arrangement and

2. Double basin arrangement.

N single basin scheme, the power output is intermittent, but a doble basin scheme can provide
ower more continuously or the output can be used during the peakload time. So it is more
flexible.

1. Single basin arrangement:

 This is the simplest form of all schemes. Here a dam is built with sluice ways with gates for
forming a pool of water. Turbines are placed in these sluice ways, which are operated during
the filling time during the high tide or during the emptying time when there is a low tide.
Based on when the power is generated, single basin systems are classified into:

Single ebb cycle system or

Single tide cycle system or
Double cycle system.

Single ebb cycle system:

Here the basin is filled during the high tide, by opening the sluice ways for filling. The
generator is shut down during the filling period. So there is no power output during the period.
The reservoir is filled to the maximum lever of high tide. When the sea is flowing back after high
tide, i.e during the beginning of ebb tide or low tide, the turbines re operated when there is
sufficient head between the levels of water in the reservoir and the ebbing sea level. Thus the
water in the basin is drained to sea during owr generation. This continues till safe and economic
power generation is possible. This is suitable for an estuary, where the duration of ebb tide is
longer than flood tide. So, this scheme provides more duration of power generation.

Single tide cycle system:

Here the generation is carried out during the flood tide. The basin is filled through the
turbines generating power when there is a high tide. This continues till the maximum level is
attained in the basin. During the low tide, the water in the basin is drained to sea through the
sluice ways.

Single tide cycle Vs. Ebb cycle:

Generation time is much less in tide cycle scheme.

Tide cycle scheme need higher power rated equipment, as the generation time is less.
Investment is high in tide cycle scheme.
Ebb cycle scheme is more efficient.
Ebb cycle scheme requires estuary, which is not possible at all locations.
Reversible turbines can be used in ebb cycle to prolong the period of generation. These
turbines will work as pumps to fill the reservoir during the initial period of ebbing cycle,
which further increases the water level in the reservoir. Thus turbine operation period can
be increased.
A tide cycle requires a deeper reservoir, increasing the construction cost.
On an average, the energy produced by an ebb cycle scheme is almost 1.5 times that of a
tide cycle system.

Double cycle system: