1.
OROGENIC
Lithosphere is the outermost solid rock layer of Earth containing continental or oceanic crust
and the underlying lithospheric mantle. The edges of the tectonic plates are repeatedly
undergoing orogenic processes since the Archaic, and those lead to evolution of strongly
deformed zones, so called orogenic belts . Each orogeny went through its own development,
which includes deformation, metamorphism, magmatism, erosion and sedimentation. Current
orogenic zones follow the mountain ranges with distinct topography and reveal processes
mainly in the upper parts of orogenic zones. In contrast, the old orogeny are already
significantly eroded and makes it possible to study processes in the lower parts of orogens.
EPEIROGENIC
Epeirgonic process includes epeirogenic or continent forming movements act along the radius
of the earth therefore, they are also called radial movements. Their direction may be towards or
away from the centre. The results of such movements may be clearly defined in the relief.
Raised beaches, elevated wave-cut terraces, sea caves and fossiliferous beds above sea level are
evidences of uplift. One of the reasons for believing that the Deccan was uplifted is that the
limestones rest uncomfortably on the basaltic lavas near Surat well above sea level.
Example of Orogeny: Example of Epeirogeny
Thrusting
folding
faulting
metamorphism
igneous intrusion
Orogeny, mountain-building event, generally one that occurs in geosynclinal areas. In
contrast to epeirogeny, an orogeny tends to occur during a relatively short time in linear
belts and results in intensive deformation. Orogeny is usually accompanied
by folding and faulting of strata, development of angular unconformities (interruptions in the
normal deposition of sedimentary rock), and the deposition of clastic wedges
of sediments in areas adjacent to the orogenic belt.
Regional metamorphism and magmatic activity are often associated with an orogenic event
as well. Orogenies may result from subduction, terrane accretion (landmass expansion due
to its collision with other landmasses), the underthrusting of continents by oceanic plates,
continental collisions, the overriding of oceanic ridges by continents, and other causes.
2. Seafloor spreading is a geologic process in which tectonic plateslarge slabs of
Earth's lithospheresplit apart from each other.
Seafloor spreading and other tectonic activity processes are the result of mantle
convection. Mantle convection is the slow, churning motion of Earths mantle. Convection
currents carry heat from the lower mantle and core to the lithosphere. Convection currents also
recycle lithospheric materials back to the mantle.
Seafloor spreading occurs at divergent plate boundaries. As tectonic plates slowly move away
from each other, heat from the mantles convection currents makes the crust more plastic and
less dense. The less-dense material rises, often forming a mountain or elevated area of the
seafloor.
Eventually, the crust cracks. Hot magma fueled by mantle convection bubbles up to fill
these fractures and spills onto the crust. This bubbled-up magma is cooled by frigid seawater to
form igneous rock. This rock (basalt) becomes a new part of Earths crust.
3. A divergent boundary occurs when two tectonic plates move away from each other.
Along these boundaries, lava spews from long fissures and geysers spurt superheated
water. Frequent earthquakes strike along the rift. Beneath the rift, magmamolten rock
rises from the mantle. It oozes up into the gap and hardens into solid rock, forming
new crust on the torn edges of the plates. Magma from the mantle solidifies into basalt, a
dark, dense rock that underlies the ocean floor. Thus at divergent boundaries, oceanic
crust, made of basalt, is created.
When two plates come together, it is known as a convergent boundary. The impact of the two
colliding plates buckles the edge of one or both plates up into a rugged mountain range, and
sometimes bends the other down into a deep seafloor trench. A chain of volcanoes often forms
parallel to the boundary, to the mountain range, and to the trench. Powerful earthquakes shake
a wide area on both sides of the boundary.
If one of the colliding plates is topped with oceanic crust, it is forced down into the mantle
where it begins to melt. Magma rises into and through the other plate, solidifying into new
crust. Magma formed from melting plates solidifies into granite, a light colored, low-density
rock that makes up the continents. Thus at convergent boundaries, continental crust, made of
granite, is created, and oceanic crust is destroyed.
Two plates sliding past each other forms a transform plate boundary. Natural or human-made
structures that cross a transform boundary are offsetsplit into pieces and carried in opposite
directions. Rocks that line the boundary are pulverized as the plates grind along, creating a
linear fault valley or undersea canyon. As the plates alternately jam and jump against each
other, earthquakes rattle through a wide boundary zone. In contrast to convergent and divergent
boundaries, no magma is formed. Thus, crust is cracked and broken at transform margins, but is
not created or destroyed.
4. Craton (Greek: kratos strength) are old and stable part of the continental
lithosphere. Having often survived cycles of merging and rifting of continents, cratons
are generally found in the interiors of tectonic plates. They are characteristically
composed of ancient crystalline basement rock, which may be covered by younger
sedimentary rock. They have a thick crust and deep lithospheric roots that extend as
much as a few hundred kilometers into the Earths mantle.
PARTS OF CRATONS:
5. Structural landform, any topographic feature formed by the differential wearing away
of rocks and the deposition of the resulting debris under the influence of exogenetic
geomorphic forces. Such forces operate at the interface of the planetary atmosphere,
lithosphere, cryosphere, and hydrosphere. The processes generating these forces are the
major agents of erosion, transport, and deposition of debris. They include fluvial, eolian,
glacial, groundwater, and coastal-marine processes, as well as those associated with
mass movement.
Sand dunes, beaches, river valleys, and glacial drumlins are all examples of landforms that
modify the forces imposed upon them. Such self-regulation of landform development is a
quality of landscapes that achieve equilibrium.
6.
7. Isostasy, ideal theoretical balance of all large portions of Earths lithosphere as though
they were floating on the denser underlying layer, the asthenosphere, a section of the
upper mantle composed of weak, plastic rock that is about 110 km (70 miles) below the
surface. Isostasy controls the regional elevations of continents and ocean floors in
accordance with the densities of their underlying rocks. Imaginary columns of equal
cross-sectional area that rise from the asthenosphere to the surface are assumed to have
equal weights everywhere on Earth, even though their constituents and the elevations of
their upper surfaces are significantly different. This means that an excess of mass seen as
material above sea level, as in a mountain system, is due to a deficit of mass, or low-
density roots, below sea level. Therefore, high mountains have low-density roots that
extend deep into the underlying mantle. The concept of isostasy played an important
role in the development of the theory of plate tectonics.
8.
The Layers of the Earth
The layers of the earth according to their physical properties:
1.
Lithosphere
2.
Asthenospher
e
3. Mantle
4. Outer Core
5. Inner Core
The balance between temperature and pressure determines whether
matter in earth's interior is solid, liquid, or somewhere in-between. In
much of the earth's interior the high pressure will not allow the matter to
melt even though the temperatures are very high.
The Physical Properties of Layers
The lithosphere includes the crust and the uppermost part of the
mantle.
The cool, solid lithosphere floats on top of the asthenosphere.
The Asthenosphere
Scientists believe that below the lithosphere is a relatively narrow,
mobile zone in the mantle called the asthenosphere (from asthenes,
Greek for weak). This zone is composed of hot, semi-solid material,
which can soften and flow after being subjected to high temperature and
pressure over geologic time. The rigid lithosphere is thought to "float"
or move about on the slowly flowing asthenosphere.
The Mantle
This layer is solid and rigid compared to the asthenosphere because the
temperature is not high enough to overcome the high pressure.
The Outer Core
The outer core is liquid. The circulation of its molten iron is thought to be the
source of earth's magnetic field.
The Inner Core
There is very high pressure in the inner core. As a result, even though the
temperature is extremely high, the inner core is solid.