Ellipsometry

Jordan Kuhn

Introduction component

The name ellipsometry comes from the type of polarization used to measure the light,
elliptical polarization. The technique has been known since 1888 by the work of Paul Drude. The
term ellipsometry is first used in 1945 in a report on the first ellipsometer. The first ellipsometry
experiments were crude by todays standards, using film and light sources available in the late
1800s. Drude used a series of mirrors, film strips, and lenses to focus sunlight. In industry,
ellipsometry is used the measure very small and thin items, like components used in manufacturing
semiconductor and data storage solutions, flat panel displays, and biosensors. The initial industries
using ellipsometry were microelectronics companies in the 1960s.
Ellipsometry is an optical technique for investigating the dielectric properties of thin films,
such as the complex refractive index. Ellipsometry measures a change in polarization as light
reflects or transmits from a material structure and compares it to a model. The polarization change
is represented as an amplitude ratio, , and the phase difference, . The measured response depends
on optical properties and thickness of individual materials. The measured signal is the change in
polarization as the incident radiation, in a known state, interacts with the material structure of the
measured surface, by being reflected, absorbed, scattered, or transmitted. The polarization change is
quantified by the amplitude ratio, , and the phase difference, .
Ellipsometry is primarily used to determine film thickness and optical constants. However, it
is also used to categorize composition, crystallinity, roughness, doping concentration, and other
material properties associated with a change in optical response. Ellipsometry can produce
information about layers that are thinner than the wavelength of the probing light itself, even down
to a single atomic layer. Ellipsometry can probe the complex refractive index or dielectric function
tensor, which gives access to fundamental physical parameters. It is commonly used to characterize
film thickness for single layers or complex multilayer stacks ranging from a few angstroms, or
tenths of a nanometer, to several micrometers with excellent accuracy.
Typically, ellipsometry is done only in a reflection setup. The exact nature of the
polarization change is determined by the sample's properties: thickness, complex refractive index or
dielectric function tensor. Optical techniques are diffraction limited, however ellipsometry exploits
phase information, or polarization state, and can achieve sub-nanometer resolution. In its simplest
form, the technique is applicable to thin films with thickness ranging from less than a nanometer, to
several micrometers. Most models assume the sample is composed of a small number of discrete,
well-defined layers that are optically homogeneous and isotropic. Variation from these assumptions
requires the use of more complex ellipsometry techniques.
The basic ellipsometry experiment is set up with a light source and several lenses. A modern
ellipsometry experiments use ellipsometers. Electromagnetic radiation is emitted by a light source
and linearly polarized by a polarizing lens. If required by the experiment, the light will pass through
an optional compensator, like a retarder or a quarter wave plate, and onto the sample. After
reflection, the radiation may pass through another compensator and a second polarizer, which is
called an analyzer, and into the detector. Instead of the compensators, some ellipsometers use a
phase-modulator in the path of the incident light beam.
There are three modern ways to use ellipsometry. The first is the single-wavelength vs.
spectroscopic ellipsometry. Single-wavelength ellipsometry employs a monochromatic light source.
This is usually a laser in the visible spectral region, for instance, a HeNe laser with a wavelength of
632.8 nm. Therefore, single-wavelength ellipsometry is also called laser ellipsometry. The
advantage of laser ellipsometry is that laser beams can be focused on a small spot size. Furthermore,
lasers have a higher power than broad band light sources. Therefore, laser ellipsometry can be used
for imaging. However, the experimental output is restricted to one set of and values per
measurement. Spectroscopic ellipsometry, SE, employs broad band light sources, which cover a
certain spectral range in the infrared, visible or ultraviolet spectral region. Because of that, the
complex refractive index or the dielectric function tensor in the corresponding spectral region can
be obtained, which gives access to a large number of fundamental physical properties. Infrared
spectroscopic ellipsometry, IRSE, can probe phonon and plasmon properties. Spectroscopic
ellipsometry in the near infrared, visible up to ultraviolet spectral region, studies the refractive index
in the transparency or below-band-gap region and electronic properties; like band-to-band
transitions or excitons.
The second type of modern ellipsometry is standard vs. generalized ellipsometry. Standard
ellipsometry, ellipsometry, is applied when no s polarized light is converted into p polarized light,
nor vice versa. This is the case for optically isotropic samples like amorphous materials or
crystalline materials with a cubic crystal structure. Standard ellipsometry is also useful for optically
uniaxial samples, in the special case when the optical axis is parallel to the surface. In all other
cases, when s polarized light is converted into p polarized light and/or vice versa, the generalized
ellipsometry approach must be applied. Examples are arbitrarily aligned samples, optically uniaxial
samples, or optically biaxial samples.
The third modern method of ellipsometry is jones matrix vs. mueller matrix formalism.
There are typically two different ways of mathematically describing how an electromagnetic wave
interacts with the elements within an ellipsometer (including the sample): the Jones matrix and the
Mueller matrix formalisms. In the Jones matrix formalism, the electromagnetic wave is described
by a Jones vector with two orthogonal complex-valued entries for the electric field, Ex and Ey, and
the effect that an optical element, or sample, has on it is described by the complex-valued 2x2 Jones
matrix. In the Mueller matrix formalism, the electromagnetic wave is described by Stokes vectors
with four real-valued entries, and their transformation is described by the real-valued 4x4 Mueller
matrix. When no depolarization occurs both formalisms are fully consistent. Therefore, for non-
depolarizing samples, the simpler Jones matrix formalism is sufficient. If the sample is depolarizing
the Mueller matrix formalism should be used, because it also give the amount of depolarization.
Reasons for depolarization are, for instance, thickness non-uniformity or backside-reflections from
a transparent substrate.
Modern ellipsometers are complex instruments that incorporate a wide variety of radiation
sources, detectors, digital electronics and software. The range of wavelength employed is far in
excess of what is visible so strictly there is no limit to what can be measured with an ellipsometer,
since we will always be able to measure something. This technique has found applications in many
different fields, from semiconductor physics to microelectronics and biology, from basic research to
industrial applications. Ellipsometry is a very sensitive measurement technique and provides
unequaled capabilities for thin film metrology. As an optical technique, spectroscopic ellipsometry
is non-destructive and contactless. Because the incident radiation can be focused, small sample sizes
can be imaged and desired characteristics can be mapped over a larger area (m2).
There are modern, advanced experimental approaches to ellipsometry. Ellipsometry can also
be done as imaging ellipsometry by using a CCD camera as a detector. This provides a real time
contrast image of the sample, which provides information about film thickness and refractive index.
Advanced imaging ellipsometer technology operates on the principle of classical null ellipsometry
and real-time ellipsometric contrast imaging. Imaging ellipsometry is based on the concept of
nulling. In ellipsometry, the film under investigation is placed onto a reflective substrate. The film
and the substrate have different refractive indexes. In order to obtain data about film thickness, the
light reflecting off of the substrate must be nulled. Nulling is achieved by adjusting the analyzer and
polarizer so that all reflected light off of the substrate is extinguished. Due to the difference in
refractive indexes, this will allow the sample to become very bright and clearly visible. The light
source consists of a monochromatic laser of the desired wave length. A common wavelength that is
used is 532 nm green laser light. Since only intensity of light measurements are needed, almost any
type of camera can be implemented as the CCD, which is useful if building an ellipsometer from
parts. Typically, imaging ellipsometers are configured in such a way so that the laser (L) fires a
beam of light which immediately passes through a linear polarizer (P). The linearly polarized light
then passes through a quarter wave length compensator (C) which transforms the light into
elliptically polarized light. This elliptically polarized light then reflects off the sample (S), passes
through the analyzer (A) and is imaged onto a CCD camera by a long working distance objective.
The analyzer here is another polarizer identical to the P, however, this polarizer serves to help
quantify the change in polarization and is thus given the name analyzer. This design is commonly
referred to as a LPCSA configuration.
The orientation of the angles of P and C are chosen in such a way that the elliptically
polarized light is completely linearly polarized after it is reflected off the sample. For simplification
of future calculations, the compensator can be fixed at a 45 degree angle relative to the plane of
incidence of the laser beam. This set up requires the rotation of the analyzer and polarizer in order
to achieve null conditions. The ellipsometric null condition is obtained when A is perpendicular
with respect to the polarization axis of the reflected light achieving complete destructive
interference, i.e., the state at which the absolute minimum of light flux is detected at the CCD
camera. The angles of P, C, and A obtained are used to determine the and values of the material.
=A and = 2P + 2, where A and P are the angles of the analyzer and polarizer under null
conditions respectively. By rotating the analyzer and polarizer and measuring the change in
intensities of light over the image, analysis of the measured data by use of computerized optical
modeling can lead to a deduction of spatially resolved film thickness and complex refractive index
values.
Due to the fact that the imaging is done at an angle, only a small line of the entire field of
view is actually in focus. The line in focus can be moved along the field of view by adjusting the
focus. In order to analyze the entire region of interest, the focus must be incrementally moved along
the region of interest with a photo taken at each position. All of the images are then compiled into a
single, in focus image of the sample.
The second advanced approach to ellipsometry is In situ ellipsometry. In situ ellipsometry
refers to dynamic measurements during the modification process of a sample. This process can be,
for instance, the growth of a thin film, etching or cleaning of a sample. By in situ ellipsometry
measurements it is possible to determine fundamental process parameters, such as, growth or etch
rates, variation of optical properties with time. In situ ellipsometry measurements require a number
of additional considerations: The sample spot is usually not as easily accessible as for ex situ
measurements outside the process chamber. Therefore, the mechanical setup has to be adjusted,
which can include additional optical elements (mirrors, prisms, or lenses) for redirecting or focusing
the light beam. Because the environmental conditions during the process can be harsh, the sensitive
optical elements of the ellipsometry setup must be separated from the hot zone. In the simplest case
this is done by optical view ports, though strain induced birefringence of the (glass-) windows has
to be taken into account or minimized. Furthermore, the samples can be at elevated temperatures,
which implies different optical properties compared to samples at room temperature. Despite all
these problems, in situ ellipsometry becomes more and more important as process control technique
for thin film deposition and modification tools. In situ ellipsometers can be of single-wavelength or
spectroscopic type. Spectroscopic in situ ellipsometers use multichannel detectors, for instance
CCD detectors, which measure the ellipsometric parameters for all wavelengths in the studied
spectral range simultaneously.
The third advanced experiment is called ellipsometric prosimetry. Ellipsometric porosimetry
measures the change of the optical properties and thickness of the materials during adsorption and
desorption of a volatile species at atmospheric pressure or under reduced pressure depending on the
application. The EP technique is unique in its ability to measure porosity of very thin films down to
10 nm, its reproducibility and speed of measurement. Compared to traditional porosimeters,
Ellipsometer porosimeters are well suited to very thin film pore size and pore size distribution
measurement. Film porosity is a key factor in silicon based technology using low-k materials,
organic industry (encapsulated organic light-emitting diodes) as well as in the coating industry
using sol gel techniques.
The fourth experiment is magneto-optic generalized ellipsometry. Magneto-optic
generalized ellipsometry (MOGE) is an advanced infrared spectroscopic ellipsometry technique for
studying free charge carrier properties in conducting samples. By applying an external magnetic
field it is possible to determine independently the density, the optical mobility parameter and the
effective mass parameter of free charge carriers. Without the magnetic field only two out of the
three free charge carrier parameters can be extracted independently.
Conclusion component