Department of Mechanical Engineering \\ Thermodynamics

Prof. Eduardo Cabrera Ruiz (PRINT SIDE BY SIDE)

Quality (x).-

m vapor
m total

mg

m f mg

A Af
Ag A f

A Af
A fg

Must be used in saturated mixture region

A= Af + x Afg , A= xAg +(1 x) Af , A= Ag (1 x) Afg

where A is property as v, u, h, s

For compressed or sub-cooled liquid.

The properties of compressed liquid depends more temperature than
pressure, therefore

Property compressed Liquid Property f @ T

Except h h hf@T + vf@T (PPsat@T)
PV mRT

P1v1 P2 v 2

T1
T2

PV nRuT
v = specific volume of gas
m = mass of gas
n = moles

P1v1 RT1

where

V
m

State Equation of a REAL GAS

Pv
RT

Pcr

T
TR
Tcr

Subscript R Reduced and Subscript cr Critic

Specific Heat
Specific Heat at constant volume

Specific Heat at constant pressure

u
Cv

T v

h
Cp

T p

Cp = Cv + R

k C p Cv

dh C p T dT

du Cv T dT

u u2 u1 Cv T dT
2

h h2 h1 C p T dT
2

IDEAL GAS CONSTANT SPECIFIC HEAT

u u2 u1 C v T2 T1
For a Solid and liquids

k C p Cv

Isochoric Process (V = constant)

P2V2 PV
mR
1 1

T2 T1 where n 1
1 n
1 n

For ISOTHERMAL PROCESS, special polytropic case

(closed and open system)

h h2 h1 C p T2 T1

Solid and liquid in a constant pressure process

dh du CdT

So Cp = Cv = C for small temperature interval

n 1

V2
V2
P1
P1
W12 PV
mRT ln PV
mRT ln
1 1 ln
1 1 ln
V1
V1
P2
P2

Q dE W

FIRST LAW

Qcv E Wcv

1 2
2 12 g 2 1 w12
2
If ( e K 0 e P 0 ) q12 u2 u1 w12
For a process a constant volume w12 0
q12 u2 u1
For a process that there is boundary work only w12 0
q12 u2 u1 w12 h2 h1
q12

Q12
,
m

w12

W12
m

FIRST LAW (OPEN SYSTEM)

dE cv
1
1
e he e2 g e m
i hi i2 g i W cv
Q cv
m
dt
2
2

Steady- State, Steady Flow

dh du d ( Pv ) du vdP

h u Cavg T2 T1

n1

BOUNDARY WORK FOR A POLYTROPIC PROCESS (Closed System)

where
For a IDEAL GAS

V
1
V2

Isothermal Process (T = constant)

Isentropic Process

q12 u2 u1

Reduce Temperature and Pressure P P

R

Cp > C v

n1
n

T2 P2

T1 P1

FIRST LAW (CLOSED SYSTEM)

where Z = compressibility factor.

Relationship

n 1
nk
n

W12

State Equation of IDEAL GAS

where
R = particular constant of gas
V = volume of gas
Ru = universal constant of gas

P2 V1 ,

P1 V2

Special Cases (closed system)

n 0 Isobaric Process (P = constant)

Afg= Ag Af
Af Property of saturated liquid value
Ag Property of saturated vapor value

Pv RT

PV n C

POLYTROPIC PROCESS

Liquid in a constant
temperature process

1
1
i hi i2 g i m
e he e2 g e W cv
Q cv m
2
2

With one inlet and one outlet

q12 h1

dh vdP

h vP

where

1
2

q12

2
1

Qcv
,
m

i m
e m

h2

1
2

w12

Wcv
m

2
2

w12

BOUNDARY WORK (Reversible)

w12 Pdv
(Isobaric Process, closed System)

Thermodynamics (v-09/06/09)

w12 P v2 v1

FIRST AND SECOND LAW FOR AN ACCUMULATION SYSTEM

1
1
1
1

Qcv m i hi i2 g i m e he e2 g e m 2 u2 22 g 2 m1 u1 12 g 1 Wcv
2
2
2
2

cv

S gen S 2 S1 cv me se m i s i

Qsurr
T0

ANALYSIS OF FIRST LAW FOR EACH THERMODYNAMICS DEVICE

1st law

1
1
i hi i2 g i m
e he e2 g e W cv
Q cv m
2
2

2nd law

HEAT EXCHANGER

Q
e se m
i s i surr
S gen m
T0

MIXING CHAMBER

eK 0, eP 0, Wcv 0,

eK 0, eP 0, Wcv 0,

and if adiabatic Qcv 0

and if adiabatic Qcv 0

1h1 m
2 h2 m
1 m
2 h3
m

1h1 m
3 h3 m
2 h2 m
4 h4
m
NOZZLE- DIFFUSER

THROTTLING VALVE

eP 0, Wcv 0,

h1 h2

and if adiabatic Qcv 0

1
1
h1 12 h2 22
2
2

Abrupt change of

pressure with constant enthalpy

For ideal gas

h1 h2 T1 T2

TURBINE and COMPRESSOR

1
1
i hi i2 g i m
e he e2 g e W cv
Q cv m
2
2

If adiabatic

Q cv 0

Q cv

The work is done by the system W
cv
If the heat exit from the system

dS

SECOND LAW

Q
T

Entropic Change for reversible process

S gen

Q for isothermal process

dS

T rev

S gen 0 If irreversibilities in the system

S gen 0

If not irreversibilities in the system (reversible processes)

Thermal EFFICIENCY (1st law)

Heat Engine

th

energy sought
energy that costs

COPHP

TH TL
TH

th,rev 1

TL
TH

Q 1 2
T

dS c.m.
1
Q S gen
dt
T

QL
QL
1

W QH QL QH
1
QL

Change entropic for open system

ds
1
dS
i s i Q k 0
m e se m
Tk
dt tot
dt sys

QH
QH
1

W Q H Q L 1 QL
QH

TL
TH TL
1

TH
1
TL

S surr

Change entropic about the time

Universal Equations of Thermodynamics

(Joint First and Second Law)

REVERSIBLE PROCESS (CARNOT CYCLE)

Heat Engine
Refrigerator
Heat Pump

th,rev

Sc.m. S 2 S1

S net Sc.m. S surr

Q QL
Q
W
H
1 L
QH
QH
QH

Refrigerator COP
R

Heat Pump

Principle of Incremental Entropic

TH
TH TL
1

T
1 L
TH

COPR,rev

COPHP ,rev

COPR ,rev

COPHP ,rev

Tds du Pdv

Tds dh vdP

For isothermal and reversible process

q12 T s2 s1

Thermodynamics v-6/9/09

ENTROPIC CHANGE FOR IDEAL GAS

Ideal gas with Variable Specific Heat

Prof. Eduardo Cabrera RuizISENTROPIC PROCESS (adiabatic - reversible)

wc.v . hi he

P
s 2 s1 s 20 s10 R ln 2
P1

Isentropic Process for Ideal gas with Variable Specific Heat

P1 Pr1

P2 Pr2
s const

v1 vr1

v2 vr2
s const

for Cp = constant

T2
v
R ln 2
T1
v1
T2
P
s2 s1 C p,avg ln R ln 2
T1
P1

2
e

T2 P2

T1 P1

k 1
k

v
1
v2

e K 0, e P 0

w1-2

q1-2
s

Thermodynamics Closed System

k 1

wrev

wrev Pdv

(CLOSED SYSTEM)

mR
T2 T1 P2V2 P1V1
1 k
1 k

w1-2

(OPEN SYSTEM)

w12

k C p Cv

Pv const
k

W12

2
e

Graphics representation of Work and Heat

P 2
T

Isentropic Process for Ideal gas with Constant Specific Heat

2
i

w pump, in v P2 P1

s2 s1 Cv ,avg ln

P2 v1 V1

P1 v 2 V2

2
i

For isentropic pump with

Ideal gas with Constant Specific Heat

for Cv = constant

wc.v . vdP

Thermodynamics Open System

k 1 k

kRT1 P2
kR
k

1
T1 T2
P1v1 P2v2

k 1
k 1
k 1 P1

wrev
wshaft

wrev vdP

For ISOTHERMAL PROCESS, special polytropic case

(Open and Closed System)

n 1
For optimum operation a
compressor with intercooler

V2
V2
P1
P1
W12 PV
mRT ln PV
mRT ln
1 1 ln
1 1 ln
V
V
P
1
1
2
P2

Px P2 or P P P

x
1 2
P1 Px

SECOND LAW OPEN SYSTEM

S2 S1 cv mi si me se

Qsurr
S gen
T0

dS c.v .
Q
i si m
e se S gen
m
dt
T
OPEN SYSTEM Steady State - Steady Flow

m e se m i si

Q c.v .
S gen
T

Principle of entropic increment for control volume

S net Sc.v. S surr

Sc.v. m2 s2 m1 s1 c.v.
S surr

Qc.v .
m e s e m i s i
T0

Open System Steady State - Steady Flow, single stream

m se si

Qc.v .
S gen
T

Open System Steady State - Steady Flow, single stream and adiabatic

m se si S gen

STEADY STATE REVERSIBLE PROCESS

1st law

2nd law

1
1
q hi i2 g i he e2 g e w
2
2
Q c.v .
S gen
c .v . T

s e s i
m

ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY (ADIABATIC)

w a h1 h2a

w s h1 h2 s
w s h2 s h1
For a Compressor C

wa h2a h1
wt
For a Cooler Compressor C
(isothermal efficiency)
C
wa
For a Turbine

Where wt is the work for a reversible-isothermal process

For a Pump

w s v P2 P1

wa
h2a h1

For a Nozzle or Diffuser

Thermodynamics V-6/9/09

22a
22s

h1 h2a
h1 h2 s
3

EXERGY

X E U 0 P0 V V0 T0 S S 0

Change exergy

X X 2 X 1 E 2 E1 P0 V2 V1 T0 S 2 S1

Exergy Change for closed system

2 12
g 2 1
2 1 u2 u1 P0 v 2 v1 T0 s2 s1 2
2

Exergy Change for open system

2 12
g 2 1
2 1 h2 h1 T0 s2 s1 2
2

By work

X heat
X work

W Wsurr (for boundary work )

Wu
(for other forms of work)
W

X mass m

Exergy Destroyed

where

X destroyed 0

Closed System

T
W rev 1 2 sys 1 0
Tk

Q k

T
Wrev T0 S2 S1 U 2 U1 P0 V2 V1 1 0
Tk

Qk

Open System

T
ii m
e e 1 0
W rev m
Tk
T
1 2 1 0
W rev m
Tk

T
1 0 Q
T

By mass

W Wrev

Qk

Reversible Work for a steady state flow without exergy destroyed.

EXERGY TRANSFER
By Heat

Reversible Work

X destroyed T0 S gen I

Qk

If adiabatic

1 2 m
T0 s2 s1 h2 h1
W rev m

NOTE: must apply sign convention for heat (e.g. Heat exit of system is
negative)
Irreversibility (Exergy Destroyed)

I X destroyed T0 S gen Wrev,out Wu,out Wu,in Wrev,in

EXERGY BALANCE

Irreversibility in rate form

X syst X in X out X destroyed

dS sys

1
dS
I T0 T0 m e se m i s i
Q k
dt
dt
T
tot
k

Closed System

T
X 2 X1 1 0 Qk W P0 V2 V1 T0 S gen
Tk
Rate form dX sys

dt

dVsys
T0
Qk W P0
T0 S gen
dt
k

1 T

EFFICIENCY OF SECOND LAW

Q k W P0 V 2 V1 m m X destroyed
in
out

Rate form

T
dX cv
1 0
dt
Tk

dVcv

Q k W P0
m
X destroyed
m
dt in
out

Exergy Balance for steady state

T
1 T0
k

Q k W m
m
X destrroyed 0
in
out

Second Law For:

Work-Producing Device (Cylinder-Piston, Turbine, Heat Engine)

Q k W m
1 2 X destrroyed 0

q k w 1 2 x destrroyed 0

Useful Work (Closed System)

Wu W Wsurr

where

W Wb

Useful Work (Open System)

Wu W

where

Wsurr P0 V2 V1

T0 S gen
Wrev 2 1

1
Wu
h2 h1
h2 h1

Interchanger

where

T0 S gen
c 4 3
m
1
h 1 2
h 1 2
m
m
h S2 S1 m
c S 4 S3
S gen m

subscript c-cool flow and h- heated flow

Adiabatic Mixer

T0 S gen
3 3
m
1
2 2
m 11 m 2 2
m 11 m

where

3 m
1 m
2
m

Unit mass basis

T
1 T0
k

T0 S gen
Wu
h h2
1
1
W rev 1 2
1 2

Work-Consuming Device (Cylinder-Piston, Compressor, Refrigerator)

One inlet and outlet

T
1 T0
k

th
th,rev

exergy recovered
descroyed exergy
1
exergy supplied
exergy supplied

Open System

T
X 2 X 1 1 0
Tk

3 s3 m
2 s2 m
1s1
S gen m

Refrigeration and Heat Pump cycles

COP
COPrev

W Wa

Thermodynamics v-6/9/09

Prof. Eduardo Cabrera RuizSTIRLING CYCLES

isothermal

TL

b s

qin

ise
o

p
ntr

ic
p
ntr

ise

ico

4
qout
1
v

r
isob

isoc

ico

ric

4
qout

Description
1-2 Isentropic Compression.
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition.
3-4 Isentropic Expansion.
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection.
Efficiency

th, Diesel

th, Diesel

Thermodynamics V-6/9/09

Cutoff ration

qout

2
4
v

cho

ric

qin
ic
bar
iso
aric q
isob
out

Description
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition.
3-4 Isentropic expansion (turbine).
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection.
Efficiency

th,Brayton

C p T4 T1
w net
q
1 out 1
qin
qin
C p T3 T2

th, Brayton 1

T T T 1
w
q
T T
net 1 out 1 4 1 1 1 4 1
qin
qin
k T3 T2
kT2 T3 T2 1
v k

3 1
1
v2

1
k 1

v1 k v3 1

v

v2 2

T
ic
op
ntr

v
r 1
v2

k 1

v1

v2

qin

ise

th,Otto 1

TL
TH

BRAYTON CYCLE

opi

th, Stirling th, Ericsson th,Carnot 1

ntr

al

4
qout

DIESEL CYCLE

qin

rm
the

iso

iso

qout 3

Description
1-2 Isothermal expansion (heat addition)
2-3 Isobaric regeneration (internal heat transfer).
3-4 Isothermal compression (heat rejection).
4-1 Isobaric regeneration (internal heat transfer)
Efficiency

ic
hor

ise

T1 T4 T1 1
T2 T3 T2 1

tion

c
ori

ch

w net
q
T T1
1 out 1 4
q in
q in
T3 T2

th,Otto 1

era

4
qout

iso

Regeneration

TL
2
v

qin

TH

al

rm

qout

qin

v
Description
1-2 Isentropic compression.
2-3 Constant volume heat addition.
3-4 Isentropic Expansion.
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection.
Efficiency
th,Otto

en

ic

g
Re

ntro

trop

T
qin

the

isen

qout 3

4
iso

TL

mal

ERICSSON CYCLE

T
pic

Regeneration

OTTO CYCLE

ise

Description
1-2 Isothermal Expansion (heat addition)
2-3 Isochoric regeneration (internal heat transfer).
3-4 Isothermal compression (heat rejection).
4-1 Isochoric regeneration (internal heat transfer)

w
q
T s s
T
th,Carnot net 1 out 1 L 2 1 1 L
q in
q in
TH s 2 s1
TH

qin

ratio

her

qout

Description
1-2 isothermal process.
2-3 Adiabatic process.
3-4 Reversible isothermal process.
4-1 Reversible adiabatic process.
Efficiency

P 3

isot

ene

qout
a

Reg

TH

ba

isothermal

rma

iso

ic

qout

TL

qin

ric

TH

b at

herm
al

the

ba

adia

isot

iso

iso

TH
2

tic

qin

iso

rm
al

qin

adiabatic

adiaba

iso
th e

qin

P 1

ric

adiabatic

iso
cho

CARNOT CYCLE

ric

IDEAL CYCLES

T1 T4 T1 1

T2 T3 T2 1

Back work ration rbw

th, Brayton 1

P2

P1

k 1

Win
Wout

v
rc 3
v2

IDEAL JET-PROPULSION CYCLES

BRAYTON CYCLE WITH REGENERATION

qout

qin

Nozzle

Combustion
chamber
2

w net 0

4
3

qin

wnet

Turbine

Compressor

wcomp w turb

aric

Turbine

Compressor

b
iso

qin

Diffuser

Combustion
chamber

Regenerator

6
isob

qout

aric

1
5

h3 h2 h4 h5 and h5 h6 1 62
2

qin

ge

Re
ne
in

c
ra

qregen,ideal h5 h2 h4 h2

qregen,actual
qregen,ideal

h h2
5
h4 h2

qin

wout

Efficiency

T T2
5
T4 T2

BRAYTON CYCLE WITH INTERCOOLING, REHEATING, AND

REGENERATION

qin

Pump (q = 0)

Combustion
chamber

Reheating

qin

where

Turbine
I

Compressor
II

qout

wnet

Turbine
II

2
3

wnet qin qout wout ( tubina ) win(bomba )

w net
q
1 out
qin
qin

Analysis

Efficiency

th, Rankine

Regenerator

Heat exchanger

win

v
Description
1-2 Isentropic Compression (Pump)
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition (Boiler).
3-4 Isentropic expansion (Turbine).
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection (Condenser).

k 1
T
th,regen, Brayton 1 1 rp k
T3

10

wout

qout 4

qin

win

For ideal gas

Compressor
I

aircraft

RANKINE CYCLE
T

qout

qout

inlet

in

Effectiveness of regenerator

exit

Ideal regeneration (maximum)

qin

aircraft

Propulsive Efficiency Propulsive power W p

p

Energy input rate Q

qregen,actual h5 h2

4
v

Description
Actual regeneration

1 q
out 6

exit m
inlet m
exit inlet
F m
F
Propulsive power W

m
Thrust

w pump,in h2 h1

h1 h f @ P1

and

or

w pump ,in v P2 P1

v v1 v f @ P1

qin h3 h2
Turbine (q = 0); qout h4 h1
Boiler w = 0;

Ideal Reheat Rankine cycle

Intercooler

qout
T

qin

qin

qregen7

9
3

10
3

qout

qout
s

Optimum operation

P2 P4

P1 P3

and

P6 P8
h5 h4
,

P7 P9
h9 h4

qin q primary qreheat h3 h2 h5 h4

wout,turb wturbI wturbII h3 h4 h5 h6

Thermodynamics v-6/9/09

Prof. Eduardo Cabrera RuizCOMBINED GAS VAPOR POWER CYCLE

Ideal Regenerative Rankine cycle

Open feedwater heaters

qin h5 h4

qout 1 y h7 h1

wturb,out h5 h6 1 y h6 h7

w pump,in 1 y w pumpI,in w pumpII,in

y m6 m5

fraction of steam extracted

w pumpI,in v1 P2 P1 w pumpII,in v3 P4 P3

4
iso

qout

rm
al

atic

3
Ad i

qin

TH

TL

ic

herm
al

t
aba

isot

TH

T
2 L

qout

isothermal

Adiabatic

Adiab

(Closed feedwater heaters)

T
the

Adiabatic

where

REVERSE CARNOT CYCLE

Carnot Refrigerator and Carnot Heat Pump

isothermal

qin

v
Description
1-2 Reversible Isothermal process.
2-3 Isentropic process.
3-4 Reversible isothermal process.
4-1 Isentropic process.
Efficiency

COPR ,Carnot

Cogeneration
P

1
TH
1
TL

COPHP ,Carnot

1
T
1 L
TH

IDEAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE

T
2

qout

4 4 qin

qout
win

win

4'

qin

Utilization factor

Wnet Q process

Thermodynamics V-6/9/09

Qin

1
s

Description
1-2 Isentropic compression (Compressor)
2-3 Constant pressure heat rejection in a (condenser).
3-4 Throttling in a expansion device.
4-1 Constant pressure head absorption (Evaporator)
Efficiency

COPR

qin
h h
1 4
w net ,in h2 h1

COPHP

qout
h h
2 3
w net ,in h2 h1

Dry and Atmospheric air

Temperature range 10C a 50C
Dry air is a ideal gas with constant specific heat
Cp= 1.005 kJ/kg K
Cp = 0.24 Btu/lbm R
Taking 0C or 0F as reference temperature, the enthalpy and enthalpy
change of dry air can be determined from

kJ/kg
hdry air C p,a T 1.005 kJ/kgC T
kJ/kg
hdry air C p,aT 0.24 Btu/lbmF T
Btu/lbm
hdry air C p,a T 0.24 Btu/lbmF T Btu/lbm
hdry air C p,aT 1.005 kJ/kgC T

Saturated air.- Atmospheric air saturated with moisture. Pv = Pg

Relative Humidity.- ratio of the amount of moisture (water) in
atmospheric air at a given temperature to the maximum amount the air
can hold at the same temperature.

mv Pv

m g Pg

where Pg = Psat @ T

Pa P Pg
Therefore

P
0.622 Pg

and

0.622Pg
P Pg

Water vapor at low pressure can be treated as an ideal gas.

Temperatures below 50 C and pressure below 12.3 kPa obey the idealgas relation Pv = RT

Dew-Point Temperature (Tdp) the temperature at which condensation

begins when the air is cooled at constant pressure.

Atmospheric air can be treated as an ideal-gas mixture whose pressure is

the sum of the partial pressure
P =Pa + Pv
Where
Pa = partial pressure of dry air
Pv = partial pressure of water vapor.

Adiabatic Saturation

Tdp Tsat@ Pv

Since water vapor as ideal gas, the enthalpy of water is a function of

temperature only, that h = h(T)
The enthalpy of water vapor in air can be taken to be equal to the
enthalpy of the saturated vapor at the same temperature.

hv T , low P hg T hg @T

Approximation

hv 2500.9 1.82T

kJ/kg

C p T2 T1 2 h fg2

hg1 h f2

For T in C between -10C < T < 50C

0.622 Pg2
P2 Pg2

Wet-Bulb Temperature (Twb)

Enthalpy of Atmospheric Air
H = Ha + Hv = maha + mvhv

m
H
ha v hv ha hv c p,aT hg@ T
ma
ma

or with approximation

h 1.0T 2500.9 1.82T

kJ/kga

C p Twb Tdb 2 h fg 2

hg1 h f2

0.622 Pg2
P2 Pg2

since 2 = 100%
Process

h 0.24T 1060.9 0.435T Btu/lbma

T at dry-bulb temperature.
Enthalpy Change of Atmospheric Air ( = constant)

h c p,a c p,v T

h 1.005 1.876 T

kJ/kga

h 0.24 0.444 T

Btu/lbma

SPECIFIC (ABSOLUTE) HUMIDITY ()

Mass Balance

m
v
ma

Dry air

[mass of vapor/mass of dry air]

out

Water vapor

m m
v

in

out

or

m m
a

in

out

st

1 law

Thermodynamics (v-09/06/09)

in

Ra = 0.2870 kJ/kgC Rv = 0.4615 kJ/kgC

Ra = 0.06855 Btu/lbmF Rv = 0.1102 Btu/lbmF
Expressed as partial pressure

mv PvV RvT Ra Pv

ma PaV RaT Rv Pa
RP
0.287 Pv
P
a v
0.622 v
Rv Pa 0.4615 Pa
Pa

m m

h Q out W out m
h
Q in W in m

or

0.622 Pv
P Pv

in

out

Prof. Eduardo Cabrera RuizSimple Heating and Cooling

Evaporative Cooling
Twb const.
h const.

1 2

Adiabatic Mixing of airstreams

Cooling with Dehumidification (ideal Process)

1
2

ma1
ma2
T2

a1 m
a2 m
a
m
ma1 1 ma2 2 mw

mh q

out

T1

mw ma 1 2

2 3 h2 h3

3 1 h3 h1

h3 C pT3 3hg3
Cooling Tower

mh

in

out

ma h1 qout ma h2 mw hw
Heating with Humidifying

m h m h
i

First Law

m h m h
in

out

w hw m
a h2 m
a h3
m

3 2 hw h2 h3
3 2 hg @T h2 h3

e e

a1 h1 m
3h3 m
a2 h2 m
4 h4
m

4 m
3 m
makeup
m

and

a1 m
a2 m
a
m

a h2 h1 m
3h3 m
3 m
makeuph4
m

h3 h f @T3

and

h4 h f @T4

Thermodynamics V-6/9/09