MULTILINGUALISM

Multilingualism is the use of two or more languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community
of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's
population. Multilingualism is becoming a social phenomenon governed by the needs of globalization and
cultural openness. Owing to the ease of access to information facilitated by the Internet, individuals'
exposure to multiple languages is becoming increasingly frequent, thereby promoting a need to acquire
additional languages. People who speak several languages are also called polyglots.
Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the so-
called first language. The first language (sometimes also referred to as the mother tongue) is acquired
without formal education, by mechanisms heavily disputed. Children acquiring two languages in this way
are called simultaneous bilinguals. Even in the case of simultaneous bilinguals, one language usually
dominates the other. People who know more than one language have been reported to be more adept at
language learning compared to monolinguals. Additionally, bilinguals often have important economic
advantages over monolingual individuals as bilingual people are able to carry out duties that
monolinguals cannot, such as interacting with customers who only speak a minority language.

Multilingualism in computing can be considered part of a continuum between internationalization and

localization. Due to the status of English in computing, software development nearly always uses it (but
see also Non-English-based programming languages), so almost all commercial software is initially
available in an English version, and multilingual versions, if any, may be produced as alternative options
based on the English.

Multilingual individuals
A multilingual person is someone who can communicate in more than one language, either actively
(through speaking, writing, or signing) or passively (through listening, reading, or perceiving). More
specifically, the terms bilingual and trilingual are used to describe comparable situations in which two or
three languages are involved. A multilingual person is generally referred to as a polyglot. Multilingual
speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the so-called first
language (L1). The first language (sometimes also referred to as the mother tongue) is acquired without
formal education, by mechanisms heavily disputed. Children acquiring two languages in this way are
called simultaneous bilinguals. Even in the case of simultaneous bilinguals, one language usually
dominates over the other. In linguistics, first language acquisition is closely related to the concept of a
"native speaker". According to a view widely held by linguists, a native speaker of a given language has
in some respects a level of skill which a second language learner cannot easily accomplish. Consequently,
descriptive empirical studies of languages are usually carried out using only native speakers. This view is,
however, slightly problematic, particularly as many non-native speakers demonstrably not only
successfully engage with and in their non-native language societies, but in fact may become culturally
and even linguistically important contributors (as, for example, writers, politicians, media personalities
and performing artists) in their non-native language. In recent years, linguistic research has focused
attention on the use of widely known world languages, such as English, as a lingua franca or a shared
common language of professional and commercial communities. In lingua franca situations, most
speakers of the common language are functionally multilingual.

Economic benefits
Bilinguals might have important labor market advantages over monolingual individuals as bilingual
people are able to carry out duties that monolinguals cannot, such as interacting with customers who only
speak a minority language. A study in Switzerland has found that multilingualism is positively correlated
with an individual's salary, the productivity of firms, and the gross domestic production (GDP); the
authors state that Switzerland's GDP is augmented by 10% by multilingualism. A study in the United
States by Agirdag found that bilingualism has substantial economic benefits as bilingual persons were
found to have around $3,000 per year more salary than monolinguals

Multilingualism within communities

Widespread multilingualism is one form of language contact. Multilingualism was more common in the
past than is usually supposed. in early times, when most people were members of small language
communities, it was necessary to know two or more languages for trade or any other dealings outside
one's own town or village, and this holds good today in places of high linguistic diversity such as Sub-
Saharan Africa and India. Linguist Ekkehard Wolff estimates that 50% of the population of Africa is
multilingual.
In multilingual societies, not all speakers need to be multilingual. Some states can have multilingual
policies and recognize several official languages, such as Canada (English and French). In some states,
particular languages may be associated with particular regions in the state (e.g., Canada) or with
particular ethnicities (e.g., Malaysia and Singapore). When all speakers are multilingual, linguists classify
the community according to the functional distribution of the languages involved:

Diglossia: if there is a structural functional distribution of the languages involved, the society is
termed 'diglossic'. Typical diglossic areas are those areas in Europe where a regional language is used
in informal, usually oral, contexts, while the state language is used in more formal
situations. Frisia and Lusatia are well-known examples. Some writers limit diglossia to situations
where the languages are closely related, and could be considered dialects of each other. This can also
be observed in Scotland where, in formal situations, English is used. However, in informal situations
in many areas, Scots is the preferred language of choice. A similar phenomenon is also observed in
Arabic-speaking regions. The effects of diglossia could be seen if you look at the difference between
Written Arabic (Modern Standard Arabic) and Colloquial Arabic. However, as time goes, the Arabic
language somewhere between the two have been created which we would like to call Middle Arabic
or Common Arabic. Because of this diversification of the language, the concept of spectroglossia has
been suggested.

Ambilingualism: a region is called ambilingual if this functional distribution is not observed. In a

typical ambilingual area it is nearly impossible to predict which language will be used in a given
setting. True ambilingualism is rare. Ambilingual tendencies can be found in small states with
multiple heritages like Luxembourg, which has a combined Franco-Germanic heritage,
or Malaysia and Singapore, which fuses the cultures of Malays, China, and India or communities
with high rates of deafness like Martha's Vineyard where historically most inhabitants spoke
both MVSL and English or in southern Israel where locals speak both ABSL and either Arabic or
Hebrew. Ambilingualism also can manifest in specific regions of larger states that have both a clearly
dominant state language and a protected minority language that is limited in terms of distribution of
speakers within the country. This tendency is especially pronounced when, even though the local
language is widely spoken, there is a reasonable assumption that all citizens speak the predominant
state tongue. This phenomenon can also occur in border regions with many cross-border contacts.
 Bipart-lingualism: if more than one language can be heard in a small area, but the large majority
of speakers are monolinguals, who have little contact with speakers from neighbouring ethnic groups,
an area is called 'bipart-lingual'. An example of this is the Balkans.

Multilingualism between different language speakers

Whenever two people meet, negotiations take place. If they want to express solidarity and sympathy, they
tend to seek common features in their behavior. If speakers wish to express distance towards or even
dislike of the person they are speaking to, the reverse is true, and differences are sought. This mechanism
also extends to language, as described in the Communication Accommodation Theory.

Some multilinguals use code-switching, a term that describes the process of 'swapping' between
languages. In many cases, code-switching is motivated by the wish to express loyalty to more than one
cultural group, as holds for many immigrant communities in the New World. Code-switching may also
function as a strategy where proficiency is lacking. Such strategies are common if the vocabulary of one
of the languages is not very elaborated for certain fields, or if the speakers have not developed proficiency
in certain lexical domains, as in the case of immigrant languages.

This code-switching appears in many forms. If a speaker has a positive attitude towards both languages
and towards code-switching, many switches can be found, even within the same sentence. If, however, the
speaker is reluctant to use code-switching, as in the case of a lack of proficiency, he might knowingly or
unknowingly try to camouflage his attempt by converting elements of one language into elements of the
other language through calquing. This results in speakers using words like courrier noir in French,
instead of the proper word for blackmail, chantage.

Sometimes a pidgin language may develop. A pidgin language is a fusion of two languages that is
mutually understandable for both speakers. Some pidgin languages develop into real languages while
others remain as slangs or jargons (such as Helsinki slang, which is more or less mutually intelligible both
in Finnish and Swedish. In other cases, prolonged influence of languages on each other may have the
effect of changing one or both to the point where it may be considered that a new language is born. For
example, many linguists believe that the Occitan language and the Catalan language were formed because
a population speaking a single Occitano-Romance language was divided into political spheres of
influence of France and Spain, respectively. Yiddish is a complex blend of Middle High
German with Hebrew and borrowings from Slavic languages.

Bilingual interaction can even take place without the speakers switching. In certain areas, it is not
uncommon for speakers each to use a different language within the same conversation. This phenomenon
is found, amongst other places, in Scandinavia. Most speakers of Swedish, Norwegian and Danish can
communicate with each other speaking their respective languages, while few can speak both (people used
to these situations often adjust their language, avoiding words that are not found in the other language or
that can be misunderstood). Using different languages is usually called non-convergent discourse, a term
introduced by the Dutch linguist Reitze Jonkman. To a certain extent, this situation also exists
between Dutch and Afrikaans, although everyday contact is fairly rare because of the distance between
the two respective communities. The phenomenon is also found in Argentina,
where Spanish and Italian are both widely spoken, even leading to cases where a child with a Spanish and
an Italian parent grows up fully bilingual, with both parents speaking only their own language yet
knowing the other. Another example is the former state of Czechoslovakia, where two closely related and
mutually intelligible languages were in common use. Most Czechs and Slovaks understand both
languages, although they would use only one of them when speaking. For example, in Czechoslovakia it
was common to hear two people talking on television each speaking a different language without any
difficulty understanding each other. This bilinguality still exists nowadays, although it has started to
deteriorate after Czechoslovakia split up.

Multilingualism at the linguistic level

Models for native language literacy programs
Sociopolitical as well as socio-cultural identity arguments may influence native language literacy. While
these two camps may occupy much of the debate about which languages children will learn to read, a
greater emphasis on the linguistic aspects of the argument is appropriate. In spite of the political turmoil
precipitated by this debate, researchers continue to espouse a linguistic basis for it.
Sequential model
In this model, learners receive literacy instruction in their native language until they acquire a "threshold"
literacy proficiency. Some researchers use age 3 as the age when a child has basic communicative
competence in their first language. Children may go through a process of sequential acquisition if they
migrate at a young age to a country where a different language is spoken, or if the child exclusively
speaks his or her heritage language at home until he/she is immersed in a school setting where instruction
is offered in a different language.
The phases children go through during sequential acquisition are less linear than for simultaneous
acquisition and can vary greatly among children. Sequential acquisition is a more complex and lengthier
process, although there is no indication that non-language-delayed children end up less proficient than
simultaneous bilinguals, so long as they receive adequate input in both languages.
Bilingual model
In this model, the native language and the community language are simultaneously taught. The advantage
is literacy in two languages as the outcome. However, the teacher must be well-versed in both languages
and also in techniques for teaching a second language.
Coordinate model
This model posits that equal time should be spent in separate instruction of the native language and of the
community language. The native language class, however, focuses on basic literacy while the community
language class focuses on listening and speaking skills. Being a bilingual does not necessarily mean that
one can speak, for example, English and French.
Outcomes
Cummins' research concluded that the development of competence in the native language serves as a
foundation of proficiency that can be transposed to the second language the common underlying
proficiency hypothesis. His work sought to overcome the perception propagated in the 1960s that learning
two languages made for two competing aims. The belief was that the two languages were mutually
exclusive and that learning a second required unlearning elements and dynamics of the first in order to
accommodate the second. The evidence for this perspective relied on the fact that some errors in
acquiring the second language were related to the rules of the first language. How this hypothesis holds
under different types of languages such as Romance versus non-Western languages has yet to undergo
research.
Another new development that has influenced the linguistic argument for bilingual literacy is the length
of time necessary to acquire the second language. While previously children were believed to have the
ability to learn a language within a year, today researchers believe that within and across academic
settings, the time span is nearer to five years.
An interesting outcome of studies during the early 1990s however confirmed that students who do
successfully complete bilingual instruction perform better academically. These students exhibit more
cognitive elasticity including a better ability to analyse abstract visual patterns. Students who receive
bidirectional bilingual instruction where equal proficiency in both languages is required perform at an
even higher level. Examples of such programs include international and multi-national education schools.

Multilingualism in computing
With emerging markets and expanding international cooperation, business users expect to be able to use
software and applications in their own language. Multilingualisation of computer systems can be
considered part of a continuum between internationalization and localization:

A localized system has been adapted or converted for a particular, including the language of the
user interface, input, and display, and features such as time/date display and currency; but each
instance of the system only supports a single locale.

Multilingualised software supports multiple languages for display and input simultaneously, but
generally has a single user interface language. Support for other locale features like time, date,
number and currency formats may vary as the system tends towards full internationalisation.
Generally a multilingualised system is intended for use in a specific locale, whilst allowing for
multilingual content.

An internationalised system is equipped for use in a range of locales, allowing for the co-
existence of several languages and character sets in user interfaces and displays. In particular, a
system may not be considered internationalised in the fullest sense unless the interface language is
selectable by the user at runtime.
Translating the user interface is usually part of the software localization process, which also includes
adaptations such as units and date conversion. Many software applications are available in several
languages, ranging from a handful (the most spoken languages) to dozens for the most popular
applications. Due to the status of English in computing, software development nearly always uses it (but
see also Non-English-based programming languages), so almost all commercial software is initially
available in an English version, and multilingual versions, if any, may be produced as alternative options
based on the English original.
TheMultilingual App Toolkit (MAT) was first released in concert with the release of Windows 8 as a way
to provide developers a set of free tooling that enabled adding languages to their apps with just a few
clicks, in large part due to the integration of a free, unlimited license to both the Microsoft Translator
machine translation service and the Microsoft Language Platform service, along with platform
extensibility to enable anyone to add translation services into MAT. Microsoft engineers and inventors of
MAT, Jan A. Nelson and Camerum Lerum have continued to drive development of the tools, working
with third parties and standards bodies to assure broad availability of multilingual app development is
provided. With the release of Windows 10, MAT is now delivering support for cross-platform
development for Windows Universal Apps as well as IOS and Android.

Multilingualism in the workplace

Globalization has led the world to be more deeply interconnected. Consequences of this are that more and
more companies are trading with foreign countries, and with countries that don't necessarily speak the
same language. English has become an important working knowledge mainly in multinational companies,
but also in smaller companies.
Multilingualism in English speaking countries
According to Hewitt entrepreneurs in London from Poland, China or Turkey use English mainly for
communication with customers, suppliers and banks, but their own native languages for work tasks and
social purposes. Even in English speaking countries immigrants are still able to use their own mother
tongue in the workplace thanks to other immigrants from the same place. Kovacs describes this
phenomenon in Australia with Finnish immigrants in the construction industry who spoke Finnish during
working hours. But even though foreign languages may be used in the workplace, English is still a must-
know working skill. Mainstream society justifies the divided job market, arguing that getting a low-
paying job is the best newcomers can achieve considering their limited language skills.
Multilingualism in Asia
With companies going international they are now focusing more and more on the English level of their
employees. Especially in South Korea since the 1990s, companies are using different English language
testing to evaluate job applicants, and the criteria in those tests are constantly upgrading the level for good
English. In India it is even possible to receive training to acquire an English accent, as the number of
outsourced call centres in India has soared in the past decades. Meanwhile, Japan ranks 26th out of 63
countries in a 2014 English Proficiency Index, amid calls for this to improve in time for the 2020 Tokyo
Olympics.
Within multiracial countries such as Malaysia and Singapore, it is not unusual for one to speak two or
more languages, albeit with varying degrees of fluency. Some are proficient in several Chinese dialects,
given the linguistic diversity of the ethnic Chinese community in both countries.
Multilingualism in Africa
Not only in multinational companies is English an important skill, but also in the engineering industry, in
the chemical, electrical and aeronautical fields. A study directed by Hill and van Zyl shows that in South
Africa young black engineers used English most often for communication and documentation. However,
Afrikaans and other local languages were also used to explain particular concepts to workers in order to
ensure understanding and cooperation.
Multilingualism in Europe
In Europe, as the domestic market is generally quite restricted, international trade is a norm. But there is
no predominant language in Europe Most of the time English is used as a communication language, but in
multilingual countries such as Belgium, Switzerland or Spain it is common to see employees mastering
two or even three of those languages. Some languages such as Danish, Swedish and Norwegian or
Croatian, Slovenian, Serbian and Bosnian are so close to each other that it is generally more common for
meeting to use their mother tongue rather than English.
Continued global diversity has led to an increasingly multilingual workforce. Europe has become an
excellent model to observe this newly diversified labor culture. The expansion of the European Union
with its open labor market has provided opportunities both for well-trained professionals and unskilled
workers to move to new countries to seek employment. Political changes and turmoil have also led to
migration and to the creation of new and more complex multilingual workplaces. In most wealthy and
secure countries, immigrants are found mostly in low paid jobs but also, increasingly, in high status
positions.

Multilingualism in music

It is extremely common for music to be written in whatever the contemporary lingua franca is. If a song is
not written in a common tongue, then it is usually written in whatever is the predominant language in the
musician's country of origin, or in another widely-recognized language, such as English, German,
Spanish, or French.

The bilingual song cycles "there..." and "Sing, Poetry" on the 2011 contemporary classical
album Troika consist of musical settings of Russian poems with their English self-translations by Joseph
Brodsky and Vladimir Nabokov, respectively.