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First Edition - 2010 q@ fiechinical Publications Pune” | | | | | | L Electrical Machines - I mS SSS Uday A. Bakshi MLE, (Electrical) Formerly Lecturer in Department of Electronics Engg. Vishwakarma Institute of Technology Pune Mayuresh V. Bakshi M.E. (Electrical) Assistant Professor in ‘Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune Price Rs. 295/- Visit us at: [Link] @ ist Technical Publications Pune® Electrical Machines - | ISBN 9788184317756 All rights reserved with Technical Publications. No part of this book should be reproduced in ony form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage ond retrievol system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by : ‘Technical Publications Pune” #1, Amit Residency, 412, Shaniwar Peth, Pune - 411 030, Indie. Printer : ‘Alert DTPiers Seno. 10/3,Siahased Roe, Pune - 411 041 Chapter-1 Introduction ‘4 - 1) to (1 - 104) Chapter-2 _ Single Phase Transformers (2-1) to (2-120) Chapter-3 Three Phase Transformers G-1)to (3-62) Chapter-4 _ Testing of Transformers (4=1)t0 (4-40) Chapter-5 _ Electromechanical Energy Conversion (5-1) to (5-52) Chapier-6 Basic Concepts in Rotating Machines (6-1) to (6-62) Chapter-7 D.C. Generators (7-1) to (7- 108) Chapter-8 D.C. Motors @-1) to (8-84) Chapter-9 Testing of D.C. Machines (Q- 1) to (0-58) %* Use of clear, plain and lucid language making the understanding very easy. ‘ % Use of informative, self explanatory diagrams, plots and graphs. i * Excellent theory well supported with the practical examples and illustrations. | * Important concepts are highlighted using Key Points throughout the book. ' %® Large number of solved examples. : % Approach of the book resembles classroom teaching. ' * Book provides detailed insight into the subject. ' ‘Syllabus: 1, Introduction (Chapter - 1) Electrical machine types - Magnetic circuits - Inductance - Statically and dynamically induced e.m.f. - Torque - Hysteresis - Core losses - A.C. operation of magnetic circuits. (Electrical Machines <1) 2. Transformers (Chapters - 2, 3, 4) Construction - Principle of operation - Equivalent circuit - Losses - Testing - Efficiency and voltage regulation - Autotransformer - Three phase connections - Parallel operation of transformers - Tap changing. 3. Electromechanical Energy Conversion (Chapter - 5) Energy in magnetic systems - Field energy, Coenergy and mechanical force - Singly and multiply excited systems. 4. Basic Concepts in Rotating Machines (Chapter - 6) Generated voltages in a.c. and d.c. machines, M.M.F. of distributed windings - Magnetic fields in rotating machines - Rotating m.m.f. waves - Torque in a.c. and d.c. machines. 5. D.C. Machines (Chapters - 7, 8, 9) Construction - E.M.F. and torque - Circuit model - Armature reaction - Commutation - Methods of excitation - Characteristics of generators - Characteristics of motors - Starting and speed control - Testing and efficiency - Parallel operation. Table of Contents Detail 1.1 Background... 1.2 Types of Electrical Machines 4.3 General Construction of Rotating Machines . 1.4 D.C. Machines 1.5 Synchronous Machines. 1.5.1 Advantages of Rotating Field Type Construction 1.5.2 Construction of Synchronous Machine. 1.6.2 Working Principle 1.7 Introduction to Magnetic Circuits... 1.8 Laws of Magnetism 1.9 Magnetic Field... 1.9.1 Magnetic Lines of Force. 1.9.2 Direction of Magnetic Field. 1.9.3 Properties of Lines of Force 1.10 Magnetic Flux (¢) .... 1.11 Magnetic Flux Density (B).. 1.12 Magnetic Field Strength (H)... 1.13 Magnetic Effect of an Electric Current (Electromagnets) 1.13.4 sme Fite Sra Conucte 1.13.2 Magnes Field due to Circular Conductor i.e. Solenoid 1.14 Force on a Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field 1.14.1 Fleming's Left Hand Rule 4.14.2 Magnitude of Force Experienced by the Conductor 1.15 Permeability ..... 115.1 Absolute Permeability (u) 1.15.2 Permeability of Free Space or Vacuum (j1) 1.15.3 Relative Permeability (u,) . 4.16 Magnetomotive Force (MA [Link] orf). 1.17 Reluctance (S)..... 1.18 Permeance.... 1.19 Magnetic Circuits 1.19.1 Series Magnetic Circuits. . 1.19.2 Series Circuit with Air Gap 1.19.3 Parallel Magnetic Circuits. 1.49.4 Parallel Magnetic Circuit with Air Gap 1.20 Comparison of Magnetic and Electric Circuits .. 1.21 Magnetic Leakage and Fringing.... 1.21.1 Leakage Coefficient or Hopkinson's Coefficient . 1.21.2 Magnetic Fringing 4.24.3 Stacking Factor............ 1.22 B-H Curve or Magnetization Curve .. 1.22.1 B-H Curve and Permeability 1.22.2 Practical use of B-H Curves . . 1.23 Magnetic Hysteresis... 4.23.1 Steps in Obtaining Hysteresis Loop 1.23.2 Theory Behind Hysteresis Effect . 1.24 Hysteresis Loss... 1.24.1 Hysteresis Loss Per Unit Volume. 1.24.2 Practical Use of Hysteresis Loop 1.25 Eddy Current Loss ... 1.26 Magnetic Loss [Core Loss or Iron Loss}..... 1.27 Introduction to Electromagnetic Induction. 1.28 Faraday's Experiment... 1.29 Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction... 4.29.1 First Law. . 1.29.2 Second Law . 1.30 Nature of the Induced E.M.F. 1.31 Dynamically Induced E.M.F. 1.31.1 Magnitude of Dynamically Induced E.M.! 1.31.2 Direction of Dynamically Induced E.M. 1.32 Statically Induced E.M. 1.33 Self Induced E.M.F. 1.33.1 Self Inductance. 1.33.2 Magnitude of Self Induced E. 1.33.3 Expressions for Coefficient of Self Inductance (L) .. . 1.34 Mutually Induced E.M.F and Mutual inductance 1.34.1 Magnitude of Mutually Induced E.M.F.. . 1.34.2 Definitions of Mutual Inductance and its Unit 1.34.3 Expressions of the Mutual Inductance (M) . 1.34.4 Coefficient of Coupling or Magnetic Coupling Coefficient . 1.35 Energy Stored in the Magnetic Field.. 1.35.1 Expression for Energy Stored in the Magnetic Field 1.35.2 Energy Stored Per Unit Volume. . 1.36 A.C. Operation of Magnetic Circuits. 1.36.1 Energy Stored under A.C. Operation Examples with Solutions... Review Questions... University Questions . SN case rcmcartrnt eerste ee sreanencccners alll 2.2 Principle of Working.... 2.2.4 Can D.C. Supply be used for Transformers? .. 2.3.4 Types of Windings .........2...sssssseseceeeseeeeees 2.4 Construction of Single Phase Transformers ..... 2.4.1 Core Type Transformer 2.4.2 Shell Type Transformer . 2.4.3 Berry Type Transformer. 2.5 Comparison of Core and Shell Type Transformers ... 2.6 E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer.. 2.7 Ratios of a Transformer... 2.7.4 Volt-Ampere Rating 2.8 Ideal Transformer on No Load 2.10 Transformer on Load (M.M.F. Balancing on Load).. 2.11 Effect of Winding Resistances . 2.11.1 Equivalent Resistance 2.12 Effect of Leakage Reactances.. 2.12.1 Equivalent Leakage Reactance 2.13 Equivalent Impedance ... 2.14 Phasor Diagrams for Transformer on Loat 2.14.1 Unity Power Factor Load, cos 4, = 1 . 2.14.2 Lagging Power Factor Load, cos 2.14.3 Leading Power Factor Load, cos... 2.15 Equivalent Circuit of Transformer 2.15.1 Approximate Equivalent Circuit... 2.16 Approximate Voltage Drop in a Transformer 2.17 Voltage Regulation of Transformer... 2.17.1 Expression for Voltage Regulation . 2.47.2 Zero Voltage Regulation. 2.17.3 Constants of a Transformer . 2.18 Losses in a Transformer 2.18.1 Core or Iron Losses 2.18.2 Copper Losses. . 2.19 Efficiency of a Transformer 2.20 Condition for Maximum Efficiency... 2.20.4 Load Current I,,,, at Maximum Efficiency ...........0....[Link] senecersonces 2-46 2.20.2 KVA Supplied at Maximum Efficiency. . .. 2.21 Effect of Power Factor on Efficiency 2.22 Effect of Frequency and Supply Voltage on Iron Losses... 2.23 Methods of Cooling 2.23.1 Cooling Methods for Dry Type Transformers 2.23.2 Cooling Methods for Oil Immersed Transformers. 2.23.3 Oil Forced Methods with Heat Exchangers ... 2.24 Parallel Operation of Transformers..... 2.25 Conditions for Satisfactory Parallel Operation .. 2.25.1 Explanation of Conditions. 2.26 Parallel Operation of Two Ideal Transformers .... 2.27 Parallel Operation of Transformers with Equal Voltage Ratios. 2.28 Parallel Operation of Transformers with Unequal Voltage Ratios.... 2 - 61 2.29 Autotransformer ... fion of Aute 2.34 VA Rating of Autotransformer... 2.35 Conversion of Two Winding Transformer to an Autotransformer. 2.35.1 Additive Polarity 2.36.2 Subtractive Polarity 2.36 Advantages of Autotransformer 2.37 Limitati tA fc 2-77 2.38 Applications of Autotransformer Examples with Solutions... Review Questions University Questions. 3.1.1 Advantages of 3 Phase Transformers . LAT ES 3.2 Construction of Three Phase Transformers. 3.2.1 Core Type Construction 3.2.2 Shell Type Construction 3.3 Principle of Operation 3.4 Bank of Single Phase Transformers 3.5 Three Phase Transformer Connections. 3-5 3.6 Star-Star Connection .. 3.6.1 Advantages .. 3.6.2 Disadvantages . 3.7 Delta-Delta Connector 3.7.1 Advantages. 3.7.2 Disadvantage . 3.8 Star-Delta Connection. 3.8.1 Advantages. 3.8.2 Disadvantage . 3.9 Delta-Star Connection. 3.9.1 Advantages. 3.9.2 Disadvantage 3.10 Voltage and Current Relationships for Different Types of Connections... 3.10.1 Choice of Transformer Connections. 3.11 Open Delta or V-V Connection 3.11.1 Limitations .... 3.12 The T-T Connectior 3.13 Conversion from Three Phase to Two Phase (Scott Connection) ... 3 - 21 3.14 Three Phase to Six Phase Conversion 3.15 Labelling of Transformer Terminals ... 3.16 Three Phase Transformer Phasor Groups. 3.16.1 Nomenclature of Transformer Phasor Groups... . 3.17 Construction of Vector Diagram..... 3.18 Parallel Operation of Three Phase Transformers 3.19 Tap Changing Transformer... 3.19.1 Why Tappings are on High Voltage Side ?... 3-12 LEELA ARES TE EN RE 3.19.2 Off Circuit Tap Changing . 3.19.3 Parallel Winding Tap Changer 3.19.4 On Load Tap Changing .. 3.19.5 Single Winding Tap Changer Examples with Solutions... Review Questions University Questions 4.1 Introduction ..... 4.2 Load Test on Transformer 4.2.1 Calculations 4.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Direct Loadin 4.3 Polarity Test... - 4.4 Indirect toading Tests on Transformer 4.4.4 Open Circuit Test (0.C. Test). 4.4.2 Short Circuit Test (S.C. Test) . 4.4.3 Calculation of Efficiency from 0.C. and S.C. Tests . 4.4.4 Calculation of Regulation... . 4.5 Sumpner’s Test (Back to Back Test). 4.6 All Day Efficiency of a Transformer 4.7 Separation of Core Losses .... Examples with Solutions Review Quesiions.... University Questions 5.1 Introduction .. 5.2 Energy Balance. 5.3 Laws of Electromagnetism.. 5.4 Energy Flow in Electromechanical Energy Conversion Device . 5.5 Types of Magnetic System.. 5.6 Singly Excited Magnetic System... 5.6.1 Electric Energy Input ........ 5.6.2 Magnetic Field Energy Stored . 5.6.3 Mechanical Force.......... 5.6.4 Determining Mechanical Force. 5.6.5 Mechanical Energy. . . 5.7 Multiple Excited Magnetic System ... 5.8 Energy Conversion Via Electric Field. 5.8.1 Electric Field Energy Stored... 5.8.2 Analysis of Energy Conversion. 5.8.3 Co-energy Calculations 5.9 Analysis of Elementary Reluctance Motor 5.9.1 Working Principle 5.9.2 Torque Developed in Reluctance Motor. 5.10 Advantages of Field Energy Method Examples with Solutions... Review Questions... University Questions .. 6.1 Introduction... 6.2 Generated Voltage in D.C. Machines ..... 6.3 Working Principle of Synchronous Generator (Alternator). 6.3.1 Working Principle .. 6.4 Three Phase Winding in A.C. Machines 6.4.1 Winding Terminologies... . 6.4.2 Types of Three Phase Windings [Link] Single Layer and Double Layer Winding . i [Link] FullPitch and Short Pitch Winding... we [Link] Concentrated and Distributed Winding 6.5 Generated Voltage in A.C. Machines. 6.5.1 Pitch Factor or Coil Span Factor(K,) . 6.5.2 Distribution Factor(K,) .... 6.5.3 Generalised Expression for E. 6.5.4 Line Value of Induced EM-F.......... 6.6 Harmonics... 6.6.1 Slot Harmonics... . . 6.6.2 Harmonics Minimization 6.7 Effect of Harmonic Components on an Induced E.M.F... 6.7.1 Effect of Harmonic Components on Pitch Factor . . 6.7.2 Effect of Harmonic Componenits on Distribution Factor ™ 6.7.3 Total E.M.F. Generated due to Harmonic Components ............:00sseeeeeeee 6.8 M.M.F. of Distributed A.C. Windings.. 6.8.1 M.M.F. Space Wave of a Single Coil . . 6.8.2 M.M.F. Space Wave of One Phase of Distributed Winding .................2.065 6.9 Flux and M.M.F. Phasors in Synchronous Machines. 6.10 Rotating Magnetic Fiel 6.10.1 Speed of Rotating Magnetic Field . 6.10.2 Direction Rotating Magnetic Field. . 6.10.3 Peak Value of Rotating Magnetic Field 6.11 Torque in Round Rotor Machin 6.11.1 Assumptions for Deriving the Torque Equation ... . 6.11.2 Derivation of Torque Equation for Round Rotor Machine. 6.11.3 Torque Equation interms of Flux Density 6.11.4 Torque Equation interms of Flux .... 6.11.5 Why Number of Stator and Rotor Poles be Same Examples with Solutions... Review Questions... University Questions .. 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Principle of Operation of a D.C. Generator. 7.3 Fleming's Right Hand Rule 7.4 Single Turn Alternator.... 7.5 Constructional Features of a D.C. Machine 7.5.2 Poles. ... 7.5.3 Field Winding (F' -F2).. 7.5.4 Armature. . . 7.5.5 Commutator 7.5.6 Brushes and Brush Gear 7.6 Types of Armature Winding .... 7.6.4 Lap Winding 7.6.2 Wave Winding 7.6.3 Comparison of Lap and Wave Type Winding . 7.7 E.M.F. Equation of D.C. Generator... 7.8 Winding Terminologies ... 7.9 Single Layer and Double Layer Winding.. 7.9.1 Single Layer Winding 7.9.2 Double Layer Winding .... 7.10 Closed and Open Windings .. [Link] Type Winding . 7.10.2 Open Type Winding 7.11 Armature Winding in D.C. Machine: 7.11.1 Coil Span 7.11.2 Pole Pitch . 7.12 Winding Pitches 7.12.4 Back Pitch... . 7.12.2 Front Pitch 7.12.3 Winding Pitch . 7.12.4 Commutator Pitch. 7.13 Introduction to Armature Reaction 7.14 Concept of Armature Reaction.. 7.15 Demagnetising and Cross Magnetising Conductors... 7.15.1 Calculation of Demagnetising and Cross Magnetising Amp-Tums . 7.16 Effects of Armature Reaction . 7.17 Reduction of Effects of Armature Reaction 7.47 Use of Compensating Winding 7.18 Action of Commutator.... 7.19 Practical Commutation... 7.19.4 Expression of Reactance Voltage 7.20 Methods of Improving Commutation 7.20.1 Resistance Commutation we 731 7-3 7-37 7-7 [Link] Advantages of Resistance Commutation... 27-3 [Link] Disadvantages of Resistance Commutation. . . 7-7 7.20.2 EMF. Commutation 1. 7-38 7.20.2. Giving Brush Shift . [Link] Interpoles . 28 7.21 Symbolic Representation of D.C. Generator. 7.22 Methods of Excitation. 7.23 Separately Excited Generator 7.23.1 Voltage and Current Relations 7.24 Self Excited Generator. 7.25 Shunt Generator 7.25.1 Voltage and Current Relations 7.26 Series Generator. 7.26.1 Voltage and Current Relations 7.27 Compound Generator ..... 7.27.4 Long Shunt Compound Generator . 7.27.2 Short Shunt Compound Generator. 7.27.3 Cumulative and Differential Compound Generator. 7.28 Voltage Building in Self Excited Generator. 7.28.1 Causes of Failure to Excite Self Excited Generator 7.29 Characteristics of D.C. Generators .. 7.29.1 Magnetisation Characteristics 7.29.2 Load Characteristics. 7.30 Characteristics of Separately Excited D.C. Generators. 7.30.1 Magnetisation or Open Circuit Characteristics .... 7.30.2 Load Saturation Curve 7.30.3 intemal and Extemal Characteristics 7.31 Load Characteristics of D.C. Shunt Generator .... 7.34.1 Internal Characteristics.......... 22. .sceceeseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeteseaeeeees 7.31.2 Extemal Characteristics 7.32 Load Characteristics of D.C. Series Generator. 7.33 Load Characteristics of D.C. Compound Generator ... 7.34 Applications of Various Types of Generators... 7.35 Critical Field Resistance in D.C. Shunt Generator 7.35.1 Practical Determination of R ¢. 7.36 Parallel Operation of Generators ... 7.37 Parallel Operation of D.C. Generators 7.38 D.C. Shunt Generators in Parallel... 7.39 D.C. Compound Generators in Parallel 7.40 D.C. Series Generators in Parallel 7.41 Separately Excited Generators in Parallel Examples with Solutions Review Questions... University Questions... 8.1 Introduction ..... 8.2 Principle of Operation of a D.C. Motor. 8.3 Direction of Rotation of Motor 8.3.1 Fleming's Left Hand Rule . . 8.4 Significance of Back E.M.F. 8.4.1 Voltage Equation of a D.C. Motor. 8.4.2 Back E.M.F. as a Regulating Mechanism. 8.5 Power Equation of a D.C. Motor 8.5.1 Condition for Maximum Power. . . 8.6 Torque Equation of a D.C. Motor 8.6.1 Types of Torque in the Motor . 8.6.2 No Load Condition of a Motor. 8.7 Types of D.C. Motors 8.8 D.C. Shunt Motor ..... 8.8.1 Voltage and Current Relationship. ............ssseeeceeeeereneeeeeeeneeees 8-12 8.9 D.C. Series Motor ...... 8.9.1 Voltage and Current Relationship. 8.9.2 Comparison between Shunt and Series Field Winding 8.10 D.C. Compound Motor... 8.10.1 Long Shunt Compound Motor 8.10.2 Short Shunt Compound Motor . . 8.11 Torque and Speed Equations 8.11.1 Speed Regulation .... 8.12 D.C. Motor Characteristics 8.13 Characteristics of D.C. Shunt Motor 8.14 Characteristics of D.C. Series Motor... 8.15 Why Series Motor is Never Started on No Load ? 8.16 Characteristics of D.C. Compound Motor 8.17 Applications of D.C. Motors .. 8.18 Effect of the Armature Reaction on Performance of a D.C. Moto! 8.19 Necessity of Starter... 8.20 Three Point Starter.. 8.20.1 Functions of No Volt Coil 8.20.2 Action of Overload Release . 8.20.3 Disadvantage ............ 8.21 Four Point Starter. 8.21.1 Disadvantage .. . 8.22 D.C. Series Motor Starter... 8.23 Factors Affecting the Speed of a D.C. Motor 8.24 Ratings of a D.C. Motor 8.25 Speed Control of D.C. Shunt Motor 8.25.1 Flux Control . . [Link] Advantages of Flux Control Method . . oe [Link] Disadvantages of Flux Control Method... . . . 8.25.2 Armature Voltage Control Method or Rheostatic Control 8.25.2. Potential Divider Control... . aan s [Link] Advantages of RheostaticContol. =. ee 8.25.23 Disadvantages of RheostaticContol ee ee 8-38 8.25.3 Applied Voltage Control 8.25.31 Advantages of Applied Voltage Control... [Link] Disadvantages of Applied Voltage Control 8.26 Speed Control of D.C. Series Motor 8.26.1 Flux Control . . [Link] Field Divertor Method... [Link] Amature Divertor Method... . [Link] Tapped Field Method... . . . [Link] Series-Parallel Connection of Field. 8.26.2 Rheostatic Control . . 8.26.3 Applied Voltage Control 8.27 Ward-Leonard System of Speed Control Examples with Solutions .. Review Questions .. University Questions 9.1 Introduction ... 9.2 Losses in a Rotating Machine. 9.3 Efficiency... 9.3.1 Maximum Efficiency . ... 9.4 Losses in a D.C. Machine. 9.4.1 Copper Losses .. 9.4.2 Iron or Core Losses 9.4.3 Mechanical Losses. 9.5 Efficiency of a D.C. Machine. 9.5.1 Condition for Maximum Efficiency 9.5.2 Current at Maximum Efficiency. 9.6 Testing of D.C. Motors... 9.6.1 Direct Method of Testing 9.6.2 Indirect Method of Testing 9.7 Swinbure's Test or No Load Test ..... 9.7.1 Advantages ... 9.7.2 Disadvantages . 9.8 Brake Test... 9.9 Retardation Test or Running Down Test... 9941 Deteminaton ot... ssessseeeeeeeeeeeseseesenneteeetsseeeeseeey 9.9.2 Determination of Moment of Inertia (I) .........-0-2:eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeneeeeene 9-18 9.10 Hopkinson’'s Test 9.10.1 Advantages .. 9.10.2 Disadvantages 9.11 Field Test.. .9-26 Examples with Solutions we 9-30 Review Questions . 9-55 - 9-58 University Questions Introduction 1.1 Background The law of conservation of energy states that the energy cannot be created or destroyed but it can be converted from one form to other. An electrical energy does not occur naturally and also cannot be stored. Hence the efforts are made to generate it continuously to meet the large demands. But to generate an electrical energy means to convert some other form of energy into an electrical form, according to law of conservation of energy. A commonly used method to generate an electrical energy is converting mechanical energy into electrical with the help of a rotating device. Such a machine which converts the mechanical energy into an electrical energy is called a generator. The input mechanical energy can be achieved from steam turbines, steam engines or using potential energy of water to run hydraulic turbines. Such a device which inputs a mechanical energy to a generator is called a prime mover. While converting energy from mechanical to electrical form, some losses take place. The losses are kept to minimum value by properly designing the machine. Practically the efficiencies of large generators are above 9 %. The Fig. 1.1 shows an electromechanical procedure used for the generation of electrical energy using a generator. Torque San (Generator) ———— electrical or hye energy © Torque (Prime mover) °°? [===> Mechanical Losses input to generator Fig.1.1 Basic generator mode of operation In the equilibrium state, the prime mover torque and generator torque are equal and both run at constant steady speed. Most of the generated electrical energy is used to drive various industrial machines in which it is converted back to a mechanical form. Such a mechanical energy is also (1-4) image not available image not available image not available Electrical Machines -1! 1-5 Introduction The slip rings and brush assembly is shown in the Fig. 1.6. Slip ring (Rotating with rotor) Shaft Carbon brushes (Stationary but resting on slip ring) “— Stationary terminals Rotating of rotating winding armature External stationary circuit Fig. 1.6. Concept of slip rings and brush The radial and axial ventilating air ducts are also provided in the machines for cooling purpose. For large machines instead of air, hydrogen is used as a ventilating medium. A closed circuit ventilating system is preferred for large capacity machines. The hydrogen is circulated over the machine parts and is cooled with the help of water cooled heat exchangers. Though this is a common construction of the rotating electrical machines, depending on wheather machine is a.c. or dic. the construction changes. Let us discuss in detail the constructional features of common type of rotating electrical machines. 1.4 D.C. Machines In a d.c machine the field winding is on stator while the armature winding is on rotor. Consider an elementary dic. machine with 2 poles and single armature coil. The construction is shown in the Fig. 1.7. Main magnetic frame Mean flux path ‘Carbon brush Dc. | 4, ‘Commutator input | Dc. (copper) to field | output winding] So Pole shoe Armature coll = Pole core Field winding Fig. 1.7 An elementary 2 pole d.c. machine image not available image not available image not available Electrical Machines -1 1-9 Introduction 2. Smooth cylindrical : This is also called non-salient pole construction or round rotor type of construction. The rotor consists of smooth solid steel cylinder, having number of slots to accommodate the field. The slots are covered at the top with the help of steel wedges. The unslotted portions of the cylinder itself act as the poles as shown in the Fig. 1.11. The poles are non-projecting and provide uniform air gap. As mechanical strength of such rotors is high, these are used for high speed alternators. The Fig. 1.12 shows the cross-sectional view of a synchronous machine in which Fig. 1.11 Smooth cylindrical rotor the rotor carriers the field poles. The rotor De. Supply 6 is salient pole type rotor. 3 Phase Stator winding (Armature) Stator Salient pole type rotor Field winding Fig. 1.12 Cross-sectional view of synchronous machine The rotor carries field winding which is excited by a d.c. supply and designed for fixed P number of poles. The stator carries 3 phase armature winding which is wound for same number of poles as that of the field winding. When the rotor rotates, an alternating emf. of frequency f Hz is induced in the stator winding. For the synchronous machines, there exists a fixed relationship between the number of poles P, the frequency f Hz of induced em. and the speed which is called synchronous speed N, rp.m. This relationship is given by, image not available image not available image not available Electrical Machines -| 1-13 Introduction Key Point : This way the value of rotor resistance per phase can be controlled. This helps us to control some of the important characteristics of the motor like starting torque, speed etc. In the running condition, the slip rings are shorted. This is possible by connecting a metal collar which gets pushed and connects all the slip rings together, shorting them. At the same time brushes are also lifted from the slip rings. This avoids wear and tear of the brushes due to friction. The possibility of addition of an external resistance in series with the rotor, with the help of slip rings is the main feature of this type of rotor. Comparison of Squirrel Cage and Wound Rotor Sr. No. Wound or slip ring rotor ‘Squirrel cage rotor 1. | Rotor consists of a three phase winding Rotor consists of bars which are shorted at similar to the stator winding. the ends with the help of end rings. 2. | Construction is complicated. Construction is very simple. 3. Resistance can be added externally. ‘As permanently shorted, extemal resistance cannot be added 4. | Slip rings and brushes are present to add | Slip rings and brushes are absent. extemal resistance. 5. | The construction is delicate and due to The construction is robust and maintenance brushes, frequent maintenance is necessary. | free. 6 | The rotors are very costly. Due to simple construction, the rotors are cheap. 7. Only 5 % of induction motors in industry use | Very common and almost 95 % induction slip ring rotor. motors use this type of rotor. 8. | High starting torque can be obtained. Moderate starting torque which cannot be controlled. 9. _ | Rotor resistance starter can be used. Rotor resistance starter cannot be used. 10. | Rotor must be wound for the same number | The rotor automatically adjusts itself for the of poles as that of stator. same number of poles as that of stator. 11 | Speed control by rotor resistance is possible. | Speed control by rotor resistance is not possible. 12 | Rotor copper losses are high hence efficiency} Rotor copper losses are less hence have is less higher efficiency. 13 | Used for lifts, hoists, cranes, elevators, Used for lathes, driling machines, fans, compressors etc. blowers, water pumps, grinders, printing machines image not available image not available image not available Electrical Machines -! 1-17 Introduction 1.9.3 Properties of Lines of Force Though the lines of force are imaginary, with the help of them various magnetic effects can be explained very conveniently. Let us see the various properties of these lines of force. 1) Lines of force are always originating on a N-pole and pExemalo terminating on a S-pole, external to the magnet. 2) Each line forms a closed loop as shown in the Fig. 1.21. Key Point: This means that a line emerging from N-pole, continues upto $-pole external to the magnet while it is assumed to continue from S-pole to N-pole internal to the magnet completing a closed loop. Such lines internal to the magnet are called as lines of induction. 3) Lines of force never intersect each other. magnet Fig. 1.21 Lines of force complete the closed path 4) The lines of force, are like stretched rubberbands and always try to contract in length. 5) The lines of force, which are parallel and travelling in the same direction repel each other. 6) Magnetic lines of force always prefer a path offering least opposition. Key Point: The opposition by the material to the flow of lines of force is called reluctance. Air has more reluctance chile magnetic materials like iron, steel etc. have low reluctance. Thus magnetic lines of force can easily pass through iron or steel but cannot pass easily through air. 1.10 Magnetic Flux (4) The total number of lines of force existing in a particular magnetic field is called magnetic flux. Lines of force can be called lines of magnetic flux. The unit of flux is weber and flux is denoted by symbol (¢) . The unit weber is denoted as Wb. weber = 10° lines of force. 1.11 Magnetic Flux Density (B) It can be defined as ‘The flux per unit area (a) in a plane at right angles to the flux is known as ‘flux density’. Mathematically, @ Wb B= = => orTesla Bein? image not available image not available image not available Electrical Machines -! Introduction ‘Screw: 4. iecton o Censors be ‘f Asvancement indeates : rection 1 of current (a) Clockwise rotation Screw 1. rection o « rotation. fux Adrarcament fase recon t Soonent (b) Anticlockwise rotation Fig. 1.28 Corkscrew rule 1.13.2 Magnetic Field due to Circular Conductor i.e. Solenoid Coil or [ conductor r Core which the tT 1 A solenoid is an arrangement in which long conductor is wound with number of turns close together to form a coil. The axial length of conductor is much more than the diameter of turns. The part or element around conductor is wound is called as core of the solenoid. Core may be air or may be some magnetic Fig. 1.29 (a) Solenoid material. Solenoid with a steel or iron core in shown in Fig. 1.29 (a). Flux lines Z 4 1 Battery Fig. 1.29 (b) Flux around a solenoid When such conductor is excited by the supply so that it carries a current then it produces a magnetic field which acts through the coil along its axis and also around the solenoid. Instead of using a straight core to wound the conductor, a circular core also can be used to wound the conductor. In such case the resulting solenoid is called Toroid. Use of magnetic material for the core produces strong magnet. This is because current carrying conductor produces its own flux. In addition to this, the core behaves like a magnet due to magnetic induction, producing its own flux. The direction of two fluxes is same due to which resultant magnetic field becomes more strong. The pattern of the flux around the solenoid is shown in the Fig. 1.29 (b). image not available image not available image not available Electrical Machines -1 Introduction 1.14.1 Fleming's Left Hand Rule Direction of First finger (flux) Middle finger (current) Fig. 1.35 Fleming's left hand rule hand x, Direction of The direction of the force experienced by the current carrying conductor placed in magnetic field can be determined by a rule called ‘Fleming's Left Hand Rule’. The rule states that, ‘Outstretch the three fingers of the left hand namely the first finger, middle finger and thumb such that they are mutually perpendicular to each other. Now point the first finger in the direction of magnetic field and the middle finger in the direction of the current then the thumb gives the direction of the force experienced by the conductor’. The rule is explained in the diagrammatic form in the Fig. 1.35. Apply the rule to crosscheck the direction of force experienced by a single conductor, placed in the magnetic field, shown in the Fig. 1.36 (a), (b), (c) and (d). Fig. 1.36 Direction of force experienced by conductor 1.14.2 Magnitude of Force Experienced by the Conductor The magnitude of the force experienced by the conductor depends on the following factors, 1) Flux density (B) of the magnetic field in which the conductor is placed measured in Wb/m’ i. Tesla. 2) Magnitude of the current I passing through the conductor in Amperes. 3) Active length '!' of the conductor in metres. The active length of the conductor is that part of the conductor which is actually under the influence of magnetic field. image not available image not available image not available Electrical Machines -1 1-29 Introduction It is the driving force behind the magnetic circuit. It is given by the product of the number of turns of the magnetizing coil and the current passing through it. Mathematically it can be expressed as, m.m. NI ampere turns where N = Number of turns of magnetising coil and I = Current through coil Its unit is ampere turns (AT) or amperes (A). It is also defined as the work done in joules on a unit magnetic pole in taking it once round a closed magnetic circuit. 1.17 Reluctance (S) In an electric circuit, current flow is opposed by the resistance of the material, similarly there is opposition by the material to the flow of flux which is called reluctance It is defined as the resistance offered by the material to the flow of magnetic flux through it. It is denoted by ‘S'. It is directly proportional to the length of the magnetic citcuit while inversely proportional to the area of cross-section. S« i where’ I" in'm' while ‘a' in'm?* s = kl a where K = Constant of proportionality = Reciprocal of absolute permeability of material = i A/Wb ha” powea It is measured in amperes per weber ( A/Wh). The reluctance can be also expressed as the ratio of magnetomotive force to the flux produced. mmf ie. Reluctance = = flux’ $= u ‘A/Wb or A/Wb image not available image not available image not available Electrical Machines -1 1-33 Introduction I Re ps R, R, Ry 1 I \ Cd Ex Ry E 1 Fig. 1.40 Equivalent electrical circuit The total resistance of the electric circuit is R; + Ry + Rj . Similarly the total reluctance of the magnetic circuit is, 4 L, 1 Total Sy = S,+S,+S, =—1-+—2-+—3_ TO OENSEISS Thay aaa Haas Total m.m.f. NI NI Total = Torar reluctance ~ 5; ~ (G,¥5, 755) NI = Sr =(8, +5; +S3) 6 NI = §, $482 94536 (m.m.£)T (m.m.f), +(m.m.f), +(m.m.f), The total mmf. also can be expressed as, (m.m.f)T = Hyh +Hyh +Hsl5 So for a series magnetic circuit we can remember, where H, = 1) The magnetic flux through all the parts is same. 2) The equivalent reluctance is sum of the reluctance of different parts. 3) The resultant m.m.f. necessary is sum of the [Link] in each individual part. 1.19.2 Series Circuit with Air Gap The series magnetic circuit can also have a short air gap. Key Point : This is possible because we have seen earlier that flux can pass through air also. Such air gap is not possible in case of electric circuit. ron ing of lenath Fig. 1.41 A ring with an air gap image not available image not available image not available Electrical Machines -1 1-37 Introduction NI = (NDap+ (NDascn oF (ND rep, NI = $5, +[0,5; or 6252] As in the electric circuit emf. across parallel branches is same, in the magnetic circuit the mum. across parallel branches is same. Thus same mmf. produces different fluxes in the two parallel branches. For such parallel branches, 1S, = $2 Sy Hence while calculating total mmf, the mmf. of only one of the two parallel branches must be considered. 1.19.4 Parallel Magnetic Circuit with Air Gap Consider a parallel magnetic circuit with air gap in the central limb as shown in the Fig. 1.44. Mean tength| feet Fig. 1.44 Parallel circuit with air gap ‘The analysis of this circuit is exactly similar to the parallel circuit discussed above. The only change is the analysis of central limb. The central limb is series combination of iron path and air gap. The central limb is made up of, path GD = Iron path = |, path GA = Air gap =|, The total flux produced is ¢ . It gets divided at A into 6, and 63. o = +02 The reluctance of central limb is now, kk —t4-8 S. = $/+8, = Hae Bote image not available image not available image not available Electrical Machines -| 1-4 Introduction Solution : This is parallel magnetic circuit. Its electrical equivalent is shown in the Fig. 1.48 (a). The total flux produced gets distributed into two parts having reluctances S, and S. S$, = Reluctance of centre limb ee) A a S, = Reluctance of right side ei hoe 25x 107 7 HoHe ay 4x 107 x 750x 2.5x 25x 104 S = 424.413 x 10° AT/Wb Ry I, 40x10? i. ee F S2 = yup ay * Texi07x750x25x 25x107 ¢ ¢ 679.061x 109 AT/Wb Sy, & Key Point: For parallel branches, m.m,f. remains Fig. 1.48 (a) same, For branch AB and CD, m.m-f. is same. mm. = 6, S,;= $2 S2 And 6. = 25 mWb a» given $2 Sp _ 25x 10 x 679.061 10? = $282 _ 25x10 x 679.061%10" _ 4 wp mes 424.413x 10° . 9 = O40, = 2544-65 mWb Total m.m-f. required is sum of the m.m-f. required for AEFB and that for either central or side limb. Sup = $2 = 679.061x 10° AT/Wb mum.f. for AEFB = Syerg X$ = 679.061 109 x 6.5 103 = 44138965 AT Total mmf. = 4413.8965+6, S, = 4413,8965+4x 10 x 424.413x 10° = 6111.548 AT But NI = total mmf. 1 = S11L548 _ 19993 a image not available image not available image not available Electrical Machines -1 1-45 Introduction ‘mm Example 1.6: A cast iron ring of 40 cm mean length and circular cross section of 5 cm diameter is wound with a coil. The coil carries a current of 3 A and produces a flux of 3mWb in the air gap. The length of the air gap is 2 mm. The relative permeability of the cast iron is 800. The leakage coefficient is 1.2. Calculate number of turns of the coil. Solution : Given, /, = 40cm=04m, 1, =2x10-9 m h- Igap = 04-2 x1075 = 0.398 m or I1=3A, $,= 210-9 Wb,n, = 800, A= 12 ae 7 a» Leakage coefficient =¢,Air gap -_or W103 a =19.63 X10" mi ” or = 2.4x10-3 Wb Ring Lk Now reluctance of i th S, = —! Fig. 1.54 ow reluctance of tron path 9 = 7 u,a as fa = oxs? = 19.6349 cm? = 19.634 x 10° 4m? 0.398 ——— ____ = 201629.16 AT/Wb 4xx10-7 x 800x19.63x10-* / _ mmf _ NI or = Teluctance ~ 5, NI 3 on 24x10°° = sorerTe NI for iron path = 483. 909 AT Reluctance of air gap aa 0 S, = 220 = 81060886 AT/Wb 6 Gmx10-? x19.634 x 10-* m.m.f. Now 5 = NI 3. N 2x10" = Sip608- 86 image not available image not available image not available Electrical Machines -| 1-49 Introduction 1.23 Magnetic Hysteresis Ammeter “oy 2 Iron ring Flux Variable resistance Reversible switch R Fig. 1.56 Experimental set up to obtain hysteresis loop Earlier in chapter three we have studied B-H curve for a magnetic material. Magnetic hysteresis is extension to the same concept of B-H curve. Instead of plotting B-H curve only for increase in current if plotted for one complete cycle of magnetization (increase in current) and demagnetization (decrease in current) then it is called hysteresis curve or hysteresis loop. Consider a circuit consisting of a battery 'E', an ammeter, variable resistance R and reversible switch shown in the Fig. 1.56. 1.23.1 Steps in Obtaining Hysteresis Loop i) Initially variable resistance is kept maximum so current through the circuit is very low. The field strength H = oa is also very low. So as current is increased, for low values of field strengths, flux density do not increase rapidly. But after the knee point flux density increases rapidly upto certain point. This point is called point of saturation. There-after any change in current do not have an effect on the flux density. This curve is nothing but the magnetization curve (B-H curve) discussed in earlier chapter. This is the initial part of hysteresis loop. ii) After the saturation point, now current is again reduced to zero. Due to this field strength also reduces to zero. But it is observed that flux density do not trace the same curve back but falls back as compared to previous magnetization curve. This phenomenon of falling back of flux density while demagnetization cycle is called hysteresis. Hence due to this effect, when current becomes exactly zero, there remains some magnetism associated with a coil and hence the flux density. The core does not get completely demagnetized though current through coil becomes zero. This value of flux density when exciting current through the coil and magnetic field strength is reduced to zero is called residual flux density or remanent flux density. This is also called residual magnetism of the core. The image not available image not available image not available Electrical Machines -1! 1-53 Introduction H, = N4 at/m Let current is increased by A I so there is increase in field strength by A H and flux density by A B. Due to A B change there is change in the flux A 6 Ag = ABxa (8 xe) Now change in flux causes induced e.m.f. in coil according to Faraday's law. — ny sO __ yy ABxa e = Ny SON Supply voltage has to overcome this V=-e ABxa N dt Power supplied P = Vx! AB P = Nxax xl Energy supplied in time dt =P xdt Joules AE = NxaxABx! AE = MixixaxaB AE = HxaxIxAB_ Joules This is energy supplied within time dt. «. Energy supplied for one cycle can be obtained by integrating above expression. Ea xix fHAaB Joules Here { is nothing but integration of the areas enclosed by strip H AB for one cycle ie. the area enclosed by hysteresis loop for one cycle. And axI = Volume of the material. «. Energy supplied during one cycle in Joules = Volume x area of the hysteresis loop. =. Energy supplied per unit volume = area of the hysteresis loop. When ‘H’ is increased from zero to maximum, energy is supplied while when ‘H' is reduced energy is recovered. But all the energy is not recovered. So net energy absorbed by material during one cycle appears as hysteresis loss. image not available image not available image not available Electrical Machines -! 1-57 Introduction The area of hysteresis loop should be narrow. Silicon steel is employed for the core material so that hysteresis loss can be minimised. Key Point: The eddy current loss can be reduced by using thin laminations for the core. 1.27 Introduction to Electromagnetic Induction Uptill now we have discussed the basic properties, concepts of magnetism and magnetic circuits. Similarly we have studied, the magnetic effects of an electric current. But we have not seen the generation of e.m.f. with the help of magnetism. The e.m.f. can be generated by different ways, by chemical action, by heating thermocouples etc. But the most popular and extensively used method of generating an emf. is based on electromagnetism. After the magnetic effects of an electric current, attempts were made to produce electric current with the help of magnetism rather than getting magnetism due to current carrying conductor. In 1831, an English Physicist, Michael Faraday succeeded in getting emf. from magnetic flux. The phenomenon by which em. is obtained from flux is called electromagnetic induction. Let us discuss, what is electromagnetic induction and its effect on the electrical engineering branch, in brief. 1.28 Faraday's Experiment Let us study first the experiment conducted by Faraday to get understanding of electromagnetic induction. Consider a coil having ‘N' turns connected to a galvanometer as shown in the 1.62. Galvanometer indicates flow of current in the circuit, if any. A permanent magnet is moved relative to coil, such that magnetic lines of force associated with coil get changed. Whenever, there “is motion of permanent magnet, galvanometer deflects indicating flow of current through the circuit. Motion of ‘magnet Flux through ~- = s coil d cei Fig. 1.62 Faraday's experiment Key Point : The galoanometer deflects in one direction, when magnet is moved towards a coil. It deflects in other direction, when moved away from the coil. image not available image not available image not available Electrical Machines -1 1-61 Introduction Key Point: When plane of the flux is parallel to the plane of the motion of conductors then there is no cutting of flux, hence no induced e.m.f. ‘Motion of conductor Conductor-+1 LZ Pane of flux 7 Piane of motion Fig. 1.64 (a) No cutting of flux [woton of conductor v ‘Conductor (!| Plane of motion ~LFEF Plane of fux Fig. 1.64 (b) Maximum cutting of flux @ (b) In second case as shown in the Fig. 164 (b), the velocity direction i.e. motion of conductor is perpendicular to the flux. Hence whole length of conductor is cutting the flux line hence there is maximum possible induced emf. in the conductor. Under such condition plane of flux and plane of motion are perpendicular to each other. Key Point: When plane of the flux is perpendicular to the ‘plane of the motion of the conductors then the cutting of flux is: maximum and hence induced emf. is also maximum. Consider a conductor moving with Welocity v m/s such that its plane of motion or direction of velocity is perpendicular to the direction of flux lines as shown in. Fig. 1.65 (a). 9 vsind Direction of flux (ce) image not available image not available image not available Electrical Machines -1 1-65 Introduction 2) Lenz's Law This rule is based on the principles derived by German Physicist Heinrich Lenz. The Lenz's law states that, ‘The direction of an induced em. produced by the electromagnetic induction is such that it sets up a current which always opposes the cause that is responsible for inducing the emf.’ In short the induced em. always opposes the cause producing it, which is represented by a negative sign, mathematically in its expression. do e = -NgP The explanation can be given as below : Consider a solenoid as shown in the Fig. 1.68. Let a bar magnet is moved towards coil such that N-pole of magnet is facing a coil which will circulate the current through the coil. According to Lenz's Repulsive force due to irecti aad emcand Law, the direction of current eurentin coll due to induced emf. is so as to oppose the cause. The a _ cause is motion of bar a Bar magnet magnet towards coil. So em4. will set up a current . through coil in such a way <== Direction ofmotion that the end of solenoid s facing bar magnet will Fig. 1.68 Lenz's law become N-pole. Hence two like poles will face each other experiencing force of repulsion which is opposite to the motion of bar magnet as shown in the Fig. 1.68. If the same bar magnet Force ofattacton cueto} is’ moved away from the current in coil coil, then induced emf. will set up a current in the fs direction which will cause, Bar magnet the end of solenoid facing bar magnet to behave as S-pole. Because of this two < © ==> Direction of motion unlike poles face each other 3 and there will be force of Fig. 1.69 Lenz's law bp ianaa ha Sid at of magnet, away from the coil. The galvanometer shows deflection in other direction as shown in the Fig. 1.69. image not available image not available image not available Electrical Machines -1 1-69 Introduction From this equation , the unit henry of self inductance can be defined as below. Key Point : A circuit possesses an inductance of 1 H when a current through coil is changing uniformly at the rate of one ampere per second inducing an opposing ems. 1 volt in it. The coefficient of self inductance is also defined as the e.m-f. induced in volts when the current in the circuit changes uniformly at the rate of one ampere per second. 1.33.3 Expressions for Coefficient of Self Inductance (L) L= a oI) Bat ¢ = Raine “5 L-5 L= x henries @ Now S= a pa L= Nina _ Nino henries = @) Where 1 = Length of magnetic circuit a = Area of cross-section of magnetic circuit through which flux is passing. mm> Example 1.9: If a coil has 500 turns is linked with a flux of 50 mWb, when carrying @ current of 125 A. Calculate the inductance of the coil. If this current is reduced to zero uniformly in 0.1 sec, calculate the self induced em, in the coil. Solution : The inductance is given by, _ Ne obey where N = 500, $=50 mWb =50x10~ Wb, image not available image not available image not available Electrical Machines -1 1-73 Introduction = ke = Nokigs M Th 3) The flux $, can be expressed as, 6 = mm Nh 1 = Reluctance ~ = Nok (Nib “SCE _ NN, an a If all the flux produced by coil A links with coil B then ky = 1. = NiN2 m= 4) Now s- i and ky =1 Then m = MiN2 1 NNab 1 T (=) m = NiNz@ Bole = 7 5) If second coil carries current I,, producing flux 2, the part of which links with coil A ie. 6, then, = ke@ and M= 7% M = Nike I, Nol. Now o = = ~ NkNh M-—3 _ kN, Na aS image not available image not available image not available Electrical Machines -1 1-77 Introduction 1.35.1 Expression for Energy Stored in the Magnetic Field Let the induced e.m-f. in a coil be, dl e=-1G This opposes a supply voltage. So supply voltage ‘V' supplies energy to overcome this, which ultimately gets stored in the magnetic field. a al Ve-e = -{+4] =ud i al Power supplied = VxI = LSpxl Energy supplied in time dt is, E = PowerxTime = LS aixat = Ldix 1 joules. This is energy supplied for change in current of dI but actually current changes from zero to I. «. Integrating above total energy stored is, E= far 7 L fan 0 BLE E = 4LF joules 1.35.2 Energy Stored Per Unit Volume ‘The above expression for the energy stored can be expressed in the different form as, E = 311 joules lneri N@ Tjoules Now NI = HI ampere-turns image not available image not available Electrical Machines -! 1-80 Introduction 90°. This is called back e.m.f. as it opposes the applied voltage. The resistance drop is very small and is neglected in most of the electromagnetic devices. 1.36.1 Energy Stored under A.C. Operation The instantaneous electric power input into the magnetic circuit through the coil terminals is given by, 5 a pei but e= als pei ~» 4) The power is rate of change of energy hence energy input which gets stored in the magnetic field during the interval t, to t, is, m= Joa fit a Wr = ~ ©) Thus W, is the increase in the field energy as the flux linkages of the coil change from A, and 2, during the interval t, to t,. Now, H.l, = mmé.=Ni is Using in the equation (5), » He, W, = f (Bee) = 6) A But 2 = No and $= Ba, ie A=Na,B. The flux density of the core is changing from B, to B, as the flux linkages change from A, to A>. Ww = 1 (Pas) Na, dB, 4 Electrical Machines -! 1-81 Introduction This is the field energy interms of field quantities. Now a. |, = Volume of the core W, per unit volume = fu dB, J/m> a This is called field energy density. Examples with Solutions ‘mp Example 1.13 : An iron ring has a mean diameter of 20 cm and a uniform circular cross section of 2.5232 cm diameter with a small brass piece fitted of 1 mm length. Three coils are wound on the ring as shown in the Fig. 1.76 and carry identical d.c. current of 2 A. If the relative permeability of iron is 800, estimate :- i) The magnetic flux produced in air-gap, ii) Self-inductance of the arrangement. iii) net m.m.f. in the ring. 2.5232 cm Fig. 1.76 Solution : From the various values given, 5x10‘ m Fay = 3 (2.5232)? = 5 cm’ Ty = %X dpegn = HX 20 = 62.8318 cm = 0.6283 m 0.6283 - 1 x 10°* = 0.6273 m and I, = 1mm=1x10%m Electrical Machines - | 1-82 Introduction S = S45, 4 ks = + 6 Howra Hoa 0.6273 1x10 4x10? x800x5x10 — 4nx1077 x5x10* = 1247973,698 + 1591549.431 = 2839523.129 AT/Wb Net mmf. = N,I,+N,1+N,], _ ... all produce flux in same direction = 2 (500+ 125+ 125] = 1500 AT wT =I; #15 =2A _omme 1500 “4 ® = Feuctance ~ 7859525.105 = 5282x10* Wb NZ _ (60041254125)? S ~~ 3a99578.129 = 0196 H wm Example 1.14: A magnetic circuit is excited by three coils as shown in the Fig. 1.77. Calculate the flux produced in the air gap. The material used for core is iron having relative permeability of 800. The length of the magnetic circuit is 100 cm with an air gap of 2 mm in it. The core has uniform cross-section of 6 cm. (AU: Dec. - 2002) Ny = 800 ° Fig. 1.77 Solution : Given, Nj, = 600, I, =6 A, N,=100, L=5A N; = 800, 1,=1A, ip=100cm=1m i, = y-1,=1m-2x 107 = 0.998 m 1, = 2x10-3 m, Bw, = 800, a = 6 cm* = 6x 10°‘ m* s Now total reluctance § = S, + S, 13 Introduction 4 0.998 Hoa 4x10? x800x6x10-* = 1654548.263 AT/Wb <3 S, = 210" _ 2650582385 AT/Wb Taxl0-? xoxo $ = 4307130.648 AT/Wb. Let us find the direction of flux due to various coils using right hand thumb rule. As shown in the Fig. 1.77 (a) mmf of coil (1) and (2) are in same direction while mmf. of coil (3) is in opposite direction. Net m.m.£= (Ny) + (Nz) - (Ns 1) = (600 x 6) + (100 x 5) ~ (1 x 800) NI = 3300 AT g=mmf__NI 3300 * Teluctance~ “S ~ 307130648 Fig. 1.77 (a) + Flux in air gap $ = 0.7661 mWb mm Example 1.15: A ring of cast steel has an external diameter of 24 cm and internal diameter of 18 cm. The area of cross-section is 3 cm x 3 cm. Inside and across the ring an ordinary steel bar 18cmx3 cm x O4 cm is fitted with negligible air gap. Calculate the mam.f. required to produce a flux density of 1 Wb/m? in the other half ABD. Neglect leakage. The B-H curves are given below in table form. Refer the Fig. 1.78. iA For cast steel ring ewone fs five [ia [is HATin 900 [ 200 | 1750 | 2000 For steel strip [ewont [sa Tous [1s [ss Liar | s200 | se80 | 1700 | 2000 Electrical Machines -! 1-84 Introduction Solution : Mean diameter of ring = sd = 2m Mean circumference = aD = 2x21 = 65.9732 cm = 0.659734 m. Length of path AED = Length of path ABD = oes7ss = 032986 m For required flux density of 1 Wb/m* in path ABD, referring to corresponding B-H curve, value of H is 900 AT/m. mmf. for path ABD = Hx/ = 900 x 0.32986 1 = 296.874 AT F ~ A ~ B Now the circuit is parallel magnetic circuit, th I-14, the corresponding equivalent electric circuit is : shown in the Fig. 1.79. = Sraco Shoo ‘The mmf. across path ACD is same as across of path ABD as both paths are parallel to each other, across the path DEA which is supplying m.m.f. m.m.f. across ACD = 296.874 AT H for path ACD = wml Fig. 1.79 aco 296.874 = ha = 1650 ‘The corresponding B = 145 from B-H curve given for the steel strip, Flux through path ACD = Bxa Cross sectional area of steel = 3 x 0.4 = 1.2 cm? = 1.2 x 10"* m? aco = 145 1.2 x 10-4 = 1.74 x 104 Wb Similarly flux through path ABD = Bxa Cross-sectional area of ABC = 3x3 =9 cm? =9 x 10-4 m* Oxsp = 1xX9x 104 =9x 10°" Wb +. Total flux supplied by path AED = acy + Gano Oarp = 1.74x104+9x10-* = 1.074 x 10°? Wb. Electrical Machines -1 1-85 Introduction Flux density for path AED, B = fae 1.1933 Wb/m? The corresponding ‘H’ value required, from the table given is 1200. mmf. for path AED = H x/ = 1200 x 0.32986 = 395.832 AT. Total m.m.f. required = m.m4. for path AED + [Link] for path ACD or ABD Key Point: The mm. for one path ACD or ABD is to be added, as the two paths in parallel, same m.m.f. is required for both paths. Total mmf = 395.832 + 296.874 = 692.706 AT im Example 1.16 : The Fig. 1.80 shows a magnetic circuit with too similar branches and an exciting coil of 1500 turns on central limb. The flux density in the air gap is 1 Wh/m? and leakage coefficient 1.2. Determine exciting current through the coil. Assume relative permeability of the iron constant equal to 600. Fig. 1.80 Solution : Flux density in air gap B, = 1 Wb/m* a = 3x4=12cm’=12x10 4m = Byxa =1x 12x10 = 12 x10-+ Wb. or or 8 R= oor 1? Or = sige = 1.2 x12x10-4 side = 1.44 x 107? Wb As the circuit is parallel magnetic circuit, eo =O sider + side 2 = 2X 1.44 x 10 = 2.88 x 10°? (as sides are similar) Electrical Machines -1 1-86 Introduction Section 1] Central limb I, = 19em=0.19m a = 12x10-4 m? i 0.19 Hole dnxi0-? x 600x12x10-* = 209996.11 AT/Wb I, = 2 +25=50cm=05m 12x 10°* m? ok. 05 Hola 4nx10~ x600x12x10-* 552621.33 AT/Wb Section III] Air gap I, = 1eom=001m a = 12x10-'m? I, 0.01 Boa 4nx107 x12x10-* 6631456 AT/Wb mam. for central limb = 6.) XS, = 2.88 x10~5 x 20999611 = 604.78 AT mmf. for one side limb = §,igeS, = 144 x10" x 552621.33 = 795.774 AT m4. for air gap = 9, x S, = 12 x 10° * x 6631456 = 7957.7472 AT =Total mmf. = mmf. for central limb + mam. for one side + mmf. for air gap NI = 604.78 + 795.774 + 7957.7452 15001 = 93583107 I = 6.2388 A Electrical Machines -1 1-87 Introduction ium) Example 1.17: A magnetic circuit has the mean length of flux path of 20 cm, and cross sectional area of 1 cm®. Relative permeability of its material is 2400. Find the m.m,f. required to produce a flux density of 2 tesla in it. If an airgap of 1 mm is introduced in it, find the [Link]. required for the air gap as a fraction of the total m.m,f. to maintain the same flux density. Solution : , = 20cm, a=1cm?, », = 2400, B=2T he 20x10 Hoh, @ 4x10 x2400x1x104 = 663.145x103 AT/Wb @ = Bxa=2x1x104 Wb ow ¢ = Bae o mmf. = $xS=2x1074 x 663.145x10° = 132.6291 AT Now I, = 1mm is introduced in it. i = 20cm-imm=0.199m S, = i= 659829109 AT/Wb Hobe a |, and S, = (3.=7.9577x10° AT/Wb Ho 9 = Bxa=2x104 Wb .» Same as B is same ([Link] = $i %9=131.9658 AT and ([Link])aicgap = 5, %9=1591.5494 AT Total m.m.f = 17235152 AT ([Link])jcgap = 0.9234 times total manf tm> Example 1.18: A conductor of length 10 cm carrying 5 A is placed in a uniform magnetic field of flux density 1.25 tesla. Find the force acting on the conductor, if it is placed (i) Along the lines of magnetic flux, (ii) Perpendicular to the lines of flux, and (ii) At 30° to the flux. Solution : 1 = 10 cm = 10 x 10? m,I=5 A, B=125T Case 1: Along lines of magnetic flux 0 = Angle between conductor and axis of magnetic field =° «. F= BU, sin@ = 1.25 x 5 x 10 x 107? sin 0° =0N Fig. 1.81 Electrical Machines - | 1-88 Introduction (Case 2 : Perpendicular to lines of flux ie. @ = 90° F = BL. sin 90 = Case 3 : At 30° to the flux i.e. 1.25 x 5 x 10 x 10°? = 0.625 N = 30° Fe BLL sin 30° = 1.25 x 5 x 10 x 10°? x 5 = 0.3125 N. wm) Example 1.19 : The mean diameter of steel ring is 40 cm and flux density of 0.9 Wh/nt® is produced by 3500 Aturns/meter. If the cross-section of the ring is 15 cm? and number of turns 440, calculate: i) The exciting current ii) The self inductance in henry and iii) Exciting current and inductance when air gap of 1 cm is cut in the ring. TAU : Dec.-2006] Solution : d,,.., = 40 cm, B = 0.9 Wb/m’, H = 3500 AT/m, a = 15 cm’, N = 440 Ie = WXdyeay = 1X40 = 125,637 cm B = Ho, H= pH _B_ 09 | 4 w= B= 28 = 2574x100 a S, = — 1756637 x10"* __ 3.9579 x 10° AT/Wb 2.5714x10"4 x15x10-4 mmf. = NI =H x Iy = 3500 x 125.6637 x 10 = 4398.2295 AT 4398.2295 _ 4398.2295 440 999=10A N?_ (440)? Sy 3.2579x10° 1 em is cut. ii) L= = 0.0594 H iii) Now air gap |, I, = Ip=l, = 124.6637 cm S, = 5,+8, =i 124.6637 x10"? 1x10-? 2.5714x10"4x15x10"4 = 4mx10-7 x15x10-# 3232x106 +5.3051x108 = 85371106 AT/Wb @ = Bxa =09x15x10-4 = 1.35x10-> Wb Electrical Machines - | 1-89 Introduction mmf Now ® = Reluctance mf 1.35x10-3 = mt _ * 85371 x10 mmf = NI = 11525.085 y = 125251494 _ 961935 4 N N2_ (440)? d te NLS _ women an Sp 8.5371x10° im Example 1.20: A square coil of 20 cm side is rotated about its axis at a speed of 200 revolutions per minute in a magnetic field of density 0.8 Wh/m*. If the number of turns of coil is 25, determine maximum e.m,. induced in the coil. Solution : The arrangement is shown in the Fig. 1.82. Rotation Top view (a) (b) Fig. 1.82 ‘As shown in the Fig. 1.82 (b) the active length responsible for cutting flux lines becomes | = 20cm = 0.2 m. Now N = 200rpm. We want the velocity of m/sec v=ro =r x2aN [where N is in rp.m. and r = 10 cm = 0.1 m] 21 v= 01 x2 00 _ 2.094 m/sec. B = 0.8 Wb/m® and Active length = 0.2 m Electrical Machines - | 1-90 Introduction The maximum emf. induced in conductor AB, shown in Fig. 1.82 (b) will be, e = Blvsin® For @nay 6 = 90° e = 08x 0.2 x 2.094 = 0.335 volts The em. induced in sides BC and AD is almost zero as their plane of rotation becomes parallel to plane of field. And maximum e.m.f, induced in conductor CD will be same as AB = 0.335 volts. «. em4f, induced in one turn of the coil [AB + CD] = 2x 0335 = 0.67 volts In all, there are 25 turns in that coil, ~. Total e.m.f. induced in a coil is = 25x 0.67 = 16.75 volts ym) Example 1.21: A conductor has 50 cm length is mounted on the periphery of a rotating part of d.c. machine. The diameter of a rotating drum is 75 cm. The drum is rotated at a speed of 1500r.p.m. The flux density through which conductor passes at right angles is 1.1T. Calculate the induced emf. in the conductor. Solution : The active length = 50 cm = 0.5 m., N= 1500r.p.m, B=1.1T, 6= 9? The rotating drum on which conductor is mounted is called armature of a d.c. machine. <— conductor ‘The arrangement is as shown in Fig. 1.83. ) The linear velocity 2nN in vero =rx2m Fig, 1.83 * = 0.375 x27*1500 _ 58.9 m/sec. 75 = Bea75em Induced e.m-f. in a conductor = Biv = 11x05 x 58.9 = 32.397 volts Electrical Machines -! 1-91 Introduction mm Example 1.22 : A solenoid is wound with 1000 turns having area of cross-section 25 cr. When 2.5 A current flows through the coil, the flux density is 0.8 Wb/m? and when current is increased to 5 A, the flux density becomes 1.2 Wh/m’. Find the average value of self inductance within given current limits. If this change in current is achieved within 0.04 sec., calculate the self induced emf. Solution : Given values are, N = 1000, a = 25 cm? = 25 x10-4 m’, I, = 25 A, B, = 0.8 Wb/m’, I, = 5 A, B, = 1.2 Wb/m’, t = 0.04 sec. -NO ie tend Le> ie. L=Na < 2-49 =” vew[ict] weet Now e= Negative sign indicates that it opposes change in current. imp Example 1.23 : An iron cored toroid of relative permeability 980 has a mean length of 120 cm and core area of 100 mm’, A current of 0.3 A establishes a flux of 40 wWo, calculate i) The number of turns of coil ii) Self inductance iti) Energy stored in magnetic field. Solution : Given values are j1,= 980, 1 = 120 cm = 1.2 m, a= 100 mm? = 100x106 m I = 03, 6 = 40 Wb = 40x 10°§ Wb 40x10-* 4) Flux density Be 2 = Sa «04 Wh Field strength H-—8 -__4 __ 4g atjm ~ Hoty 4mx10-7 980 — H=NI z 0 Electrical Machines - 1 1-92 Introduction No _ 1300x40x10-* 7 a = 0.1733 H ii) Ls ii) Energy stored E = ; LP = $01738%(0.3)? = 7.8 x10- joules Otherwise alternatively energy stored can be calculated as, (0.4)? E= ee 4mx10"? x980 (axl) $x1299224%4 x 100%10-* x1.2) = 7.8 x10"? J wm Example 1.24: A coil of 200 turns having a mean diameter of 6 cm is placed coaxially at the centre of a solenoid of 50 cm long with 1500 turns and carrying current of 2.5 A. Calculate the mutual inductance between the two coils. Solution : Given values are, Nj = 1500 (solenoid), N= 200, ,=50cem=05m, 1,=25A Q@0000000 = Now magnetic field strength Hi at the —— wa centre of coil due to solenoid current is + aN O00000 0 Oh =25A 4 ra 1500%2.5 Fig. 1.84 = 5g = 7500 AT/m -. Flux density at centre is B= oH (H, = 1) B = 4nx10-7 x7500 = 9.424 x10"? Wb/m> + Flux linking with second coil is, $2. = Bxa,= 9.424 x10-§ x2x(d,)? 4 = 9.424 x10"? x5 x (610-2)? = 2.664 x10-> Wb -. Mutual inductance between the coils is, 5 M = Nite _ Bond xo” = 2.1318 x10"? H 1 : Electrical Machines - | 1-93 Introduction mmm Example 1.25 : Two coils A and B are placed such that 40 % of flux produced by coil A links with coil B coils A and B have 2000 and 1000 turns respectively. A current of 2.5 A in coil A produces a flux of 0.035 mWb in coil B. For the above coil combination, find out i) M, the mutual inductance and ii) the coefficient of coupling ky, kx and k iit) Self inductances L, and Ly. Solution : Ny = 2000, Ny = 1000, ky = 0.4, 5 = 0.4 oy I,=25 A and $y = 0.035 mWb i) Mutual Inductance, M = Neto rn ii) $3 = 0.035 mWb and $5 = 0.4 6, — Op _ 0.035 _ 0 = Ga = og = 0.0875 mWb Ly = Nata . 2000 x 0.0875 x 107 * Tk 25 L, = 0.07H Assuming that same current in coil B produces 0.035 mWb in coil B. Nan _ 1000 x 0.035 x 107 = 75 = 0.014 H iii) M = Mats $x m= Mako On pote 3 iB 3 014 = 2000 % kp X 0.035 x 10 25 ky = 05 5 = kp oq and it is given that 40 % of $4 links with coil B, ky = 04 k = JKqkp = [04x05 = 0.4872 um Example 1.26: An electric conductor of effective length of 0.3 metre is made to move with a constant velocity of 5 metre per second perpendicular to a magnetic field of uniform flux density 0.5 tesla. Find the e.m.f. induced in it. If this emf. is used to supply a current of 25 A, find the force on the conductor, and state its direction w.r.t. motion of conductor, ignoring friction. Find the power required to keep the conductor moving across the field. Solution :/=0.3m, v=5m/s, B=05T e = Blv=03x5x05 = 0.75 V Electrical Machines - | 1-94 Introduction Now I= 2A F = BI!=05x25x03 = 3.75N The direction of this force is so as to oppose the motion of conductor, as per Lenz’s law. The power required to keep the conductor moving is, P = exl=0.75x3.75 = 2.8125 W yw) Example 1.27: Two coils A and B, have self inductances of 120 wH and 300 wH ly. A current of 1 A through coil 'A’ produces flux linkage of 100 uWb turns in coil 'B’. Calculate i) Mutual inductance between the coil ii) Average emf. induced in coil 'B’ if current of 1A in coil ‘A’ is reversed at a uniform rate in 0.1 sec. Also find coefficient of coupling. Solution : L, = 120 wH, Ly = 300 hH I, = 1A produces Nyy = 100 pWb Nods _ 100%10-¢ i) M= =—y— = 100 pH --Mutual inductance a i al, ii) en = My The current in coil A is reversed ie. it is -1 A in 0.1 sec. AI = (New value - Original value) = (-1 -1) = -2 A and At = 0.1 sec ay dt e3 = “ona = a «Induced emf. in B k= 100x10~ en Ly ¥120x10~6 x 300x10% = 0527 Coefficient of coupling mmm Example 1.28 : Two long, single-layered solenoids ‘x’ and ‘y’ have the same length and the same number of turns. The cross-sectional areas of the two are‘a,' and ‘a,’ respectively, with ‘a,’ < ‘a,". They are placed coaxially, with solenoid ‘y’ placed within the solenoid ‘x'. Show that the coefficient of coupling between them is equal to [ay 7a,- Electrical Machines -| 1-95 Introduction Solution : The arrangement is shown in the Fig. 1.85. QO 0 0 0 —ckarora, It is known that \ : ES} 05 aa, i= Note cee e el? re For coil x, -’——— : +1 Nita, Same TT for both Ny Fig. 1.85 and Ly =a tes The number of turns N and p,, is same for both. Considering coil y, N,N 7 M = ae where N, = N, =N T The coefficient of coupling is given by, N?ay Hol ke —M_ st LyLy {NP pon ay Nolte y I T Nat, (Mi), gg = = 22 N? ole ax Ems fa k= J «Proved ‘mm Example 1.29 : A wrought iron bar 40 cm long and 2 cm in diameter is bent into a circular shape. It is then wound with a wire of 800 turns. Calculate the current required to produce a flux of 0.6 mWb in the circuit if, @) No air gap ) With an air gap of 1 mm and w, = 4000 c) With an air gap of 1 mm and magnetization characteristics given by, cen = [=o [= | =] [ein wie] ere | ce | toe [zo Electrical Machines -1 1-96 Introduction Solution : The arrangement of bar is shown in the Fig. 1.86. a) No air gap 40 cm $ (2)? =n cm? ok 4010-2 ~ Holy @ — 4000x4xx10-? xnx10-# 6=0.6 mWb = 253302.959 AT/Wb 7 mmf _ NI Fig. 1.86 vs reluctance S$ 800xI 3. _8 7 06x10% = seprosy ie. T= 019A b) With air gap of 1 mm i. J, = 1 mm 40x10-? -1x10- = 0.399 m |, S$, = —4+— = 252.6697 x 10° AT/Wb Bow, a S. = he = 110"? dg 595108 AT/W 8 oa ~ Gnxl0-7xax 10? Sy = S,+S, = 2.7857 x 106 AT/Wb 800x1 0.6x 10-3 = ———~__ * 2.7857x 10° © 0 c) With B-H curve data for the material given i.e. 1, is not constant. @ _ 06x 10 B, = £ = 26x 244 le 1 = cag = 19098 W/m? = B, = 15198x 10° AT/m (AT, = H, Xi, = 1.5198x 106 x1x 10~ = 1519.8177 AT H, = 3600 AT for B, = 1909 T from the given table 1-97 Introduction = H,x/, = 3600x 0.399 = 1436.4 AT = (AT), +(AT), = 2956.2177 AT NI = (AT)z ie. 800x T = 29562177 I = 3.6952 A mm Example 1.30: For the magnetic circuit shown in the Fig. 1.87. Find the flux density and flux in each of the outer limbs and central limb, assuming 1, = 4500. 1mm—= ole Sem: Fig. 1.87 Solution : N= 1000, I=05A, NI=500 AT a, =5x5 = 25 cm? for side limbs, a. = 5x 10= 50 cm? for central limb S. = Reluctance of central limb S, = Reluctance of left limb S, = Reluctance of right limb 1, = Length of central limb = 40 + 25 +25 = 45cm Ss = saaa = 15.9154 x 10° AT/ Wb 25 305 A Ss = 25 |, for left limb = [2x (30+5+2.5)+45]-l, 40} AB = 120 om = 120cm-1 mm =1.199m 25. 1199 1x 10-3 253% 58 Spo pe 4nx 1077 x4500x 25% 10-* " 4nx 10-7 x25x 10 Fig. 1.87 (a) = 403.1217 x 103 AT/Wb wo " ¢—i. Heras Ho as |, for right limb = 120 cm - 2 mm = 1.198 m 1.198 s 2x 107 4mx 107 x 4500x 25x 10-4 = 4mx 10-7 x 25x 10° = 721.3608 x 10° AT/Wb Ss. = It is a parallel magnetic circuit, as shown in the Fig. 1.87 (b). cw A & mmf. for central limb = ¢, x S, % mmf. for left limb = 4, x S; rs] Le] [a] i for right limb = 0,5, i] Total] _ [[Link] ] | [[Link] any} m.m.f} 7 [central limb] * | one outer Timb | o ¥ B Fig. 1.87 (b) Key Point: As branches CD and EF are in parallel, their m.m,f. remains same. mm. of CD = mainf. of EF Six, = S,xO, te 6, = Sh xe, : o, = DEATH IOS x 0) = 0558 6, ~@ NI = @.x5.40)5; but 6. 61+ 6 NI = [614415 +615, = [0, +0.5589,] xS, +9)S, 1000 x05 = 6, [1.558xS.+S)] 500 = = 1.168 mW 9 = T5ex TS9ISix 10° + 403.1217 10° ™ , = 0.558x 1.168 = 0.652 mWb %. = $+, = 182 mWb B, = = 0.467 Wb/ m? 0.652% 10-2 B, ee 2 . Fee lor 7 0261 Wb/ im 3 B, = Ss = 182x107 _ 0364 Wo/ m? © ae 50x 10-7 Electrical Machines -! 1-99 Introduction mmm Example 1.31 : For the magnetic circuit shown in the Fig. 1.88, calculate the exciting current required to establish a flux of 2 mWb in the air gap. Take fringing into account empirically. a, The BH curve is given in the table. [Link]* 0.1. om 1000 150m Fig. 1.88 Solution : @ = 2 mWb, a, =5x4 = 20 cm?, |, 20+20+15 = 55 cm, |, = 0.1 cm For considering fringing, a, = (© +041) (4+ 01) = 2091 cm? o _ 2x10-3 2 B. doctor = 1 Wb/m From the given table, H, = 40 AT/m for B. = 1T (mmf). = H,.xl,=40x55x10-? = 22 AT 3 B, 2X10" = 0.956 Wb/m? w= Bs, 0956 5643495103 AT/m Ho 4mx 10-7 (mmf), = H, XJ, = 761.142x 103 x0.1x10-? = 761.1427 AT Total mmf = 22 + 761.1427 = 783.1427 AT NI = 783.1427 ie. 200 1 = 783.1427 1 = 3.91574 +» Exciting current wm Example 1.32 : In the magnetic circuit considered in the example 1.31. if ., = 2500 then determine, a) Energy stored in the core and air gap if exciting current is 5 A. }) Excitation current to produce a sinusoidally varying flux of 0.5 sin 314 t. ©) Inductance of the coil. Electrical Machines -! 1-100 Introduction Solution : 1, = 2500 a. =20x10°4 m2, 1, =55x10-2 m, ay = 20.91 10-4 lg = 0.1x 10-7 m Ss. = kk 87.535x 103 AT/Wb .» Reluctance of core Bobs @ | x S— = 380.571x 10° AT/Wb -» Reluctance of air gap 0 Ms “ Sy = S.+S, = 468.1065x 10° AT/Wb a) New current, I = 5A NI 200x 5 es = 2.136210 Wh ® = Sy ~ $68.1065x 10° x 7 1 BP Energy /unit volume = 5 1 B Energy = 3 77 Volume ». Energy stored in core = 4 B2_x a.4, but B, = # SY 2 Woh, “8S a = 1(%)Py 1 = ele = 5 (85) pag eke ata _ _(2.1362x 10-5)? x 55x 107? =02J 2x 4x 10-7 x2500x20x10~ Be 4 Energy stored in air gap = 12x a, J, but B, = <5 y Dp * As ea, 1.(% 41 1 3h, = 5x2] xt wiles == 2* {ar} “aXe ’ "Zayas 0, =0e=0 a1 (2.1362x 107%)? 0.110"? _ 9 aay 2% “Tnx 10-7 x2091x 10°? ~ 8688 T b) © = Om sinwt ie. o, = 0.5 Wb o, = Nim ie 200% Iq ™ Sp 468.1065 10° I, = 1.1702 i = I, sinot = 11702 sin 314t A 2 (200)? 9 L = ML __ 000)", = 0.0885 H > 468.1065 105 Electrical Machines -1 1-101 Introduction Review Questions 1. Explain the basic generating and motoring made of operation, of an electric machine. 2. Explain the various types of electric machines. 3. Explain the general construction of a d.c. machine 4. Explain the general construction of a synchronous machine, 5. Explain the general construction of an induction machine. 6. Why induction motor cannot rotate at synchronous speed ? 7. What is electromagnetic torque ? 8. What is working principle of an induction motor ? 9. Why dc. and synchronous machines are called doubly excited machines ? 10. Write the difference between squirrel cage and wound rotor construction. 11. Write the difference between salient pole and nonsalient pole construction. 12. What are the advantages of rotating field in synchronous machines ? 13. When an induction machine runs as a generator ? State its applications. 14, State and explain the laws of magnetism. 15. What is magnetic field and magnetic lines of force? State the properties of lines of force. 16. Define and state the units of following parameters: i) Magnetic flux ii) Magnetic pole strength iti) Magnetic flux density io) Magnetic field strength ») Absolute permeability vi) Relative permeability vii) mmf. vill) Reluctance 17. Derive the relation between m.m,f, reluctance and the flux. 18. State and explain the following rules: 1) Right hand thumb rule ii) Fleming's left hand rule i) Fleming's right hand rule iv) Lenz's law 19. Explain the proceduce to analyse following circuit, with suitable example : i) Series magnetic circuit ii) Series magnetic circuit with air gap iti) Parallel magnetic circuit 20. What is an electromagnet ? What is solenoid? 21. Point out the analogy between electric and magnetic circuits. 22. Explain the magnetic leakage and magnetic fringing. 23. Define leakage coefficient 24. Explain how current carrying conductor when placed in a magnetic field experiences a force. 25. A steel ring of 180 cm mean diameter has a cross sectional area of 250 mm®. Flux developed in the ring is 500 wWb when a 4000 turns coil carries certain current. Find i) mmf. required ii) reluctance iti) current in the coil Given that the relative permeability of the steel is 1100. (Ans. : 8181.72 AT, 1.6363 107, 2.045 A) Electrical Machines - 1 1-102 Introduction 26. 27. 31 41 29. 32. SkRees 39. 42. 43. A coil is wound uniformly with 300 turns over a steel ring of relative permeability 900, having ‘mean circumference of 40 mm and cross-sectional area of SO mni?. If a current of 25 A is passed through the coil, determine 1) mmf. if) reluctance of ring and iti) flux (Ans. ; 7500 AT, 707355.3 AT/Wb, 0.0106 Wb) Find the number of ampere turns required to produce a flux of 0.44 milli-weber in an iron ring of 100 cm mean circumference and 4 cm? in cross-section. B Vs \1, test for the iron gives the ‘following result : If a saw cut of 2 mm wide is made in the above ring, how many extra ampere turns are required to maintain same flux ? (Ans, : 486.307 AT, 1744 AT) An iron ring of 20 cm mean diameler and 10 cm? cross-section is magnetised by a coil of 500 turns. The current through the coil is 8 A. The relative permeability of iron is 500. Find the flux density inside the ring . (Ans. : 4 W/m?) An iron ring of 100 cm mean circumference is made from round iron of cross-section 10cm, it relative permeability is 800. If it is wound with 300 turns, what current is required to produce a (flux of 1110-3 Wo ? (Ans. 3.647 A) A coil of 300 turns and of resistance 10 9 is wound uniformly over a steel ring of mean circumference 30 cm, and cross-sectional area 9 cm?, It is connected to a supply at 20 V dc. If the relative permeability of the ring is 1500, find : i) The magnetising force ; ii) The reluctance ; iti) The m.m.f.; and io) The flux. (Ams. : 600 AT, 176838.82 AT/Wb, 2000 AT/m, 3.3929 mWb) Write a note on stacking factor. Explain the B-H curve for a magnetic material. Explain the practical use of B-H curve. What is magnetic hysteresis ? Explain the hysteresis loop. What is hysteresis loss ? On which factors it depends ? Derive the expression for the hysteresis loss per unit volume. Explain the practical significance of hysteresis loop. What is eddy current loss ? State its expression. State the Feraday’s laws of electromagnetism. What is the difference between dynamically induced e.m.f. and statically induced emf. ? Derive the expression for the magnitude of the dynamically induced e.m.f. Explain clearly the difference between self inductance and mutual inductance. State their units. Derive the various expressions for the self inductance. Derive the various expressions for the mutual inductance. Electrical Machines -1 1-103 Introduction 45. 46. 47. 48. 57. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. LA flux of 0.25 mWh is produced when a current of 25 a passes through a coil of 1000 turns. . Explain the a.c. operation of magnetic circuits. Derive the expression for coefficient of coupling. How energy gets stored in the magnetic field ? Derive the expression for energy stored in the magnetic field. Two identical 1000 turn coils X and Y lie in parallel planes such that 60 % of the flux produced by ‘one coil links with the other. A current of 5 A in X produces a flux of 5 x10-* Wb in itself. If the current in X changes from + 6 A to ~ 6 A in 0.01 sec, what will be the magnitude of the emf. induced in Y ? Calculate the self inductance of each coil. (Ans. : 0.72 V, 0.001 H) Find the inductance of a coil of 200 turns wound on a paper core tube of 25 cm length and 5 cm radius. Also calculate energy stored in it if current rises from zero to 5 A. (Ans. : 1.579 mH, 0.01973 J) Two 200 turns, air cored solenoids, 25 cm long have a cross-sectional area of 3 cm? each. The mutual inductance between them is 0.5 wH. Find the self inductance of the coils and the coefficient of coupling. (Ans. : 60.31 1H, 0.00828) Two coils A and B having 5000 and 2500 turns respectively are wound on a magnetic ring. 60 % of the flux produced by coil A links with coil B.A current of 1 A produces a flux of 0.25 mWb in coil A while same current produces a flux of 0.15 mWb in coil B. Find the mutual inductance and coefficient of coupling. (Ans. : 1.25 H, 0.375 H, 0.5477) A conductor has 1.9 m length. It moves at right angles to a uniform magnetic field. The flux density of the magnetic field is 0.9 tesla. The velocity of the conductor is 65 m/sec. Calculate the ems. induced in the conductor. (Ans. : 111.15 volts) ‘An air cored coil has 800 turns. Length of the coil is 6 cm while its diameter is 4 cm. Find the current required to establish flux density of 0.01 T in core and self inductance of the coil. (Ans. : 0.5968 A, 16.844 mH) Caleulate i Self inductance ii) EMF. induced in the coil ifthe current of 2.5 A is reduced to zero in 1 milliseconds. iti) If second coil of 100 turns is placed near to the first on the same iron ring, calculate the mutual inductance between the coils. (Ans. : 0.1 H, 250 V, 0.01 H) Two coils A and B having 180 and 275 number of turns respectively are closely wound on an iron magnetic circuit, which has a mean length of 1.5 m and cross-sectional area of 150 cm. The relative permeability of iron is 1500. Determine mutual inductance between the coils. When will be the emf. induced in a coil B if the current in coil A changes uniformly from 0 to 2.5 a in 0.03 seconds? (Ans. : 0.933 H, - 77.75 Volts) Derive the expression for energy stored in magnetic circuit in terms of field quantities under a.c. excitation. Electrical Machines -1 University Questions Qt Q2 Q3 a4 Ans. as Qs : When the magnetic flux is constant and stationary and the coil rotates to cut the flux Explain the constructional features of elementary synchronous machines. (Nov/Dec.-2003, Nov./Dec.-2005, 2001 course, 8 Marks, April/May-2003, 8 Marks] Define the term synchronous speed. INov/Dec.-2003, 2 Marks] Write an expression for synchronous speed. [Nov/Dec.-2004, 2 Marks] What does speed voltage mean? INov/Dec.-2007, 2 Marks} then ems. gets induced due to relative speed between flux and coil. This e.m.f. is called speed em,f, rotational e.m.f., motional e.m.f. or dynamically induced e.m.f. Mention the factors on which hysteresis loss depends. [Nov/Dec.-2008, 2 Marks] Distinguish between statically induced and dynamically induced e.m. [May/June-2008, 2009, 2 Marks} gQ00 Single Phase Transformers 2.1 Introduction The main advantage of alternating currents over direct currents is that, the alternating currents can be easily transferable from low voltage to high or high voltage to low. Alternating voltages can be raised or lowered as per requirements in the different stages of electrical network as generation, transmission, distribution and utilization. This is possible with a static device called transformer. The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction. It transfers an electric energy from one circuit to other when there is no lectrical connection between the two circuits. Thus we can define transformer as below : Key Point: The transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of which an electrical power is transformed from one alternating current circuit to another with the desired change in voltage and current, without any change in the frequency. The use of transformers in transmission system is shown in the Fig. 2.1 try Transformer Transformer (cae TBE eatin Generating long distance station Level Level increases decreases for transmission for distribution Fig. 2.1 Use of transformers in transmission system 2.2 Principle of Working The principle of mutual induction states that when two coils are inductively coupled and if current in one coil is changed uniformly then an emf. gets induced in the other coil. This emf. can drive a current, when a closed path is provided to it. The transformer works on the same principle. In its elementary form, it consists of two inductive coils which are electrically separated but linked through a common magnetic circuit. The two coils have high mutual inductance. The basic transformer is shown in the Fig. 2.2. One of the two coils is connected to a source of alternating voltage. This coil in which electrical energy is fed with the help of source is called primary winding (P). The other winding is connected to load. The electrical energy transformed to this winding is drawn out to the load. (2-1) Electrical Machines -! 2 Single Phase Transformers ‘Secondary Primary —s Primary voltage AC. a supply 4 Taminated magnetic ron core ‘Secondary Fiux(e) voltage Voltage level changes but frequency i.e. time period T . f remains same — Fig. 2.2 Basic transformer Core This winding is called secondary winding (S). The primary winding has N, number of tums while the secondary winding has N, number of Ny | No turns. Symbolically the transformer is indicated as shown in the Fig. 2.3. ° When primary winding is excited by an POS Fig. 2.3 Symbolic representation “te"Mating voltage, it circulates an alternating current. This current produces an alternating flux (9) which completes its path through common magnetic core as shown dotted in the Fig. 22. Thus an alternating, flux links with the secondary winding. As the flux is alternating, according to Faraday's law of an electromagnetic induction, mutually induced em4f. gets developed in the secondary winding. If now load is connected to the secondary winding, this em-f. drives a current through it. Thus though there is no electrical contact between the two windings, an electrical energy gets transferred from primary to the secondary. Key Point: The frequency of the mutually induced emf. is same as that of the alternating source which is supplying energy to the primary winding. 2.2.1 Can D.C. Supply be used for Transformers 7 The d.c. supply cannot be used for the transformers. The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction, for which current in one coil must change uniformly. If d.c. supply is given, the current will not change due to constant supply and transformer will not work. Electrical Machines -! 2-3 Single Phase Transformers Practically winding resistance is very small. For d.c., the inductive reactance X,_ is zero as d.c. has no frequency. So total impedance of winding is very low for d.c. Thus winding will draw very high current if d.c. supply is given to it. This may cause the burning of windings due to extra heat generated and may cause permanent damage to the transformer. There can be saturation of the core due to which transformer draws very large current from the supply when connected to d.c. Thus d.c. supply should not be connected to the transformers. 2.3 Construction There are two basic parts of a transformer i) Magnetic core ii) Winding or coils. The core of the transformer is either square or rectangular in size. It is further divided into two parts. The vertical portion on which coils are wound is called limb while the top and bottom horizontal portion is called yoke of the core. These parts are shown in the Fig. 2.4 (a). Liype = f { Joint soit (a) ) Fig. 2.4 Construction of transformer Hype lamination Core is made up of laminations. Because of laminated type of construction, eddy current losses get minimised. Generally high grade silicon steel laminations {0.3 to 05 mm thick] are used. These laminations are insulated from each other by using insulation like varnish. All laminations are varnished. Laminations are overlapped so that to avoid the air gap at the joints. For this generally 'L’ shaped or ‘I’ shaped laminations are used which are shown in the Fig. 2.4 (b). The cross-section of the limb depends on the type of coil to be used either circular or rectangular. The different cross-sections of limbs, practically used are shown in the Fig. 2.5. For large y Y 7 transformers. For A h small —= transformers Rectangular Square Cruciform 3 stepped cruciform Fig. 2.5 Different cross-sections Electrical Machines -1 2-4 ‘Single Phase Transformers To avoid the high reluctance at the joint, the alternate layers are stacked differently to climinate the joints. This is called staggering. The butt joints are staggered in alternate layers. It is shown in the Fig. 2.6. PP. ou na p—IN joints joints _ oe = agew ope ob fits {c) Arrangement of butt joints Poe (a) Core type {(b) Shell type Fig. 2.6 Staggering in transformer The advantages of staggering in transformer are, 1. It avoids continuous air gap. 2. The reluctance of magnetic circuit gets reduced. 3. The continuous air gap reduces the mechanical strength of the core. The staggering helps to increase the mechanical strength of the core. 2.3.1 Types of Windings The coils used are wound on the limbs and are insulated from each other. In the basic transformer shown in the Fig. 2.2, the two windings wound are shown on two different limbs ie. primary on one limb while secondary on other limb. But due to this leakage flux increases which affects the transformer performance badly. Similarly it is necessary that the windings should be very close to each other to have high mutual inductance. To achieve this, the two windings are split into number of coils and are wound adjacent to each other on the same limb. A very common arrangement is cylindrical concentric coils as shown in the Fig. 2.7 (a). (See Fig. 2.7. (a) on next page.) Such cylindrical coils are used in the core type transformer. These coils are mechanically strong. These are wound in the helical layers. The different layers are insulated from each other by paper, cloth or mica. The low voltage winding is placed near the core from ease of insulating it from the core. The high voltage is placed after it. The other type of coils which is very commonly used for the shell type of transformer is sandwich coils. Each high voltage portion lies between the two low voltage portion Electrical Machines -! 2-5 Single Phase Transformers Both windings on same limb to avoid leakage flux Fig. 2.7 (a) Cylindrical concentric coils sandwiching the high voltage portion. Such subdivision of windings into small portions reduces the leakage flux. Higher the degree of subdivision, smaller is the reactance. The sandwich coil is shown in the Fig. 2.7 (b). The top and bottom coils are low voltage coils. All the portions are insulated from each other by paper. | dala ZA Ki Fig. 2.7 (b) Sandwich coils 2.4 Construction of Single Phase Transformers The various constructions used for the single phase transformers are, [Link] type [Link] and 3. Berry type 2.4.1 Core Type Transformer It has a single magnetic circuit. The core is rectangular having two limbs. The winding encircles the core. The coils used are of cylindrical type. As mentioned earlier, the coils are wound in helical layers with different layers insulated from each other by paper or mica. Both the coils are placed on both the limbs. The low voltage coil is placed inside near the core while high voltage coil surrounds the low voltage coil. Core is made up of large number of thin laminations. Electrical Machines -1 2-6 ‘Single Phase Transformers. As the windings are uniformly distributed over the two limbs, the natural cooling is more effective. The coils can be easily removed by removing the laminations of the top yoke, for maintenance. The Fig. 28 (a) shows the schematic representation of the core type transformer while the Fig. 28 (b) shows the view of actual construction of the core type transformer. Yoke el Core if ° r L.V. insulation ct V. winding 4 L 9 LV. insulation H.V. winding (a) Representation (b) Construction Fig. 2.8 Core type transformer 2.4.2 Shell Type Transformer It has a double magnetic circuit. The core has three limbs. Both the windings are placed on the central limb. The core encircles most part of the windings. The coils used are generally multilayer disc type or sandwich coils. As mentioned earlier, each high voltage coil is in between two low voltage coils and low voltage coils are nearest to top and bottom of the yokes. The core is laminated. While arranging the laminations of the core, the care is taken that all the joints at alternate layers are staggered. This is done to avoid narrow air gap at the joint, right through the cross-section of the core. Such joints are called over lapped or imbricated joints. Generally for very high voltage transformers, the shell type construction is preferred. As the windings are surrounded by the core, the natural cooling does not exist. For removing any winding for maintenance, large number of laminations are required to be removed. The Fig. 2.9 (a) shows the schematic representation while the Fig. 2.9 (b) shows the outaway view of the construction of the shell type transformer. Core | [Link] L.V. winding = Centerlimb Flux Side limb (a) Representation (b) Construction Fig. 2.9 Shell type transformer Electrical Machines - | 2-7 Single Phase Transformers 2.4.3 Berry Type Transformer This has distributed magnetic circuit. The number of independent magnetic circuits are more than 2. Its core construction is like spokes of a wheel. Otherwise it is symmetrical to that of shell type. Diagramatically it can be shown as in the Fig. 2.10. The transformers are generally kept in tightly fitted sheet metal tanks. The tanks are constructed of specified high quality steel plate cut, formed and welded into the rigid structures. All the joints are painted with a solution of light blue chalk which turns dark in the presence of oil, disclosing even the minutest leaks. The tanks are filled with the special insulating oil. The entire transformer assembly is immersed in the oil. The oil serves two functions : i) Keeps the coils cool by circulation and ii) Provides the transformers an additional insulation. The oil should be absolutely free from alkalies, sulphur and specially from moisture. Presence of very small moisture lowers the dielectric strength of oil, affecting its performance badly. Hence the tanks are sealed air tight to avoid the contact of oil with atmospheric air and moisture. In large transformers, the chambers called breathers are provided. The breathers prevent the atmospheric moisture to pass on to the oil. Fig. 2.10 Berry type transformer The breathers contain the silica gel crystals which immediately absorb the atmospheric moisture. Due to long and continuous use, the sludge is formed in the oil which can contaminate the oil. Hence to keep such sludge separate from the oil in main tank, an air tight metal drum is provided, which is placed on the top of tank. This is called conservator. 2.5 Comparison of Core and Shell Type Transformers The comparison of core type and shell type transformers is given in the Table 2.1 Sr. Core Type Shell Type No. 1._| The winding encircles the core. The core encircles most part of the windings. 2. | The cylindrical type of colls are used. Generally, multilayer disc type or sandwich coils are used. 3. | As windings are distributed, the natural cooling | As windings are surrounded by the core, the is more effective. natural cooling does not exist. 4. | The coils can be easily removed from For removing any winding for the maintenance, maintenance point of view. large number of laminations are required to be removed. This is difficult. 5. | The construction is preferred for low voltage | The construction is used for very high voltage transformers. transformers. 6._|_Ithas a single magnetic circuit. It has a double magnetic circuit 7. | Ina single phase type, the core has two limbs. le phase type, the core has three Table 2.1 Electrical Machines -| 2-8 ‘Single Phase Transformers 2.6 E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer When the primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage Vj, it circulates alternating current, producing an alternating flux ¢. The primary winding has N, number of turns. The alternating flux ¢ linking with the primary winding itself induces an e.m-f. in it denoted as E,. The flux links with secondary winding through the common magnetic core. It produces induced emf. E, in the secondary winding. This is mutually induced emf. Let us derive the equations for E, and E,. The primary winding is excited by purely sinusoidal alternating voltage. Hence the flux produced is t also sinusoidal in nature having Fig. 2.11 Sinusoidal flux maximum value of 6, as shown in the Fig. 2.11. The various quantities which affect the magnitude of the induced emf. are : 6 = Flux m = Maximum value of flux N, = Number of primary winding tums N, = Number of secondary winding turns f = Frequency of the supply voltage E, = RMS. value of the primary induced emf. E, = RMS. value of the secondary induced emf. From Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction the average e.m-f. induced in each tum is proportional to the average rate of change of flux. Average emf. per tum = Average rate of change of flux Average e.m.f. per turn = st dg | Change in flux Now ‘Gt * Time required for change in Aux Consider the 1/4" cycle of the flux as shown in the Fig. 2.11. Complete cycle gets completed in 1/f seconds. In 1/4" time period, the change in flux is from 0 to Electrical Machines «1 2-9 Single Phase Transformers as dt for 1/4" time period is 1/4f seconds = 4 £6, Wb/sec :. Average emf. per turn = 4 f ,, volts As @ is sinusoidal, the induced emf. in each turn of both the windings is also sinusoidal in nature. For sinusoidal quantity, Form Factor = [Link] _ 444 Average value RMS. value = 1.11 x Average value «RMS. value of induced emf. per tun = 1LI1X4 fo, = 444 fOq There are N, number of primary turns hence the RMS value of induced emf. of primary denoted as E, is, E, = N,x444f6, volts While as there are N, number of secondary turns the RMS value of induced emf. of secondary denoted E, is, E, = N,x444f6,, volts The expressions of E, and E, are called e.m.f. equations of a transformer. Thus emf. equations are, E, = 444f0,,N, volts «x @) E, = 444f, Nz volts 2 2.7 Ratios of a Transformer Consider a transformer shown in Fig. 2.12 indicating various voltages and currents. Flux¢ ‘ig. 2.12 Ratios of transformer Electrical Machines -1 2-10 Single Phase Transformers 2.7.1 Voltage Ratio We know from the e.m-f. equations of a transformer that E, = 444f6,N, and E,=444f,, Ny Taking ratio of the two equations we get, FE, _ No BE owek This ratio of secondary induced emJf. to primary induced em4f. is known as voltage transformation ratio denoted as K. Thus, E, = KE, where k= h 1. If N, > N, ie. K > 1, we get E, > E, then the transformer is called step-up transformer. 2. If N, < N, ie. K < 1, we get E, < E, then the transformer is called step-down transformer. 3. If N, = N, ie. K = 1, we get E, = E; then the transformer is called isolation transformer or 1:1 transformer. 2.7.2 Concept of Ideal Transformer A transformer is said to be ideal if it satisfies following properties : i) It has no losses. ii) Its windings have zero resistance. iii) Leakage flux is zero ie. 100 % flux produced by primary links with the secondary. iv) Permeability of core is so high that negligible current is required to establish the flux in it. Key Point: For an ideal transformer, the primary applied voltage V, is same as the primary induced em. E, as there are no voltage drops. Similarly the secondary induced e.m-f. E, is also same as the terminal voltage V, across the load. Hence for an ideal transformer we can write, No transformer is ideal in practice but the value of E, is almost equal to V, for properly designed transformer. Electrical Machines -! 2-11 Single Phase Transformers 2.7.3 Current Ratio For an ideal transformer there are no losses. Hence the product of primary voltage V, and primary current I,, is same as the product of secondary voltage V, and the secondary current Ip. So V, 1, = Input VA and_—_‘V;, I, = Output VA For an ideal transformer, Vil = Vk V2 ia nT wm y7E7* Key Point: Hence the currents are in the inverse ratio of the voltage transformation ratio. 2.7.4 Volt-Ampere Rating When electrical power is transferred from primary winding to secondary there are few power losses in between. These power losses appear in the form of heat which increase the temperature of the device. Now this temperature must be maintained below certain limiting value as it is always harmful from insulation point of view. As current is the main cause in producing heat, the output maximum rating is generally specified as the product of output voltage and output current ie. V2 I;. This always indicates that when transformer is operated under this specified rating, its temperature rise will not be excessive. The copper loss (PR) in the transformer depends on the current 'T’ through the winding while the iron or core loss depends on the voltage 'V' as frequency of operation is constant. None of these losses depend on the power factor (cos ¢) of the load. Hence losses decide the temperature rise and hence the rating of the transformer. As losses depend on V and I only, the rating of the transformer is specified as a product of these two parameters V x1. Key Point: Thus the transformer rating is specified as the product of voltage and current and called VA rating. On both sides, primary and secondary VA rating remains same. This rating is generally expressed in kVA (kilo volt amperes rating). YL Now Ma we Dat V2 i Vil = Veh KVA ratingofa _ Vil _ Valz transformer 1000 "1000 If V, and V, are the terminal voltages of primary and secondary then from specified KVA rating we can decide full load currents of primary and secondary, I, and I. This is the safe maximum current limit which may carry, keeping temperature rise below its limiting value Electrical Machines - | 2-12 ‘Single Phase Transformers 1, full load = kVA rating1000 A 1a rannasa000 -« (1000 to convert kVA to VA) I, full load = Saas Key Point: The full load primary and secondary currents indicate the safe maximum culues of currents which transformer windings can carry. These values indicate, how much maximum load can be connected to a given transformer of a specified kVA rating. mm Example 2.1: A single-phase, 50 Hz transformer has 80 turns on the primary winding and 400 turns on the secondary winding. The net cross-sectional area of the core is 200 cm. If the primary winding is connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply, determine : i) The em,f. induced in the secondary winding. ii) The maximum value of the flux density in the core. Solution : N, = 80, f = 50 Hz, N, = 400, a = 200 cm? = 200 x 10-4 m? E, = 240V _ Nz _ 4005 Ke NT we Eh Bee D K E, 2401 E, = 5x 240=1200V Now E, = 444£9,,N, 240 = 4.44% 50x 4, x 80 240 Om = TaEesoxEy = 0.01351 Wb = bm 20-0185) 9.6756 Whim? 200x10+ mm Example 2.2 : For a single phase transformer having primary and secondary turns of 440 and 880 respectively, determine the transformer kVA rating if half load secondary current is 7.5 Aand maximum value of core flux is 2.25 mWb. Solution : N; = 440, N, = 880, (yn. = 75 A, fy = 2.25 mWb, E, = 4.44 4, f Np Assuming, f = 50Hz, Ey = 4.44 x 2.25 x 10° x 50 x 880 = 439.56 V KVA rating Gn. = “AE Electrical Machines -| 2-13 ‘Single Phase Transtormers 1 And Gan = 5 On. 1 kVA rating = 1, KyArating Gu. = 9» AE _ 1, KVA rating 75 = 5% ~aa956 KVA rating = 2x 75 x 439.56 x 10° = 6.5934 kVA -+. (10° for kVA) imp Example 2.3: A single phase transformer has 350 primary and 1050 secondary turns. The primary is connected to 400 V, 50 Hz a.c. supply. If the net cross sectional area of the core is 50 cm?, calculate i) The maximum value of the flux density in the core ii) The induced [Link]. in the secondary winding. Solution : The given values are, N, = 350 tums, N= 1050 turns V, = 400 V, A = 50 cm? = 50 x 1074 m? The emf. of the transformer is, E, = 444 fo, Ny E, = 444B, AN, 85 Om = Bm A . E, Flux density By = gaz A TN 400 444 x 50x 10-4 x 50 x 350 = 1.0296 Wb/m* 1050 Now K = a3 and K = 22 E, = 3xE,=3%x 400 = 1200V 2.8 Ideal Transformer on No Load Consider an ideal transformer on no load as shown in the Fig. 2.13. The supply voltage is V, and as it is an no load the secondary current I, = 0. The primary draws a current I, which is just necessary to produce flux in the core. As it is magnetising the core, it is called magnetising current denoted as I, As the transformer is ideal, the winding resistance is zero and it is purely inductive in nature. The magnetising current I,, is very small and lags V, by 30° as the winding is purely inductive. This I,, produces an alternating flux which is in phase with I, . Electrical Machines - | 2-14 Single Phase Transformers Fig. 2.13 Ids transformer on no load The flux links with both the winding producing the induced ems E, and E,, in the primary and secondary windings respectively. According to Lenz's law, the induced em. ‘opposes the cause producing it which is supply voltage V,. Hence E, is in antiphase with V, but equal in magnitude. The induced E, also opposes V, hence in antiphase with V, but its magnitude depends on N,. Thus E, and E, are in phase. The phasor diagram for the ideal transformer on no load is shown in the Fig. 2.14. Vij Vy leads 6 by 90° Ez Ey lags Ip, by 90° ie. by 90° 2.14 Phasor diagram for ideal transformer on no load It can be seen that flux @ is reference. I,, produces @ hence in phase with 9. V; leads Ip, by 90° as winding is purely inductive so current has to lag voltage by 90°. E, and E, are in phase and both opposing supply voltage V;. The power input to the transformer is V; I, cos (V; “ I)) ie. Vy Ip cos (90°) ie. zero. This is because on no load output power is zero and for ideal transformer there are no losses hence input power is also zero. Ideal no load pf. of transformer is zero lagging. 2.9 Practical Transformer on No Load Actually in practical transformer iron core causes hysteresis and eddy current losses as _it is subjected to alternating flux. While designing the transformer the efforts are made to keep these losses minimum by, 1. Using high grade material as silicon steel to reduce hysteresis loss. 2. Manufacturing core in the form of laminations or stacks of thin laminations to reduce eddy current loss. Electrical Machines -1 2-15 ‘Single Phase Transformers Apart from this there are iron losses in the practical transformer. Practically primary winding has certain resistance hence there are small primary copper loss present. Thus the primary current under no load condition has to supply the iron losses i.e. hysteresis loss and eddy current loss and a small amount of primary copper loss. This current is denoted as Iy, Now the no load input current I, has two components : 1. A purely reactive component I,, called magnetising component of no load current required to produce the flux. This is also called wattless component. 2. An active component I. which supplies total losses under no load condition called power component of no load current. This is also called wattful component or core loss component of Ip. The total no load current Ip is the vector addition of I,, and I,. -@ Vy In practical transformer, due to winding resistance, no load current Je lo Ty is no longer at 90° with respect i to Vj. But it lags V, by angle 4 which is less than 90°. Thus cos oo is called no load power factor of practical transformer. mA The phasor diagram is shown Ey in the Fig. 2.15. It can be seen that Fig. 2.15 Practical transformer on no load _the two components of I, are, In = Ip sin t « Q) This is magnetising component lagging V, exactly by 90°. I, = 1p 608 .- @) This is core loss component which is in phase with V,. The magnitude of the no load current is given by, = Vint wn (4) while g = no load primary power factor angle The total power input on no load is denoted as Wy and is given by, Wo = Vilocos = Vik - It may be noted that the current Ip is very small, about 3 to 5% of the full load rated current. Hence the primary copper loss is negligibly small hence I, is called core loss or iron loss component. Hence power input W, on no load always represents the iron losses, Electrical Machines - 1 2-16 ‘Single Phase Transformers as copper loss is negligibly small. The iron losses are denoted as P, and are constant for all load conditions. iron loss = 6) Ty cos ty = Py lo mm Example 2.4: The no load current of a transformer is 10 A at a power factor of 0.25 lagging, when connected to 400 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate, a) Magnetising component of no load current b) Iron loss and c) Maximum value of flux in the core. Assume primary winding turns as 500. Solution : The given values are, Iy = 10 A, cos ¢y = 0.25, V; = 400 V and f = 50 Hz a) Ty = Ip sin g) = Magnetising component % = cos"1(0.25) = 75.522” Tq = 10xsin(75.522°) = 9.6824 A b) P, = Iron loss = Power input on no load = Wo = Vj Ip cos ty = 400%10%0.25 = 1000W ©) Onno load, E, = V,=400V and N,=500 Now E, = 444f0qNy 400 = 4.44%50% 6,500 %m_ = 3.6036 mWb 2.10 Transformer on Load (M.M.F. Balancing on Load) When the transformer is loaded, the current 1, flows through the secondary winding. The magnitude and phase of I, is determined by the load. If load is inductive, I lags V,. If load is capacitive, I, leads V, while for resistive load,I, is in phase with V>. There exists a secondary m.m.f. N, I, due to which secondary current sets up its own flux 62, This flux opposes the main flux @ which is produced in the core due to magnetising component of no load current. Hence the mmf. Nol, is called demagnetising ampere-turns. This is shown in the Fig. 2.16 (a). The flux ¢, momentarily reduces the main flux , due to which the primary induced emf. E; also reduces. Hence the vector difference V, - E, increases due to which primary draws more current from the supply. This additional current drawn by primary is due to the load hence called load component of primary current denoted as I; as shown in the Fig. 2.16 (b). Electrical Machines -1 2-17 Single Phase Transformers Additional t', bal Main ‘Secondary More 2 flux tux ee flux (+02) (a) 6, opposes @ (b) Primary draws more current Fig. 2.16 Transformer on load This current 13 is in antiphase with I,, The current [3 sets up its own flux $3 which opposes the flux $, and helps the main flux @ This flux $% neutralises the flux $, produced by I; The m.m.f. i.e. ampere turns N, I balances the ampere turns N;[,. Hence the net flux in the core is again maintained at constant level. Key Point: Thus for any load condition, no load to full load the flux in the core is practically constant. The load component current 15 always neutralises the changes in the load. As practically flux in core is constant, the core loss is also constant for all the loads. Hence the transformer is called constant flux machine. As the ampere turns are balanced we can write, Nak = Nii m0) Thus when transformer is loaded, the primary current I, has two components : 1. The no load current Jy which lags V, by angle 49. It has two components I,, and i 2. The load component I which is in antiphase with I, And phase of I, is decided by the load. Hence primary current I, is vector sum of Ip and 13. I, = h+h we (2) Assume inductive load, I, lags E, by $2 the phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.17 (a). Assume purely resistive load, I, in phase with E,, the phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.17 (b). Electrical Machines -1 2-18 ‘Single Phase Transformers Assume capacitive load, I, leads E, by $3, the phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.17 (0). Note that I is always in antiphase with 1). My Vy ee a {a) Inductive load (b) Resistive load (c) Capacitive load Fig. 2.17 ‘Actually the phase of I, is with respect to V, i.e. angle , is angle between I, and V>. For the ideal case, E, is assumed equal to V, neglecting various drops. The current ratio can be verified from this discussion. As the no load current I, is very small, neglecting Ig we can write, q Ly Balancing the ampere-turns, Nils = Ni] = N _ i N° i Under full load conditions when Ip is very small compared to full load currents, the ratio of primary and secondary current is constant. imp Example 2.5 : A 400/200 V transformer takes 1A at a power factor of 0.4 on no lond. If the secondary supplies a load current of 50 A at 0.8 lagging power factor, calculate the primary current. Solution : The given values are, Ip = 1A, cos d = 0.4, I, = 50 A and cos $, = 08 Electrical Machines -! 2-19 ‘Single Phase Transformers The angle of I; is to be decided from cos = 0.8. Now cos ¢, = 08 2 = 36.86 I; is in antiphase with I, which lags E, by 36.86° Consider the phasor diagram shown in the Fig. 2.18. The flux @ is the reference. Fig. 2.18 Fig. 2.18 (a) Now cos = 04 % = 66.42 i, = &+h .. vector sum Resolve I and I; into two components, along reference @ and in quadrature with @ in phase with V,. x component of I, = Ip sin) = 0.9165 A y component of I) = Ip cos y= 04A In = 0.9165+j04A x component of I; = If sin, = 25 sin (36.86%) = 15 A y component of I; = 15 cos $, = 25x08=20A 15+j20A 0.9165 +j 04+ 15 +j20 = 15.9165 +j 204A i 4 0 Electrical Machines -1 2-20 ‘Single Phase Transformers Thus the two components of I; are as shown in the Fig. 2.18 (c). 1, 05 65] , | 0 Tyee * o 15.9165 Fig. 2.18 (b) Fig. 2.18 (c) Ty = (15.9165)? +(20.4)?= 25.874 A This is the primary current magnitude. ; 159165 while tng, = SP 6, = 3796 Hence the primary power factor is, cos 6, = cos (37.96) = 0.788 lagging Key Point: Remember that $, is angle between V, and 1, and as V, is vertical, @, is measured with respect Vy. So do not convert rectangular to polar as it gives angle with respect to x-axis and we want it with respect to y-axis. 2.11 Effect of Winding Resistances A practical transformer windings possess some resistances which not only cause the power losses but also the voltage drops. Let us see what is the effect of winding resistances on the performance of the transformer. Let R, = Primary winding resistance in ohms R, = Secondary winding resistance in ohms Now when current I, flows through primary, there is voltage drop I, R, gcross the winding. The supply voltage V, has to supply this drop. Hence primary induced emf. E, is the vector difference between V, and I, Ry. &, EB, = W-fR, w+ (1) Similarly the induced emf. in secondary is E, When load is connected, current I, flows and there is voltage drop I, R,. The emf. E, has to supply this drop. The vector difference between E, and I, Ry is available to the load as a terminal voltage V>. V, = E-R w= (2) Electrical Machines - | 2-2 Single Phase Transformers The drops I, R, and I, R, are purely resistive drops hence are always in phase with the respective currents I, and I,. 2.11.1 Equivalent Resistance The resistance of the two windings can be transferred to any one side either primary or secondary without affecting the performance of the transformer. The transfer of the resistances on any one side is advantageous as it makes the calculations very easy. Let us see how to transfer the resistances on any one side. The total copper loss due to both the resistances can be obtained as, Total copper loss = I? R, +13 Ry B 2 3 G [+H] 1 =f [ri+ZeR] . Q) I, _1 where 17K glecting no load current. Now the expression (3) indicates that the total copper loss can be expressed as HR, ap. This means =e is the resistance value of R, shifted to primary side which causes same copper loss with I, as R, causes with I,. This value of resistance R,/K? which is the value of R, referred to primary is called equivalent resistance of secondary referred to primary. It is denoted as R3. & Hence the total resistance referred to primary is the addition of R, and Rj called equivalent resistance of transformer referred to primary and denoted as R,,. 5 R Rye = Ry + R3 = Ri + ©) This resistance Rj, causes same copper loss with I; as the total copper loss due to the individual windings. z. Total copper loss = I? R,, =1? R, +13 Ry (6) So equivalent resistance R,, simplifies the calculations as we have to calculate parameters on one side only. Similarly it is possible to refer the equivalent resistance to secondary winding. total copper loss = I? R, +1} R, 2 [1 Hg R+R Electrical Machines -1 2-22 Single Phase Transformers = G[KR, +R] 7 Thus the resistance K? R, is primary resistance referred to secondary denoted as Rj. R= KR - 8) Hence the total resistance referred to secondary is the addition of R, and Rj called equivalent resistance of transformer referred to secondary and denoted as Rz,. Rye = Ry + Ri =Re+K Ry + @) total copper loss = 1} Ry, as (10) The concept of equivalent resistance is shown in the Fig. 2.19 (a), (b) and (c). . R, Ry ° ° ination ; Ry _‘(b) Referred to primary (c) Referred to secondary Fig. 2.19 Equivalent resistance Key Point: When resistances are transferred to primary, the secondary winding becomes zero resistance winding for calculation purpose. The entire copper loss occurs due to Rye Similarly when resistances are referred to secondary, the primary becomes resistanceless for calculation purpose. The entire copper loss occurs due to Ryy- Important Note : When a resistance is to be transferred from the primary to secondary, it must be multiplied by K?, When a resistance is to be transferred from the secondary to primary, it must be divided by K?. Remember that K is N,/N,- The result can be cross-checked by another approach. The high voltage winding is always low current winding and hence the resistance of high voltage side is high. The low voltage side is high current side and hence resistance of low voltage side is low. So while transferring resistance from low voltage side to high voltage side, its value must increase while transferring resistance from high voltage side to low voltage side, its value must decrease. Electrical Machin 2-23 Single Phase Transformers Key Point : High voltage side —> Low current side —» High resistance side Low voltage side > High current side —» Low resistance side dump Example 2.6 : A 6600/40 V single phase ivansformer has primary resistance of 2.5 Q and secondary resistance of 0.01 Q. Calculate total equivalent resistance referred to primary and secondary. Solution : The given values are, R, = 25 Q, R, = 0.012 400 K = Gap = 0.0606 While finding equivalent resistance referred to primary, transfer R, to primary as R}, R,_ 0.01 R} = s2=—__ = 272359 2 Kt (0.0606)? Ry = Ry +R} = 25 + 2.7225 = 5.2225 Q It can be observed that primary is high voltage hence high resistance side hence while transferring R, from low voltage to R; on high voltage, its value increases. To find total equivalent resistance referred to secondary, first calculate Rj, Rj = KR, = (0.0606)? x25 = 0.00918 Q Ry, = Ry + Rj = 0.01 + 0.00918 = 0.01918 2 2.12 Effect of Leakage Reactances Uptill now it is assumed that the entire flux produced by the primary links with the secondary winding. But in practice it is not possible. Part of the primary flux as well as the secondary flux completes the path through air and links with the respecting winding only. Such a flux is called ou 2 leakage flux. Thus there are two Primary leakage ‘Secondary leakage leakage fluxes present as shown in Fig. 2.20 Leakage fluxes the Fig. 2.20. Fluxe Electrical Machines -1 2-24 ‘Single Phase Transformers The flux $y, is the primary leakage flux which is produced due to primary current Ij. It is in phase with I, and links with primary only. The flux $12 is the secondary leakage flux which is produced due to current Ip. It is in phase with 1, and links with the secondary winding only. Due to leakage flux $1; there is self induced em. e, in primary. While due to leakage flux $12 there is self induced e.m-f. ¢, in secondary. The primary voltage V, has to overcome this voltage e,; to produce E, while induced em-f. E, has to overcome e,, to produce terminal voltage V>. Thus the self induced [Link] are treated as the voltage drops across the fictitious reactances placed in series with the windings. These reactances are called leakage reactances of the winding. So X, = Leakage reactance of primary winding. and X) = Leakage reactance of secondary winding. The value of X, is such that the drop 1,X, is nothing but the self induced em. e,, due to flux 6. The value of X, is such that the drop 1,X, is equal to the self induced emf. e,2 due to flux 612. Leakage fluxes link with the respective windings only and not to both the windings. To reduce the leakage, as mentioned, in the construction both the winding's are placed on same limb rather than on separate limbs. 2.12.1 Equivalent Leakage Reactance Similar to the resistances, the leakage reactances also can be transferred from primary to secondary or viceversa. The relation through K? remains same for the transfer of reactances as it is studied earlier for the resistances. Let X, is leakage reactance of primary and X; is leakage reactance of secondary. Then the total leakage reactance referred to primary is X;_ given by, Xe =X +X where x= 28 While the total leakage reactance referred to secondary is X,, given by, Xe = X_+X{ where Xj = K? X, And = i = Transformation ratio h Electrical Machines -1 2-25 Single Phase Transformers 2.13 Equivalent Impedance The transformer primary has resistance R, and reactance X,. While the transformer secondary has resistance R, and reactance X,. Thus we can say that the total impedance of primary winding is Z, which is, Z = R+jX%2Q And the total impedance of the secondary winding is Z, which is , Z = R+j%e This is shown in the Fig. 2.21. Fig. 2.21 Individual impedances The individual magnitudes of Z, and Z, are, and Z = \REVG .() + (2) -- 8) .. (4) Similar to resistance and reactance, the impedance also can be referred to any one side. Let then Similarly then Ze = Total equivalent impedance referred to primary Zie = Rie + j Xtc . Zz. Ze = Qy+Byaeg Zye = Total equivalent impedance referred to secondary Zoe = Rae + j Xre ly = Bt hae eZ, The magnitudes of Z,, and Z,, are, and Zi = VREAXE Za = (REAM + 6) + © a) Electrical Machines -1 2-26 Single Phase Transformers It can be noted that, Zu = KZ and Zy= ZB @ The concept of equivalent impedance is shown in the Fig. 2.22. 220 = Reet iXze (b) Referred to secondary Fig. 2.22 Equivalent impedances Electrical Machines -! 2-27 Single Phase Transformers ‘mu Example 2.7 : A 15 kVA, 200/110 V transformer has R, = 1.75 Q, R, = 0.0045 Q. The leakage reactances are X, = 2.6 Q and X, = 0.0075 Q Calculate, 4) equivalent resistance referred to primary b) equivalent resistance referred to secondary ) equivalent reactance referred to primary 4) equivalent reactance referred to secondary e) equivalent impedance referred to primary P equivalent impedance referred to secondary §) total copper loss Solution : The given values are, R = 1.75 Q, R, = 0.0045 Q, X, = 2.6 Q, X, = 0.0075 2 10 _1_ K= m0 0.0045 a) Ry = R+R=R, + 718+ Cope = 3.552 b) R, = R,+R=R,+KR = 0.0045 + (0.05)? x175 = 0.00887 Q X 0075 9 Me = Xia 4G = 164 TOS = $69 a) Xoe = Xt XL H+ KX = 0.0075 +(0.05)? x26 = 0.014 2 °) Ze = Rig + j Xp = 3.55 +5562 [Ziel = [355? +56? = 6.6304 Q b) Zyq = Rog + j Xe = 0.00887 + j 0.014 2 [Ze] = (0.00887)? +(0.014)? = 0.01657 2 g) To find full load copper loss, calculate full load current. () RL. = KVAX 1000 75 x1000 = 11.3606 A i :. Total copper loss = [(I,) FL. Rj, = (11.3636)? x 355 = 458.4194 W Electrical Machines - 1 2-28 Single Phase Transformers This can be cross checked as, (EL. = Total copper loss kVAx 1000 _ 25%1000 Ve tty = 727A 1? Ry +13 Ry (11.3636)? «175 + (227.272)? x 0.0045 225.98 + 232.4365 = 458.419 W 2.14 Phasor Diagrams for Transformer on Load Consider a transformer supplying the load as shown in the Fig. 2.23. now where R Fig. 2.23 The various transformer parameters are, Primary winding resistance Primary leakage reactance Secondary winding resistance Secondary leakage reactance Load impedance Primary current Secondary current = I, = Load current 1+ No load current Load component of current decided by the load K I, where K is transformation ratio Electrical Machines -1 2-29 Single Phase Transformers The primary voltage V, has now three components, 1. - E,, the induced e.m.f. which opposes V; 2. I, R,, the drop across the resistance, in phase with I, 3. I Xy, the drop across the reactance, leading I, by 90° V, = -E+iR +5) «+. phasor sum = -B+h @+jX) Vv, = -E,+hZ The secondary induced e.m.. E, has also three components, 1. Vz, the terminal voltage across the load 2. Iy Ry, the drop across the resistance, in phase with I, 3. Ip Xz, the drop across the reactance, leading I, by 90° E, = V,+hR:+h% «+» phasor sum Vz = B-h®&+ixX) VY, = B-hZ The phasor diagram for the transformer on load depends on the nature of the load power factor. Let us consider the various cases of the load power factor. 2.14.1 Unity Power Factor Load, cos ¢, = 1 As load power factor is unity, the voltage V, and I, are in phase. Steps to draw the phasor diagram are, 1. Consider flux @ as reference 2. E, lags $ by 90°. Reverse E, to get - E. 3. E, and E, are in phase. 4. Assume V, in a particular direction. 5. I, is in phase with V,. 6. Add I, R, and I, X, to V, to get E,. 7. Reverse I, to get 1}. 8. Add Ip and I}, to get I. 9. Add I, R, and I, X; to ~ E; to get Vy. Angle between V, and I, is $; and cos $, is primary power factor. Remember that 1,X, leads 1, direction by 90° and I, X, leads I, by 90° as current through inductance lags voltage across inductance by 90°. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.24. Electrical Machines - | 2-30 Single Phase Transformers YE, Fig. 2.24 Phasor diagram for unity power factor load 2.14.2 Lagging Power Factor Load, cos , As load power factor is lagging cos $2, the current I, lags V, by angle 6. So only change in drawing the phasor diagram is to draw I, lagging V2 by $3 in step 5 discussed earlier. Accordingly directions of I,Rz, IpXz, 13, ly Ry and 1,X, will change. Remember that whatever may be the power factor of load, I,X leads I, by 90° and 1,X, leads I, by 90°. The complete phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.25. Fig. 2.25 Phasor diagram for lagging power factor load Electrical Machines -| 2-31 ‘Single Phase Transformers 2.14.3 Leading Power Factor Load, cos $4, As load power factor is leading, the current I, leads V, by angle 2. So the change is to draw I, leading V, by angle >. All other steps remain same as before. The complete phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.26. Direction of 1p 1X2 Fig. 2.26 Phasor diagram for leading power factor load 2.15 Equivalent Circuit of Transformer The term equivalent circuit of a machine means the combination of fixed and variable resistances and reactances, which exactly simulates performance and working of the machine. For a transformer, no load primary current Ip has two components, In = Ip sin ¢ = Magnetising component I, = Ig cos ¢ = Active component I, produces the flux and is assumed to flow through reactance Xp called no load reactance while I, is active component representing ip core losses hence is assumed to flow through the 1 Res resistance Ry. Hence equivalent circuit on no load can be shown as in the Fig. 2.27. This circuit consisting of Ry and X, in parallel is called exciting circuit. From the equivalent circuit we can write, Fig. 2.27 No load equivalent circuit Electrical Machines -1 2-32 Single Phase Transformers e 0 When the load is connected to the transformer then secondary current I, flows. This causes voltage drop across R, and X,. Due to I,, primary draws an additional current 1, =I, / K. Now ], is the phasor addition of Iy and I. This I, causes the voltage drop across primary resistance R, and reactance X,. Hence the equivalent circuit can be shown as in the Fig. 2.28. Fig. 2.28 But in the equivalent circuit, windings are not shown and it is further simplified by transferring all the values to the primary or secondary. This makes the transformer calculations much easy. So transferring secondary parameters to primary we get, » - Rp » X2 Za R= Meg U-8 while g = &, %=K, = No where k= While transferring the values remember the rule that Low voltage winding —> High current -> Low impedance High voltage winding — Low current > High impedance Thus the exact equivalent circuit referred to primary can be shown as in the Fig. 2.29. Similarly all the primary value can be referred to secondary and we can obtain the equivalent circuit referred to secondary. a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book. Electrical Machines - | 2-34 Single Phase Transformers f Ry X RX o ke In v, Load bays vs Sry a eC 4 Fig. 2.31 Approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary In this circuit now R, and Rj can be combined to get equivalent resistance referred to primary Rj, as discussed earlier. Similarly X, and X} can be combined to get X;. And equivalent circuit can be simplified as shown in the Fig. 2.32. 4 ty Rie Xe Ip ky ln “3% 8% Ve a Fig. 2.32 - R. We know that, Ry, = Rt RS=R +e , x Xe = Xt XS Xi +e Zye = Re + Xe Ry = qh and X= zt and ke = e084 and Iq =k sin In the similar fashion, the approximate equivalent circuit referred to secondary also can be obtained. Electrical Machines -1 2-35 ‘Single Phase Transformers 2.16 Approximate Voltage Drop in a Transformer Consider the equivalent circuit referred to secondary as shown in the Fig. 2.33. r. R; x, r 1, Ree 20 Fig. 2.33 From the Fig. 2.33 we can write, E, = TRe +X + V2 = Vs +h Re +j Xx) E = V+ As primary parameters are referred to secondary, there are no voltage drops in primary. When there is no load, I, = 0 and we get no load terminal voltage Vz as E>. Lr Voy = E = No load terminal voltage while V, = Terminal voltage on load Welze sy, sc Consider the phasor diagram for lagging p-f. load. The current I, lags V, by angle 3. Take V; as reference phasor. I, R,, is in phase with I, while I, Xj leads I, by 90°. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.34. To derive the expression for approximate voltage drop, draw the circle with O as centre and OC as radius, cutting extended OA at M. As OA = V, and now OM = E,, the total voltage drop is AM = Ip Ze. But approximating this voltage drop is equal to AN instead of AM where N is intersection of perpendicular drawn from C on AM. This is because angle a is practically very very small and in practice M and N are very close to each other. Approximate voltage drop = AN Draw perpendicular from B on AM intersecting it at D and draw parallel to DN from B to the point L shown in the Fig. 2.34. : AD = AB cos $2 = Iz Rye cos 3 Electrical Machines - | and DN * AN Assuming % 6 Single P = BL = BC sin 4) = [, X, sin 0, = AD + DN = 1, Ry cos $2 + I; Xze Sin 2 = o=6 +. Approximate voltage drop = 1,R,, cos > + I, X;, sin @ If all the parameters are referred to primary then we get, Approximate voltage drop = I, Ry, cos $+ Ty Xy_ sin ¢ If the load has leading p-f. then we get the phasor diagram as shown in the Fig. 2.35. The I, leads V, by angle >. In this case, the expression for approximate voltage drop remains same but the sign of 1X; sing reverses. Fig. 2.35 wu using referred to Approximate voltage drop = I, Ry, cos @~ I, Xz, sin secondary values 1, Ry, c0s §- 1, Xi. sin 6 . using referred to primary values It can be noticed that for leading power factor E, < V>. For the unity power factor, the phasor diagram is simple and is shown in the Fig. 2.36. For this case, as cos $= 1 and sin $= 0, the approximate voltage drop is Ip Rye oF Ty Rye cc E, Xe oI °. wa pe 1eRoe Fig. 2.36 Thus the general expression for the total approximate voltage drop is, Approximate voltage drop = E, - V2 = Igy Rye COS $+ Ing Xze SiN = Tae Rie 605 9 Ie Xie in @ vu using referred to secondary values .«. using referred to primary values + sign for lagging power factor while - sign for leading power factor loads. Electrical Machines -1 2-37 Single Phase Transformers 2.17 Voltage Regulation of Transformer Because of the voltage drop across the primary and secondary impedances it is observed that the secondary terminal voltage drops from its no load value (B,) to load value (V,) as load and load current increases. This decrease in the secondary terminal voltage expressed as a fraction of the no load secondary terminal voltage is called regulation of a transformer. The regulation is defined as change in the magnitude of the secondary terminal voltage, when full load i.e. rated load of specified power factor supplied at rated voltage is reduced to no load, with primary voltage maintained constant expressed as the percentage of the rated terminal voltage. Let E, = Secondary terminal voltage on no load V, = Secondary terminal voltage on given load then mathematically voltage regulation at given load can be expressed as, % Voltage regulation = © = Vo 5100 2 The ratio (E, ~ V2/Vz) is called per unit regulation. The secondary terminal voltage does not depend only on the magnitude of the load current but also on the nature of the power factor of the load. If V, is determined for full load and specified power factor condition the regulation is called full load regulation. As load current increases, the voltage drops tend to increase and V, drops more and more. In case of lagging power factor V, < E, and we get positive voltage regulation, while for leading power factor E, < V, and we get negative voltage regulation. The voltage drop should be as small as possible hence less the regulation better is the performance of a transformer. 2.17.1 Expression for Voltage Regulation The voltage regulation is defined as, V2 __ Total voltage drop. Vp 2 100 = EE XI %R = 100 ‘The expression for the total approximate voltage drop is already derived. Total voltage drop: = 1, Ry, cos ¢ + I; Xp, sin Hence the regulation can be expressed as, TpRae 608 4 £1pXae SiN 99 %R = 2 Electrical Machines - 1 2-38 Single Phase Transformers “4! sign for lagging power factor while '-' sign for leading power factor loads. ‘The regulation can be further expressed interms of ly, Vi, Rye and Xe. V2 _ 1 = tek Mv 2 q V, = KVy h=xX ; _ Ree _ Xze while Re = 4g Xe Substituting in the regulation expression we get, 1, Re 6086 #h Xie iN 199 MA %R = 2.17.2 Zero Voltage Regulation We have seen that for lagging power factor and unity power factor condition V;
- P.y = Copper losses on full load = 13 Ry. 7 VT, cosd: +P +1 R, But Vly = VA rating of a transformer _ (VA rating) cos "= WA tating) xcoso+ PB +17 R,, (VA rating) x cos % = ——WArating)x cos? 300 1 = (Wi tating)x coso+P, +17 R,, * This is full load percentage efficiency with, 1, = Full load secondary current But if the transformer is subjected to fractional load then using the appropriate values of various quantities, the efficiency can be obtained. Actual load Full load Let n = Fraction by which load is less than full load = For example, if transformer is subjected to half load then, _ Halfload _ (1/2) _ Fullload ~ 1 = °5 When load changes, the load current changes by same proportion. new I, = n (1) FL. Similarly the output Vz I, cos $2 also reduces by the same fraction. Thus fraction of VA rating is available at the output. Similarly as copper losses are proportional to square of current then, new P., = n° (P,,) FL. Key Point: So copper iosses get reduced by n°. Electrical Machines -1 2-44 Single Phase Transformers In general for fractional load the efficiency is given by, ey = ————_RVA rating) co8@_____ 109 n(VA rating) coso+ P, +n? (P,,) FL. where n = Fraction by which load is less than full load. Key Point : For all types of load power factors lagging, leading and unity the efficiency expression does not change, and remains same. ‘a> Example 2.10: A 4 kVA, 200/400 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer has equivalent resistance referred to primary as 0.15 ©. Calculate, i) The total copper losses on full load. ii) The efficiency while supplying full load at 0.9 p,f. lagging. iii) The efficiency while supplying half load at 0.8 pf. leading. Assume total iron losses equal to 60 W. Solution : The given values are, V, = 200 V, Vz = 400 V, S = 4 kVA, R,, = 0.15 Q P, = 60 W 400 K= 200 =? Roe = K? Rye = (2)?x015 = 0.6 2 3 (y FL. = KYA. 4%10" Lao a Vv; 400 i) Total copper losses on full load, (Poy) FL. = [() FL? Ry, = (10)? x0.6 = 60 W ii) cos 6 = 0.9 lagging and full load _ VA rating cos %1 = Wx Tating coso+ P, + (Pa) EL. 1? 4x108 x09 = — x XO" __ 4100 = 96.77% 1 = Belo? x09+ 60460 * iii) cos $ = 08 leading, half load Ashalfload, n = 05 (PyJH-L. = n?x (P,,)F.L. = (0.5)? x60 = 15 W _ 11X(VA rating) cos ‘%N = SRA rating) coso+ P+ (Pea) LL, * 10 05x4x103 x08 = ————————__x100 = 95.52 % O5x4x10° x08+ 60415 «1? = 95 Electrical Machines -1 2-45 ‘Single Phase Transformers 2.20 Condition for Maximum Efficiency When a transformer works on a constant input voltage and frequency then efficiency varies with the load. As load increases, the efficiency increases. At a certain load current, it achieves a maximum value. If the transformer is loaded further the efficiency starts decreasing. The graph of efficiency against load current I, is shown in the Fig. 2.37. The load current at which the efficiency attains Fig. 2.37 maximum value is denoted as I, and maximum efficiency is denoted 8 Tax: Let us determine, 1. Condition for maximum efficiency. 2. Load current at which Tia, Occurs. 3. KVA supplied at maximum efficiency. ‘The efficiency is a function of load ie. load current I; assuming cos > constant. The secondary terminal voltage V, is also assumed constant. So for maximum efficiency, dn _ at; ~° V2 12 cos$2 Vz I, cos, +P, +13 Ra, ay ld Vz 13 cosy dT, dIz | Vz 1, cosh, +P, +13 Ry Now n= 2 (Vp Ty 6088) +R, #1E Rn) gi (Vs 1s 0863) =z 1, cos): ae Va Ty cosy +P; +13 Ro,) vs (V2 1 60549 +P, +13 Rag) (Vo C0562) ~ (V2 1p £0542) (Vo C0802 + 212 Rae) Cancelling (V2 cos) from both the terms we get, Vy 1p cos, + P; +13 Rap — Vp Iq COS, — 213 Ry = 0 P,-12Ry, = 0 P, = 13 Re =Py So condition to achieve maximum efficiency is that, Copper losses = Iron losses image not available Electrical Machines -1 2-47 Single Phase Transformers Solution : The given values are, P, = 1800 W, (P,,)R.L. = 2000 W (VA rating) cos y ‘11 = Wx Tating) coso+ Py + (Pa) FL.” 250x105 x08 See 1 250x10° x 0.8 +1800 + 2000 98.135 % iH) RVAatgg, = KVA rating x ly 237.1708 kVA _ KVA atMinas XCO8@ © BVA attimax * 6089+ P; +P iii) % Nhnax 100 where P, = 1800 W don. 2 2373708109 X08 5p Mmax = 3373708%10> x08+2x1800 = 98.137 % 2.21 Effect of Power Factor on Efficiency The efficiency of a transformer is given by, Output _ Input—Losses Losses "= put ~~ Input | Taput wil Now, Input = Output + Losses = V2 1, cos¢+ Losses isco ; Losses Using in equation (1), = Typ Losses yn =1- Not wi cos $+
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