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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter is presented to highlight some theories function as the

basic of the research. It covers about speaking, teaching speaking, and pair

work presentation. The explanation of each literature is explained briefly as

follows:

A. Speaking

1. Definition of Speaking

Speaking is key communication. There are many people define what

speaking is, this study would like to present several definitions as follows:

According to Brown, 1994; Burns and Joyce 1997 speaking is an

interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing and

receiving and processing information. Tarigan (1981: 15) argues that

speaking skill is ability to utter articulate sounds or words to express and

convey thoughts, ideas and feeling. According to Bygate (1987: 3) in order

to achieve a communicative goal through speaking, there are two aspects to

be considered knowledge of the language, and skill in using this

knowledge. It is not enough to possess a certain amount of knowledge, but a

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 speaker of the language should be able to use this knowledge in

different situations.

We do not merely know how to assemble sentences in the abstract:

we have to produce them and adopt to the circumstances. This means
making decisions rapidly, implementing them smoothly, and
adjusting our conversation as unexpected problems appear in our
path. (Bygate 1987: 3)

2. Types of Speaking

In the speaking skill, there are many types of speaking. According to

Hence (1965: 216), there are three major types of speaking as follows:

a. Speaking to Inform

Hance & Ralph (1965:216) state informative speaking is widely

varied branch of communication. It replies to request for information or

to convey information. Whether it is case of person-to-person,

communicate each other or one person speaking to a group. For example,

in responses to a students request for information about the course he is to

take, the faculty advisor gives him a brief-fun-down of requirements. For

another example, a couple requests information about a house they have

considered buying, an appraiser tells them about the condition of the

house, the facilities available, and other details.

b. Speaking to Advocate

Hance states that in persuasive speaking, or also called speaking to

advocate, the speaker informs or remains his listeners of certain facts, or

he tries to change the desired action (Hance and Ralph, 1965:233).

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From Hances statements above, we can see that the advocate,

speaking to inform and the information are always found in the same talk;
 the speaker informs or remains his listeners of certain facts, and he tries to

change their opinion so that the later on that change may produce the

desire action.

c. Speaking to Entertain

Speaking to entertain is the last type of speaking skill. Hance said

that Spoken entertainment, or called as speaking entertain is speaking that

contains entertainment. (Hance and Ralp,1965:247). For example, a

teacher resort to the entertainment method in teaching-learning-processing

order to abstract his students attention to the lesson such as by applying

the story, making puzzles or employing humor to put across teaching

material that is probably boring.

3. Styles of Speaking

An important dimension of conversation is using a style of speaking

that is appropriate to the particular circumstances. Different styles of

speaking reflect the roles, age, sex, and status of participants in interactions

and reflect the expression of politeness. Consider the various ways in which

it is possible to ask someone the time, and the different social meanings that

are communicated by these differences.

Different speech styles reflect perceptions of the social roles of the

participants in a speech event. If the speaker and hearer are judged to be of

more or less equal status, a casual speech style that stresses affiliation and

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solidarity is appropriate. If the participants are perceived as being of uneven

power or status, a more formal speech style is appropriate, one that marks

the dominance of one speaker over the other. Successful management of

speech styles creates the sense of politeness that is essential for harmonious

social relations (Brown and Levinson, 1978).

 4. The Function of Speaking

The mastery of speaking skills in English is a priority for many

second and foreign language learners. Several language experts have

attempted to categorize the function of speaking in human interaction.

According to Brown and Yule cited in Richard (1983), there are

three funtions of speaking, those are: talk as interaction, talk as transaction,

and talk as performance.

a. Talk as interaction

Talk as interaction refers to what we normally mean by conversation and

describes interaction that serves a primarily social function. When people

meet, they exchange greetings, engage in small talk, recount recent

experiences, and so, on because they wish to be friendly and to establish a

comfortable zone of interaction with others. The focus is more on the

speakers and how they wish to present themselves to each other than on

the message. Such exchanges may be either casual or more formal,

depending on the circumstances.

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b. Talk as transaction

Talk as transaction refers to situations where the focus is on what is said or

done. The message and making oneself understood clearly and accurately

is the central focus, rather than the participants and how they interact

socially with each other.

c. Talk as performance

Talk as performance refers to public talk, that is, talk that transmits

information before an audience, such as classroom oral presentations,

public announcements, and speeches. Talk as performance tends to be in

 the form of monolog rather than dialog, often follows a recognizable

format (e.g., a speech of welcome), and is closer to written language than

conversational language

B. Teaching Speaking

1. How to Teach Speaking

Before going on with the discussion on this point it is better to see

this term, How to teach speaking. This term implies the teaching

technique. In accordance with Balai Penataran Guru SMP, there are four

stages on the technique of teaching speaking: presentation, practice,

production, evaluation.

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a. Presentation

For teaching a new language point, a teacher need to missing word

the mechanic of a lesson and to choose the situation and activities that will

the students motivated to learn. The objectives of this stage are to make

students able to see the usefulness and importance of the language items,

concrete on the meaning and meaning and function of the items, pay

attention to content of the lesson (the language component; grammar role,

vocabulary, phonology, morphology and orthography).

How to conduct a presentation stage : build up situational context

(use a dialogue or making dialogue for real communication), draw out the

language from the students. You are not teaching grammar but you should

present the grammar into complete example, focus the students attention

on the teaching point within the situational or context (Remember that to be

a teacher should be a model for the students to follow), check your students
 understanding of the language and the situational. Example : give them a

simple question to the students.

a. Practice

Based on the technique and learning process. We know about

BKOT, MOT, JCOT, at curriculum 2004. The referring to this case, in

speaking we have practice. It is the same learning in MOT (Modeling of the

text). As the teacher should be a model or giving sample to their students.

For example practicing in making fried rice

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b. Production

In according to curriculum 2004 at BKOT, MOT, JCOT, ICOT.

Production is consisting of JCOT, and in here, production is to evaluate the

students achievement in teaching and learning process. The aims of this

state, for knowing the understanding students in receiving the teacher

explanation.

c. Evaluation

Be a teacher, they should be a tester. Because without testing the

teacher cant measure their students ability.

2. The Elements Used in Speaking Skill

In English, there are many important elements that related in

speaking. According to David (1986:81), there are five elements used in

speaking ability such as pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency, and

comprehension.

a. Pronunciation
 Pronunciation here however refers to the standard of correctness

and regional differences. It means, it will create misunderstanding toward

listeners invited to speak and the massage will be conveyed, will lose and

difficult to be comprehended. Harmer (1991:11) said that users of the

language must know how to say a word that is how to pronounce it. This

knowledge is made up of three areas; sounds, stress and intonation.

To makes students speaking ability much better, especially in

pronouncing word, there are sets of quality to be rated.

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According to Harris (1986:84), there are five sets of qualities must

be rated in pronunciation, they are:

1. Pronunciation problems to serve as to make speech virtually

unintelligible

2. Very hard to understand because of pronunciations problem.

Most frequently is asked to repeat.

3. Pronunciation problems necessitate concentrated listening and

occasionally lead to misunderstanding.

4. Always intelligible, through on is conscious of define accent.

5. He few traces of foreign accent

b. Grammar

Grammar is one of three English components and also one of

speaking abilities to support and help students and help students to have a

good ability in communicating well. Grammar is common in both the

written and spoken form of the language, so its existence is strongly

needed in learning and speaking skill.

The explanation above shows that grammar is focuses on some

roles to from words that can be easily understood and match with the
 rules. In addition, it also focuses on how to make good sentences and

easily comprehended.

In speaking ability, there are sets of quality should be rated in

grammar. According to Harris (1986:84) that there are five qualities that

should be rated, as follow:

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1. Errors in grammar and word order to serve to make speech

virtually unintelligible.

2. Grammar and word order errors make comprehension difficult

must often rephrase and/or restrict him to basic pattern.

3. Makes frequent errors of grammar and word order, which

occasionally obscure meaning.

4. Occasionally makes grammatical and/or word order errors, which

dont, however, obscure meaning.

5. Makes few (if any) noticeable errors grammar and word order

c. Vocabulary

Vocabulary is one of five speaking ability components, which has

an important role in speaking English skill. Thats way, if the students

have a lot of vocabularies, their speaking will be fluent and they are not

confuse in pronouncing or producing a lot of words just because have

many vocabularies. Conversely, just few vocabularies they have, it does

not guarantee their speaking will be fluent, and will face hardship in

pronouncing and producing many words that they want to convey.

According to Lines (2006:121) vocabulary is the collection of

words that an individual knows. In addition, according to Richards

(1995:370) vocabulary is a set of lexemes, including single words,

compounds words and idioms. When we only know the form and
 meaning and do not know the implementation of vocabulary in sentences,

our vocabulary will be useless.

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English speaking ability has asset of qualities that must be rated.

Harris (1986:84) states that the qualities are as follow:

1. Vocabulary limitation so extreme to make conversation virtually

impossible

2. Misuse of words and very limited vocabulary make comprehension

quite difficult.

3. Frequently uses the wrong words; conversation sometimes limited

because of inadequate vocabulary, sometimes using inappropriate

term and or must refresh ideas because of lexical inadequacies.

4. The use of vocabulary and idiom are virtually that of native

speaker.

d. Fluency

The students can be called master of English or have a good ability

in English if they can speak fluently. It means that, the students fluency

in English as a sign that they are master of English. To know about

fluency, Haris (1986:81) says, Fluency is the easy and speed of the flow

of speech.

According to Harris (1986:48) that there are five qualities that must

be rated in fluency of speaking. There are as follow: speech is co halting

and fragmentary as to take the conversation in virtually impossible,

usually hesitant, often force into silence by language limitation, speech,

and fluency are rather strongly affected by language problems, speech as

fluent and errorless as that of native speaker.

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 Harriss opinion is based on a lot of consideration in evaluating

something, for instance in speaking English skill. He also considers that

speech and fluency are rather strongly erected by language problem. It

means the people will understand about other people speaking if the

pattern or grammar of the language are correct. Even though their

speaking can be understood and comprehended by their opponent of

speaking consequently; they will confused just because of their errors of

using their language pattern.

According to Harris (1986:84), that there are five sets of qualities

to be rated in comprehending English speaking. They are as follows:

cannot be said to understand even the simple English conversation, has a

great difficulty following what is said can comprehend only social

conversation spoken slowly and with frequent repetition, understand

early everything at normal speed, although occasion and repetition may

be necessary, appear to understand everything without difficulty.

3. Types of Activity to Promote Speaking Ability

There are some types activity to promote speaking ability, they are:

a. Speeches

The activity gives the chance for students to practice their speaking.

The teacher can provide the structure for the speech, its theatrical gender

(narration, description, etc) and its time restriction while the students

select the content. Another common activity in oral skill is the prepared

speech impromptu speech. Prepared speech is topics for speeches will

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 depend on the level of the student and the focus of the class, but in any

case, the students should be given some leeway can make a structure for

speech from theoretical gender narration, description, recount, etc.

Impromptu speech can serve several purposes in oral skills class. Of

course, this activity gives the student more actual practice with speaking

the language. For the example from two kinds are, in the small class,

topics such as describing people likely their friends, parents or the

famous person to the class.

b. Dialogue

Dialogues are usually the most common used in oral skill class. This

type to make the students confident in their speaking with other, they can

share about ideas, opinions, feeling and they can come up a solution, a

response, or the like.

The students were allowed to select the dialogue topic and evaluate

their peers performance. With dialogue activity, the students will enjoy

their speaking because the students havent getting the problems like

stress.

4. Guidance for Teacher in Teaching Speaking

Here is some guidance for English language teachers while teaching

oral language:

a. Provide maximum opportunity to students to speak target language

providing a rich environment that contains collaborative work,

authentic materials and tasks and shared knowledge.

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b. Try to involve each student in every speaking activity; for this aim,

practice different ways of students participation.

 c. Reduce teachers speaking time in class while increasing student-

speaking time. Step back and observe students.

d. Indicate positive signed when commenting on a students response.

e. Ask eliciting questions such as what do you mean? How did you

reach that conclusion? in order to prompt students to speak more.

f. Provide written feedback like your presentation was really great. It

was a good job. I really appreciated your efforts in preparing the

materials and efficient use of your voice.

g. Do not correct students pronunciation mistakes very often while they

are speaking. Correction should not distract student from his or her

speech.

h. Involve speaking activities not only in class but also out of the class;

contact parents and other people who can help.

i. Circulate around classroom to ensure that students are on the right

track and see whether they need your help while they work in-group

or pair.

j. Provide the vocabulary beforehand that students need in speaking

activities.

k. Diagnose problems faced by students who have difficulty in

expressing themselves in the target language and provide more

opportunities to practice the spoken language.

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C. Pair Work

Pair work is a very useful and efficient way of working in language

teaching. It is simple to organize and easy to explain. Pair work is believed

to encourage students cooperation and presupposes that teachers will have

to take on several roles while using this organizational form.

 1. Definition of Pair Work

Pair work presentation is a kind of activity of communicating ideas

and information in pair in front of the audience. Harmer (2001:205) states

that, there are four kinds of students grouping look steps, pair works,

group work, and individual study. According to Harmer (1992: 224) claims

that pair work increases the amount of learners practice, encourages co-

operation, which is important for the atmosphere of the class and for the

motivation it gives to learning with others, and enables learners to help each

other to use and learn the language.

By the statement, writer to describe pair work in teaching speaking.

The requirement for pair work is that it must have more than one people or

at least contains two members who interact with friends because students

can practice language together.

McDonough and Shaw (1993:227) say that pair wok requires rather

little organization on part of the teacher and at the least in participle, a can

be activated in most classroom by simply having learner work with the

person sitting next to them . In addition, Harmer (2001:206) states Pair

Work allows students to use language (depending of course on the task set

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by the teacher) and also encourages student co-cooperation which is t self-

important for the atmosphere of the class and for the motivation it gives to

learning with other. In the same book, Harmer (2001:207) also defines pair

work as, Pair work is a way of increasing student participation and

language use. It can be used for enormous number of activities whether

speaking, writing or reading In this research the writer suggest that a pair

work consists of two members. Student can communicate reach other with

teacher controls.
 2. Kinds of Pair Work

According to Harmer (2001:116) In the pair work students can

practice language together, study a text, research language, or take part in

information activities. They can write dialogues, predict the content of

reading texts, or compare notes on what they have listened to or seen Here

as many kinds of pair work, there are:

a. Conversation

Conversation is the first kind of pair work because students

communicate or share about opinion, ideas, and feeling with their

friends. Besides that, conversation activity can increase the students

vocabulary and pronunciation.

b. Dialogue

This activity also same with conversation activity that need two

members to practice it. Generally, the dialogue should be four or to six

lines ling. That must include grammatical items and vocabulary, which

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the students need to master as well as the items of typical feature of

spoken English, such as short answer, contracted word, and question

tag. Before students act their dialogues, the teacher gives some

instruction for the ways of dialogue or gives the theme for dialogue

activity. This activity draws on cognitive skills to produce appropriate

language in context.

c. Story telling with picture

This kind is getting the information from the picture and explains

about picture as the story telling, after that gives the chance for the one

number to explain the pictures which has selected by English.

3. The Advantages of Pair Work

 There are some clear advantages to using pair work:

a. In large classes, pair work gives more students to opportunity to speak.

b. Students will learn from each other. Learning is not just a top-down

activity where the teacher opens up the top of the students head and

pours in the information. By using pair work, teacher gives students

the opportunity to learn from each other and learn from doing.

c. Pair work gives students degree of privacy and allows them to try

things out that they might not attempt in the more public forum of a

class discussion or a teacher-fronted activity. When students speak

with a partner only one other person can hear their mistakes (and, of

course, the teacher can her them if he or she is monitoring). This helps

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give shy and reserved students more confidence in their ability to use

the language.

d. It makes for teacher possible to work with one or two pairs while the

other students go on working.

4. Implementation Steps Pair Work Technique

1. Teacher explains about pair work clearly.

2. Teacher share the materials and gives exercises about giving and

refusing help.

3. Teacher divides the students into some of pair work.

4. Each pair work done the exercises in pair.

5. Teacher calls each pair work to perform in front of the class.

5. Speaking Skill

Humans need communication to connect with other human

beings. Communication is very useful when humans perform its role as

 social beings that put social action as a matter of primarily, such as

mutual exchange of experience, mutual express and receive idea,

communicate their feelings to each other, and each expresses and

approve any establishment or beliefs. Speaking skills in

communication must be trained through a process of learning and

practicing continuous and systematic so that communication can

proceed smoothly and comfortably.

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6. Test of Speaking

Testing the ability is a most important aspect of language

testing. Questions relating to the criteria for measuring the speaking

skills and to the weighting given to such components as correct

pronunciation remain largely unanswered. It is possible for people to

produce practically all the correct sounds but still be unable to

communicate their ideas appropriately and effectively. On the other

hand, people can make numerous errors in both phonology and syntax

and yet succeed in expressing themselves fairly clearly. Furthermore,

success in communication often depends as much on the listener as on

the speaker; a particular listener mat have a better ability to decode the

foreign speakers message or may share a common nexus of idea with

him or her, thereby making communication simpler (Heaton, 1988:88).

As one kind of spoken interaction, the purpose will again need

to be specified. For example, a test might focus on what is involved in

participating in academic seminars, or in business meetings.

Procedurals considerations will include justifying what teacher claim

in necessary or desirable linguistic behavior in such settings, and

determining what conditions (such as prior topic of knowledge) and

constraints (such as time limits and different speaker roles and

personalities) may be most relevant to performance. The instrumental

practicalities of test design that follow will then be derived from

principled choices, and will in turn determine how far these choices are
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realizable in operational terms. Again, many kind of activities carry

assumptions and limitations that a teat designer would need to consider

carefully according to the purpose. (Allison, 1999:119).