Unions
The union of A and B, denoted A ∪ B
Main article: Union (set theory)
Two sets can be "added" together. The union of A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of all
things which are members of either A or B.
Examples:
• {1, 2} ∪ {red, white} ={1, 2, red, white}.
• {1, 2, green} ∪ {red, white, green} ={1, 2, red, white, green}.
• {1, 2} ∪ {1, 2} = {1, 2}.
Some basic properties of unions:
• A ∪ B = B ∪ A.
• A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C.
• A ⊆ (A ∪ B).
• A ∪ A = A.
• A ∪ ∅ = A.
• A ⊆ B if and only if A ∪ B = B.
Intersections
Main article: Intersection (set theory)
A new set can also be constructed by determining which members two sets have "in common".
The intersection of A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of all things which are members of both
A and B. If A ∩ B = ∅, then A and B are said to be disjoint.
The intersection of A and B, denoted A ∩ B.
Examples:
• {1, 2} ∩ {red, white} = ∅.
• {1, 2, green} ∩ {red, white, green} = {green}.
• {1, 2} ∩ {1, 2} = {1, 2}.
Some basic properties of intersections:
• A ∩ B = B ∩ A.
• A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C.
• A ∩ B ⊆ A.
• A ∩ A = A.
• A ∩ ∅ = ∅.
• A ⊆ B if and only if A ∩ B = A.
Complements
The relative complement
of B in A
The complement of A in U
The symmetric difference of A and B
Main article: Complement (set theory)
Two sets can also be "subtracted". The relative complement of B in A (also called the set-
theoretic difference of A and B), denoted by A \ B, (or A − B) is the set of all elements which are
members of A but not members of B. Note that it is valid to "subtract" members of a set that are
not in the set, such as removing the element green from the set {1, 2, 3}; doing so has no effect.
In certain settings all sets under discussion are considered to be subsets of a given universal set
U. In such cases, U \ A is called the absolute complement or simply complement of A, and is
denoted by A′.
Examples:
• {1, 2} \ {red, white} = {1, 2}.
• {1, 2, green} \ {red, white, green} = {1, 2}.
• {1, 2} \ {1, 2} = ∅.
• {1, 2, 3, 4} \ {1, 3} = {2, 4}.
• If U is the set of integers, E is the set of even integers, and O is the set of
odd integers, then E′ = O.
Some basic properties of complements:
• A \ B ≠ B \ A.
• A ∪ A′ = U.
• A ∩ A′ = ∅.
• (A′)′ = A.
• A \ A = ∅.
• U′ = ∅ and ∅′ = U.
• A \ B = A ∩ B′.
An extension of the complement is the symmetric difference, defined for sets A, B as
For example, the symmetric difference of {7,8,9,10} and {9,10,11,12} is the set {7,8,11,12}.
Cartesian product
Main article: Cartesian product
A new set can be constructed by associating every element of one set with every element of
another set. The Cartesian product of two sets A and B, denoted by A × B is the set of all ordered
pairs (a, b) such that a is a member of A and b is a member of B.
Examples:
• {1, 2} × {red, white} = {(1, red), (1, white), (2, red), (2, white)}.
• {1, 2, green} × {red, white, green} = {(1, red), (1, white), (1, green), (2,
red), (2, white), (2, green), (green, red), (green, white), (green, green)}.
• {1, 2} × {1, 2} = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)}.
Some basic properties of cartesian products:
• A × ∅ = ∅.
• A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C).
• (A ∪ B) × C = (A × C) ∪ (B × C).
Let A and B be finite sets. Then
• | A × B | = | B × A | = | A | × | B |.