CONTENTS

Preface -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Acknowledgement ----------------------------------------------------------Volume1 :Historical prospective and future aspects

Pages

Chapter1 introduction------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1
1.1 Introduction---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.2 history of aviation propulsion ------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
1.2.1 Animal power ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
1.2.2 Water and wind ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
1.2.3 Steam engines ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
1.2.4 Internal combustion piston engines ----------------------------------------------------- 10
1.2.5 Turbine engines ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13
1.2.6 Rocket engines ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15
1.2.7 Animal power gain ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
1.2.8 Solar powered electric motors ---------------------------------------------------------- 17
1.2.9 Exotic engines ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17
1.3 Types of engines -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
1.3.1 Internal combustion engine ------------------------------------------------------------- 20
[Link] Types of piston engines --------------------------------------------------------- 21
[Link].1 Opposed or O type engine --------------------------------------------------- 22
[Link].2 V- Type engines --------------------------------------------------------------- 23
[Link].3 Radial engines ----------------------------------------------------------------- 23
1.3.2 Types of turbine engines ---------------------------------------------------------------- 25
[Link] Turbo jet engines --------------------------------------------------------------- 25

[Link] Turbofan engines --------------------------------------------------------------- 30

[Link].1 Forward fan engines ------------------------------------------------ 34
[Link].1.1 Single spool --------------------------------------------- 34
[Link].1.2 Double spool -------------------------------------------- 35
[Link].1.3 Triple spool --------------------------------------------- 36
[Link].2 Aft-fan engines ------------------------------------------------------ 37
[Link].3 Geared turbofan engines -------------------------------------------- 39
[Link] Prop fan engines --------------------------------------------------------------- 40
[Link] Turboprop engine -------------------------------------------------------------- 41
[Link] Turbo shaft engine ------------------------------------------------------------- 43
[Link] Ram jet engine ----------------------------------------------------------------- 44
[Link].1 Examples of ram jet engines --------------------------------------- 47
[Link] Scram jet engine --------------------------------------------------------------- 49
[Link] Pulse jet engine ---------------------------------------------------------------- 51
[Link] A turbo / Ram jet engine ----------------------------------------------------- 53
[Link] A turbo-rocket engine ------------------------------------------------------- 54
[Link] Afterburning engine --------------------------------------------------------- 55
[Link] Ion engines ------------------------------------------------------------------- 56
1.4 Alternative means of propulsion ---------------------------------------------------- 58
1.5 Rocket engines ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 60
1.5.1 Principle of operation ---------------------------------------------------------- 61
1.5.2 Terminology --------------------------------------------------------------------- 61
1.5.3 Types of rocket engines -------------------------------------------------------- 65
1.5.3.1Physically powered ----------------------------------------------------- 66
[Link] Chemically powered -------------------------------------------------- 67
[Link] Electrically powered -------------------------------------------------- 70
[Link] Solar thermal ----------------------------------------------------------- 72
[Link] Nuclear thermal -------------------------------------------------------- 73

[Link] Beamed thermal ------------------------------------------------------- 74

[Link] Nuclear ---------------------------------------------------------------- 75

Chapter2 theturbofan: theory and development

2.1 Early turbofan engine ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 78
2.2 Milestones of the turbofan engine -------------------------------------------------------- 84
2.3 Comparison between turbofan engines ------------------------------------------------- 104
2.4 Development of the turbofan engines ----------------------------------------------------197
2.4.1 The bypass ratio ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 197
2.4.2 Thrust----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 200
2.4.3 Thrust-to - weight ratio -------------------------------------------------------------- 203
2.4.4 Overall pressure ratio ---------------------------------------------------------------- 203
2.4.5 Turbine inlet temperature ----------------------------------------------------------- 205
2.4.6 Specific fuel consumption ---------------------------------------------------------- 207
2.4.7 NOx emission ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 208

Chapter3 Emission and noise

3.1 Introduction---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 211
3.2 Aviation emission --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 212
3.2.1 Climate change ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 212
3.2.2 Emission from combustion process ------------------------------------------------ 213
3.2.3 Trends in aviation emission --------------------------------------------------------- 215
3.2.4 Aviation emission compared to general trends in local air pollutants---------- 218
3.2.5 Methods of mitigating aviation's emission ---------------------------------------- 220
[Link] Increasing aircraft efficiency ----------------------------------------------- 220
[Link] Route optimization ---------------------------------------------------------- 221
[Link] Using biofuels ---------------------------------------------------------------- 221
[Link] Improved operating procedure --------------------------------------------- 222
[Link] Emission trading scheme --------------------------------------------------- 223
3.3 Aviation noise ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 223

3.3.1 Mechanisms of sound production ------------------------------------------------------- 223

[Link] Aerodynamic noise----------------------------------------------------------------224
[Link] Engine and other mechanical noise --------------------------------------------- 225
[Link] Noise from aircraft systems ----------------------------------------------------- 225
3.3.2 Noise mitigation programs --------------------------------------------------------------- 225
3.3.3 Methods of mitigating aviation's noise emissions ------------------------------------ 228

Chapter 4 Engine lubrication system

4.1 Introduction---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 231
4.2 properties of engine oil -------------------------------------------------------------------- 231
4.2.1 Viscosity------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 232
4.2.2 Pour point ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 232
4.2.3 Flash point ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 232
4.2.4 Pressure resistance ------------------------------------------------------------------- 232
4.2.5 Oxidation resistance ----------------------------------------------------------------- 233
4.2.6 Thermal stability --------------------------------------------------------------------- 233
4.3 System design ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 233
4.4 Lubricated area ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 235
4.5 System components ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 237
4.5.1 Oil tanks ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 237
4.5.2 Pump and filters --------------------------------------------------------------------- 239
4.5.3 Oil cooling ----------------------------------------------------------------------------241
4.6 Vent system components ---------------------------------------------------------------- 242
4.7 System indication and monitoring ----------------------------------------------------- 243
4.7.1 Indication of operating data ------------------------------------------------------- 243
4.7.2 Indication system sensors --------------------------------------------------------- 245
4.7.3 Data processing system monitoring ----------------------------------------------246
4.7.4 Debris monitoring------------------------------------------------------------------- 246

Chapter 5 Fire protection

5.1 Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 250
5.2 Classes of fires --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 251
5.3 Requirements for overheat and fire protection systems ---------------------------------- 252
5.4 Fire detection/ overheat systems ------------------------------------------------------------- 253
5.4.1 Thermal switch systems ---------------------------------------------------------------- 253
5.4.2 Thermocouple systems ----------------------------------------------------------------- 254
5.4.3 Continuous loop system ---------------------------------------------------------------- 256
5.4.4 Dual- loop system ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 257
5.4.5 Fire detection control unit -------------------------------------------------------------- 257
5.4.6 Pneumatic continuous-loop system --------------------------------------------------- 257
5.5 Fire zones---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 258
5.6 Smoke, flame and carbon monoxide detection systems ---------------------------------- 258
5.6.1 Smoke detectors -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 258
[Link] Light refraction type ------------------------------------------------------------ 259
[Link] Ionization type ------------------------------------------------------------------ 259
5.6.2 Flame detector ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 259
5.6.3 Carbon monoxide detector ------------------------------------------------------------- 259
5.7 Extinguishing agents and portable fire extinguishers --------------------------------- 260
5.7.1 Halogenated hydrocarbons --------------------------------------------------------- 260
5.7.2 Inert cold gases ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 261
5.7.3 Dry powders ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 261
5.7.4 Water---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 261
5.7.5 Cockpit and cabin interiors -------------------------------------------------------- 262
5.8 Extinguisher types ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 262
5.9 Installed fire extinguishing system ----------------------------------------------------- 263
5.9.1 CO2 fire extinguishing systems --------------------------------------------------- 263
5.9.2 Halogenated hydrocarbons fire extinguishing ----------------------------------- 263

5.10 Components of extinguishing system ----------------------------------------------- 264

5.10.1 Containers ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 264
5.10.2 Discharge valves ----------------------------------------------------------------- 265
5.10.3 Pressure indication --------------------------------------------------------------- 266
5.10.4 Two- way check valve ----------------------------------------------------------- 266
5.10.5 Discharge indicator -------------------------------------------------------------- 266
5.10.6 Thermal discharge indicator ---------------------------------------------------- 266
5.10.7 Yellow disk discharge indicator ------------------------------------------------ 267
5.10.8 Fire switch ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 267
5.11 Cargo and baggage compartment fire detection and extinguisher system ------- 268
5.11.1 Smoke detectors system --------------------------------------------------------- 269
5.11.2 Cargo compartment extinguishing system -------------------------------------270
5.11.3 Lavatory smoke detector -------------------------------------------------------- 271
5.11.4 Lavatory fire extinguishing ----------------------------------------------------- 272
5.12 Fire extinguisher system maintenance ------------------------------------------------ 273
5.12.1 Container pressure check -------------------------------------------------------- 273
5.12.2 Discharge cartridges ------------------------------------------------------------- 274
5.12.3 Agent containers ------------------------------------------------------------------ 274
5.13 Engine nacelle ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 275
5.14 Fire preventation-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 278
5.15 Some accidents ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 279

Chapter6 Starting systems

6.1 Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 282
6.2 Piston Engines ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 284
6.2.1 Hand starting/propellerswinging------------------------------------------------------ 284
6.2.2 The Hucks starter ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 285
6.2.3 Pull cord ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 291
6.2.4 Electric starter ----------------------------------------------------------------------------294

6.2.5 Coffman starter -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 297

6.2.6 Pneumatic starter------------------------------------------------------------------------- 301
6.2.7 In-flight starting ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 308
6.2.8 Inertia starter ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 310
6.3 Gas turbine engine ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 312
6.3.1 Electric starter -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 312
6.3.2 Air -start system ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 318
6.3.3 Gas turbine starter ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 325
6.3.4 Hydraulic start system ----------------------------------------------------------------- 326
6.3.5 Cartridge starter ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 326
6.3.6 Iso-propyl nitrate --------------------------------------------------------------------- 327
6.3.7 In-flight starter -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 329

Chapter7 Internal air system

7.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------332
7.2 COOLING ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------332
7.2.1 Turbine cooling ------------------------------------------------------------------------333
7.2.2 Bearing chamber cooling -------------------------------------------------------------336
7.2.3 Accessory cooling----------------------------------------------------------------------336
7.3 SEALING ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------338
7.3.1 Labyrinth seals -------------------------------------------------------------------------338
7.3.2 Ring seals -------------------------------------------------------------------------------339
7.3.3 Hydraulic seals -------------------------------------------------------------------------341
7.3.4 Carbon seals -----------------------------------------------------------------------------341
7.3.5 Brush seals ------------------------------------------------------------------------------341
7.4 Hot gas ingestion -----------------------------------------------------------------------------341
7.5 CONTROL OF BEARING LOADS ------------------------------------------------------342
7.6 AIRCRAFT SERVICES --------------------------------------------------------------------342

Chapter 8 Thrust reversal system

8.1 introduction--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------344
8.2 principles of operation-------------------------------------------------------------------------345
8.2.1clamshell door system---------------------------------------------------------------------347
8.2.2 bucket target system----------------------------------------------------------------------349
8.2.3cold stream reverser system--------------------------------------------------------------349
8.2.4turbo-propeller reverse pitch system--------------------------------------------------------349
8.3 construction and materials---------------------------------------------------------------------352
8.4 construction and materials---------------------------------------------------------------------353
8.5 thrust reverser forces----------------------------------------------------------------------------354

Chapter 9 Noise suppression

9.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------362
9.2 Engine noise ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------362
9.3 Methods of suppression noise-------------------------------------------------------------366

Chapter 10 VSTOL and after burning

10.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------368
10.2 V/STOL aircraft classification ------------------------------------------------------------370
10.2.1 Same propulsion system for hover and forward flight--------------------------370
[Link] Tilt shaft/ rotor-------------------------------------------------------------370
[Link] Tilt prop -------------------------------------------------------------------372
[Link] Tilt duct --------------------------------------------------------------------374
[Link] Tilt wing -------------------------------------------------------------------377
[Link] Tilt rotor -------------------------------------------------------------------381
[Link] Tilt jet-----------------------------------------------------------------------383
[Link] Deflected slipstream ------------------------------------------------------384
[Link] Vectored thrust ------------------------------------------------------------387
[Link] Tail sitters------------------------------------------------------------------392
10.2.2 Separate power plant for hover ---------------------------------------------------396

[Link] Lift + Cruise --------------------------------------------------------------396

10.2.3 Combined power plant for hover -------------------------------------------------399
[Link] Lift + Lift/ Cruise --------------------------------------------------------399
[Link] Tip jets -------------------------------------------------------------------- 405
10.2.4 Augmented power plant for hover ---------------------------------------------- 407
[Link] Ejector -------------------------------------------------------------------- 407
[Link] Fan ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 409
[Link] Rotor ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 412
10.3 Some helicopter ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 415
10.3.1 EuroCopter------------------------------------------------------------------------- 415
10.3.2 Agusta------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 424
10.3.3 Bell --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 427
10.3.4 McDonnell Douglas--------------------------------------------------------------- 429
10.4 Introduction to afterburner ---------------------------------------------------------------- 431
10.5 History of afterburner --------------------------------------------------------------------- 434
10.6 Operation of afterburner------------------------------------------------------------------- 435
10.7 Construction of after burner -------------------------------------------------------------- 437
10.8 Fuel consumption -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 438

Chapter 11 Manufacturing and Installation of turbofan

11.1 Introduction (manufacturing) --------------------------------------------------------- 441
11.2 Manufacturing strategy ---------------------------------------------------------------- 443
11.2.1 Forging -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 444
11.2.2 Casting -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 445
11.2.3 Fabrication --------------------------------------------------------------------- 448
11.2.4 Welding ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 450
11.2.5 Electro-chemical machining (e.c.m) ---------------------------------------- 453
11.2.6 Stem drilling ------------------------------------------------------------------- 455
11.2.7 Capillary drilling -------------------------------------------------------------- 456
11.2.8 electro-discharge machining (e.d.m) --------------------------------------- 456

11.2.9 Composite materials and sandwich casings ------------------------------- 457

11.3 Power plant installation -------------------------------------------------------- 459
11.3.1 Power plant location ------------------------------------------------------- 459
[Link] Turbine based engines ----------------------------------------------- 459
[Link].1 Turbojet and turbofan engine ------------------------------- 459
[Link].1 .1 Wing Installation-------------------------------------- 460
[Link].1 .2 Fuselage-mounted podded engines ---------------- 461
[Link].1 .3 Fuselage and tail combination------------------------462
[Link].1 .4 Over fuselage podded engines----------------------- 463
[Link].1 .5 Wing and tail installation ---------------------------- 464
[Link] Shaft Based engines -------------------------------------------- 465
[Link] .1Turbo-prop engines and Piston engine --------------- 466
[Link] .2Turbo-shaft engines ------------------------------------ 467
11.3.2 Air intakes ---------------------------------------------------------------- 470
11.3.3 Engine and jet pipe mountings----------------------------------------- 475
11.3.4 Accessories --------------------------------------------------------------- 477
11.3.5 Cowlings ----------------------------------------------------------------- 482

Chapter 12 Maintenance and repair, overhaul

12.1 Turbine engine maintenance -----------------------------------------------------------486
12.1.1 Compressor section---------------------------------------------------------------486
[Link] Inspection and cleaning---------------------------------------------------------------487
[Link] Cause of blade damage ---------------------------------------------------------------488
[Link] Blending and replacement ------------------------------------------------------------491
[Link] Inspection and cleaning---------------------------------------------------------------493
12.1.2 Combustion section inspection ----------------------------------------------------------------494
[Link] Marking materials for combustion section parts-----------------------------------495
[Link] Inspection and repair of combustion chambers------------------------------------496
12.1.3 Fuel nozzle and support assemblies ----------------------------------------------------------496
12.1.4 Turbine disk inspection ------------------------------------------------------------------------496

12.1.5 Turbine blade inspection -----------------------------------------------------------------------500

12.1.6 Turbine nozzle inlet guide vane inspection --------------------------------------------------502
[Link] Clearances ------------------------------------------------------------------------------503
12.1.7 Exhaust section-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------504
12.2 Engine ratings --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------504
12.3 Turbine engine instruments ----------------------------------------------------------------------------504
12.3.1 Engine pressure ratio indicators ---------------------------------------------------------------505
12.3.2 Torquemeter--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------505
12.3.3 Tachometer ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------506
12.3.4 Exhaust gas temperature indicator (EGT) ---------------------------------------------------506
12.3.5 Fuel flow indicator ------------------------------------------------------------------------------508
12.3.6 Engine oil pressure indicator-------------------------------------------------------------------508
12.3.7 Engine oil temperature indicator---------------------------------------------------------------508
12.3.8 Engine checks ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------508
12.3.9 Checking takeoff thrust ------------------------------------------------------------------------508
12.4 Troubleshooting turbine engines-----------------------------------------------------------------------509

Chapter 13 material
13.1 70 years of developments-------------------------------------------------------------------512
13.2 Alloying additions to Turbine Blades-----------------------------------------------------514
13.3 Metals and applications ---------------------------------------------------------------------515
13.4 Challenges ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------517
13.5 Aerospace requirements -------------------------------------------------------------------517
13.6 Material usage -------------------------------------------------------------------------------519
13.7 Solutions ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------520
13.8 Processes/ Materials ------------------------------------------------------------------------523
13.9 Repairs/ Reworks -----------------------------------------------------------------------------523
13.10 Failure modes -------------------------------------------------------------------------------523
13.11 High temperature materials testing--------------------------------------------------------523

13.12 Development of alloys with temperature -----------------------------------------------532

13.13 New technology ----------------------------------------------------------------------------534
13.13.1 High temperature coatings------------------------------------------------------------534
13.13.2 Environmental barrier coatings-------------------------------------------------------539
Chapter 14 NACA airfoil series14.1Introduction -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------542
14.2 NACA four digit series ---------------------------------------------------------------------543
14.3 NACA five digit series ---------------------------------------------------------------------546
14.4 Modified NACA four-and five- digit series ---------------------------------------------548
14.5 NACA 1- series or 16- series --------------------------------------------------------------552
14.6 NACA 6-series -------------------------------------------------------------------------------553
14.7 NACA 7-series -------------------------------------------------------------------------------557
14.8 NACA 8-series -------------------------------------------------------------------------------559
14.9 Summary --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------560
14.10 Other airfoils --------------------------------------------------------------------------------562

Chapter 15 Performance deterioration

15.1 Introduction -----------------------------------------------------------------------------566
15.2 Turbofan engine ------------------------------------------------------------------------566
15.3 Engine module design characteristics -----------------------------------------------569
15.4 Engine operating temperatures -------------------------------------------------------570
15.5 Engine key operating parameters -----------------------------------------------------571
15.6 Engine life limited parts (llps) --------------------------------------------------------573
15.7 Engine maintenance planning concepts ----------------------------------------------574
15.8 Primary causes of engine removals ---------------------------------------------------583
15.8.9 Engine direct maintenance costs (dmc) --------------------------------------------586
15.10 Factors influencing engine costs & time on-wing --------------------------------588
15.11 Engine severity curves---------------------------------------------------------------- 592
15.12 Engine asset value protection-------------------------------------------------------- 593

15.13 Engine economic terminologies------------------------------------------------------597

15.14 Engine maintenance inflation ------------------------------------------------------- 601

Chapter 16 Fuel and biofuel

16.1 Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 603
16.2 What are biofuels? --------------------------------------------------------------------- 603
16.2.1 Environmental benefits provided by biofuels ------------------------------------- 604
16.2.2 Biofuels providing economic and social benefits -----------------------606
16.3 Second generation aviation biofuels -------------------------------------------------- 606
16.3.1 Potential second generation biofuel feedstocks ----------------------------- 607
[Link] Camelina ----------------------------------------------------------------608
[Link] Algae --------------------------------------------------------------------609
[Link] Halophytes --------------------------------------------------------------609
16.3.2 Key advantages of second generation biofuel for aviation ---------------- 611
16.3.3 3What a load of rubbish -------------------------------------------------------611
16.4 Why use biofuel for aviation ------------------------------------------------------------612
16.4.1 Aviation efficiency technology will only take us for far ----------------------614
16.4.2 Hydro-carbon fuel is the only option for aviation------------------------------------ 615
16.4.3 Implementing biofuels for aviation-easier than for other transport modes --------615
16.5 Biofuels for aviation-technical challenges-------------------------------------------616
16.5.1 Technical requirements for aviation biofuels --------------------------------616
16.6 Biofuels for aviation-sustainability challenges -------------------------------------618
16.6.1 Developing sustainability biofuels --------------------------------------------618
16.7 Biofuels for aviation-testing -----------------------------------------------------------619
16.7.1 In the laboratory -----------------------------------------------------------------619
16.7.2 On the ground --------------------------------------------------------------------619
16.7.3 In the air --------------------------------------------------------------------------620
[Link] Commercial and demonstration flights ----------------------------622
16.8 Biofuels for aviation-the certification process -------------------------------------629
16.9 Biofuels for aviation-economic viability --------------------------------------------630

16.10 From the field to the wings---------------------------------------------------------- 631

16.10.1 Growing biofuels feedstock ------------------------------------------------632
16.10.2 Processing --------------------------------------------------------------------633
16.10.3 Refining bio-oil --------------------------------------------------------------633
16.10.4 Blending of fuels and delivery to the aircraft-----------------------------634
16.11 The next steps--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 634

Chapter 17 accidents ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------637-716

Volume2 Conceptual design of (turbofan)

Chapter 18GEnx engine specifications, technologies and solidwork
program drawing of the engine
18.1 Genx -1b70 turbofan engine specification------------------------------------------------683
18.2 Genx technologies----------------------------------------------------------------------------686
18.2.1 Fuel burn reduction technologies include-------------------------------------------687
18.2.2 The propulsor--------------------------------------------------------------------------690
18.2.3 Technical problems-------------------------------------------------------------------691
18.2.4Genx engines problems on boeing aircrafts -------------------------------------- 694
18.2.5 Genx on airplanes --------------------------------------------------------------------701
18.3 Solid works drawings----------------------------------------------------------------------709

Chapter 19 Performance Analysis: Parametric Study & Design Points

Selection
19.1 Turbofan engine specifications---------------------------------------------------------------------------712
19.2 The assumed engine modules efficiencies--------------------------------------------------------------713
19.3 The genx-1b70 modules-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------713
19.4 The genx-1b70 stations numbering----------------------------------------------------------------------715
19.5 The laws used in the cycle analysis----------------------------------------------------------------------716
19.5.1 Ambient conditions-------------------------------------------------------------------------------716

19.5.2Specific thrust force calculation --------------------------------------------------------------- 722

19.5.3Thrust specific fuel consumption ----------------------------------------------------------------722
19.5.4Propulsive efficiency calculation----------------------------------------------------------------722
19.5.5Thermal efficiency calculation-------------------------------------------------------------------723
19.5.6 Overall efficiency calculation--------------------------------------------------------------------723
19.6 T-S diagram for two spool turbofan engine (unmixed flow type)-----------------------------------723
19.7 Takeoff condition-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------724
19.7.1 Max. continuos thrust (at sea level )analysis results-------------------------------------------724
[Link] Max. continuos thrust (at sea level )--------------------------------------------------------------725
19.7.2 Takeoff thrust (5 minutes)(at sea level) analysis results--------------------------------------726
[Link] takeoff thrust (5 minutes) (at sea level )------------------------------------------------------727
19.7.3 2-D performance analysis (takeoff)------------------------------------------------------------728
19.7.4 3-D performance analysis(takeoff)-------------------------------------------------------------748
19.8 Cruise condition--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------779
19.8.1 Analysis results-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------779
19.8.2 The pressure and temperature at each station (cruise condition)---------------------------780
19.8.3 2-D performance analysis-----------------------------------------------------------------------781
19.7.4 3-D performance analysis----------------------------------------------------------------------781

Chapter 20The intake: Theory & Design

20.1 Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------847
20.2 Factors affecting intake design------------------------------------------------------------850
20.2.1 Flight envelopes --------------------------------------------------------------------850
20.2.2 Flight attitudes -----------------------------------------------------------------------852
20.2.3 Discretion ----------------------------------------------------------------------------852
20.2.4 Special conditions--------------------------------------------------------------------852
20.2.5 Design --------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------853
20.3 Types of air intakes --------------------------------------------------------------------------854
20.3.1 Subsonic inlets -----------------------------------------------------------------------854

[Link] Jet engines inlets -----------------------------------------------------------854

[Link].1 Subsonic intake performance ----------------------------------------------------------------------859
[Link].2 The flow field around subsonic podded type intake ---------860
[Link] Turboprop engines inlets ------------------------------------------------862
[Link].1 Under scoop inlet ---------------------------------------------862
[Link].2 Conical spinner inlet -----------------------------------------864
[Link] Turbo shaft engine air inlet duct----------------------------------------865
[Link] .1Engine protection system---------------------------------------------------------------------------866
20.3.2 Supersonic inlets-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------867
20.3.2 .1 Supersonic intakes may be classified as follows -------------------------------------------------870
[Link].1 Axisymmetric or two-dimensional intakes-------------------------------------------------------870
[Link].2 Variable or fixed geometry intakes----------------------------------------------------------------873
[Link].3 Internal, external or mixed compression intakes------------------------------------------------875
20.3.3 Hypersonic intake----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------876
20.4 The design procedure--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------880
20.4.1 Nomenclature---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------880
20.4.2 Takeoff condition design--------------------------------------------------------------------------------880
20.4.3 Cruise condition design---------------------------------------------------------------------------------884
20.4.4 The length of the diffuser-------------------------------------------------------------------------------887
20.4.4 The final results------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------889
20.5 Solid works program drawing----------------------------------------------------------------------------890

Chapter 21The Fan: Theory, Development & Design

21.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------892
21.2 Applications------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------893
21.3 Advantage of ducted fan ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------899
21.4 Disadvantage of ducted fan -------------------------------------------------------------------------------900
21.5 Ducted fan in turbo fan engines --------------------------------------------------------------------------900

21.6 The improvements of fan blades-------------------------------------------------------------------------906

21.7 Materials ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------917
21.7.1 Demand for composite engine structure quantified-----------------------------------------919
21.7.2 Engine composites poised for a decay of gross----------------------------------------------921
21.8 Novel manufacture techniques----------------------------------------------------------------------------922
21.9 The steps of manufacturing composite fan blades-----------------------------------------------------928
21.10 The steps of manufacturing composite fan casing ---------------------------------------------------931
21.11 Some problems and their solutions --------------------------------------------------------------------933
21.12 Take off condition ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------936
21.12.1 Free vortex method------------------------------------------------------------------------------937
[Link] The MATLAB program ----------------------------------------------------------------939
[Link] The final results in the form of a table -----------------------------------------------945
[Link] Velocity triangles-----------------------------------------------------------------------946
[Link] Cascade calculation -------------------------------------------------------------------948
[Link] Variation graphs------------------------------------------------------------------------953
21.12.2 First power method----------------------------------------------------------------------------959
[Link] The MATLAB program --------------------------------------------------------------961
[Link] The final results in the form of a table---------------------------------------------- 967
[Link] Velocity triangles-----------------------------------------------------------------------968
[Link] Cascade calculation -------------------------------------------------------------------970
[Link] Variation graphs----------------------------------------------------------------------975
21.12.3 Exponential method--------------------------------------------------------------------------981
[Link] The MATLAB program ----------------------------------------------------------984
[Link] The final results in the form of a table ------------------------------------------989
[Link] Velocity triangles-------------------------------------------------------------------990
[Link] Cascade calculation ----------------------------------------------------------------992
[Link] Variation graphs--------------------------------------------------------------------997
21.13 Cruise condition --------------------------------------------------------------------------------1003

21.13.1 Free vortex method-------------------------------------------------------------------1004

[Link] The MATLAB program ------------------------------------------------------1006
21.13.1 .2 The final results in the form of a table -------------------------------------1012
21.13.2 First power method------------------------------------------------------------------1013
21. [Link] The MATLAB program -------------------------------------------------1015
[Link] The final results in the form of a table -------------------------------------1021
21.13.3 Exponential method-------------------------------------------------------------------1022
[Link] The MATLAB program -----------------------------------------------------1025
[Link] The final results in the form of a table -------------------------------------1030
21.14 Choosing the proper design method---------------------------------------------------------1031
21.15 Determine which part of the blade is subjected to supersonic flow---------------------1031
21.16 Calculating the spacing between the blades-----------------------------------------------1034
21.17 Mechanical drawing of the fan module ---------------------------------------------------1035

Chapter 22The Compressor: Theory & Design

22.1 Introduction to compressor--------------------------------------------------------------1024
22.2 Centrifugal flow compressor------------------------------------------------------------1047
22.2.1 Principles of operation ----------------------------------------------------------1048
22.3 The axial flow compressor--------------------------------------------------------------1055
22.3.1 Principle of operation------------------------------------------------------------1059
22.3.2 Construction----------------------------------------------------------------------1061
22.4 Stall phenomena and compressor surge-----------------------------------------------1066
22.5 Air flow control--------------------------------------------------------------------------1068
22.6 Blisk---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1072
22.6.1 History----------------------------------------------------------------------------1073
22.7 Mean flow to dimensional approach-------------------------------------------------1077
22.8 Variations of enthalpy velocity and pressure of an axial compressor----------1081
22.9 Basic design parameter---------------------------------------------------------------1086
22.10 Centrifugal stresses-----------------------------------------------------------------1087

22.11 Design consideration---------------------------------------------------------------1092

22.12 Design of 2 stage LPC-------------------------------------------------------------1096
22.12.1 Design equation------------------------------------------------------------1097
22.12.2 Design of first stage ------------------------------------------------------1099
22.12.3 Design of second stage---------------------------------------------------1102
22.12.4 Variation graphs-----------------------------------------------------------1105
22.12.5 Velocity triangles----------------------------------------------------------1110
22.12.6 MATLAB program-------------------------------------------------------1112
22.13 HPC design ------------------------------------------------------------------------1127
22.13.1 Final results at mean section--------------------------------------------1130
22.13.2 Final results at tip section------------------------------------------------1143
22.13.3 Final results at hub section----------------------------------------------1137
22.13.3 Velocity triangles---------------------------------------------------------1140
22.14 Blade design ----------------------------------------------------------------------1168
22.14.1 Calculation no of blades-----------------------------------------------1169

Chapter 23 Combustion Chamber: Theory and Design

23.1 Introduction------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1173
23.2 Early combustor developments-------------------------------------------------------------------------1174
23.2.1Britain------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1175
23.2.2Germany----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1178
23.2.3The united states------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1179
23.3 Principle of operation-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1180
23.4 Fuel supply-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1183
23.5 Types of combustion chamber--------------------------------------------------------------------------1184
23.5.1 Tubular combustion chamber--------------------------------------------------------------------1186
23.5.2 Turbo-annular combustion chamber------------------------------------------------------------1188
23.5.3 Annular combustion chamber--------------------------------------------------------------------1189
23.6 Main components of combustor------------------------------------------------------------------------1192

23.6.1 Diffuser--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1192
23.6.2 Primary zone--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1194
23.6.3 Intermediate zone---------------------------------------------------------------------------------1195
23.6.4 Dilution zone--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1196
23.6.5 Pressure-swirl atomizers-------------------------------------------------------------------------1197
23.6.6 Air blast atomizer---------------------------------------------------------------------------------1198
23.6.7 Gas injection---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1198
23.7GEnx combustor-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1199
23.8 Cruise design----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1200
23.9 Takeoff design---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1218

Chapter 24The Turbines and The Nozzles: Theory & Design

24.1 Introduction------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1236
24.2 Construction-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1243
24.2.1 Turbine blades----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1245
24.2.2 Contra-rotating turbine------------------------------------------------------------------------------1246
24.2.3 Dual alloy discs--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1247
24.2.4 Compressor-turbine matching----------------------------------------------------------------------1248
24.2.5 Materials----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1248
24.2.6 Nozzle guide vanes----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1248
24.2.7 Turbine discs----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1249
24.2.8 Turbine blades--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1250
24.2.9 Balancing--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1252
24.3 Design of axial turbine-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1253
24.4 HPT results------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1268
24.4.1 Take off--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1268
[Link] First stage----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1268
[Link] Second stage------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1269
24.5 Cruise design----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1271

24.5.1 First stage--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1271

24.5.2 MATLAB program---------------------------------------------------------------------------------1271
24.5.3 First stage result-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1274
[Link] First stage--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1274
24.5.4 Second stage----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1276
24. 5.4.1 MATLAB program-------------------------------------------------------------------------1276
[Link] Second stage results-------------------------------------------------------------------------1279
24.6 Variation graphs-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1280
24.6.1 1st stage--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1280
24.6.2 2nd stage--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1283
24.7 Design of LPT---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1287
24.7.1 MATLAB program-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1287
24.7.2 First stage result-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1290
24.7.3 Velocity triangles-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1291
24.7.4 Variation graphs-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1293
24.8 Second stage-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1297
24.8.1 Final results----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1297
24.8.2 Velocity triangle-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1298
24.8.3 Variation graphs-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1299
24.9 3rd stage----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1204
24.9.1 3rd stage results-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1304
24.9.2 Velocity triangle------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1305
24.9.3Variation graphs-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1306
24.10 4th stage--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1311
24.10.14th stage results-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1311
24.10.2 Velocity triangle---------------------------------------------------------------------------------1312
24.10.3 Variation graphs----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1314
24.11 5th stage--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1318

24.11.1 5th stage results----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1318

24.11.2 Velocity triangle---------------------------------------------------------------------------------1319
24.11.3 Graphs variation---------------------------------------------------------------------------------1320
24.12 6th stage--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1325
24.12.1 6th stage result------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1325
24.12.2 Velocity triangle----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1326
24.12.3 Variation graphs----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1327
24.13 7th stage--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1332
24.13.1 MTLAB program--------------------------------------------------------------------------------1332
24.13.2 Results of 7th stage-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1336
24.13.3 Velocity triangle----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1337
24.13.4 Variation graphs-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1338
24.14 Cruise design---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1343
24.14.1 MATLAB program------------------------------------------------------------------------------1343
24.14.2 First stage-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1346
24.14.3 Variation graphs----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1348
24.15 Second stage---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1352
24.15.1 Results of second stage--------------------------------------------------------------------------1352
24.15.2 Variation graphs----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1354
24.16 3rd stage--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1358
24.16.1 3rd stage results----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1358
24.16 4th stage--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1364
24.16.1 4th stage results----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1364
24.16.2 7th stage variation graphs-----------------------------------------------------------------------1366
24.17 5th stage--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1370
24.17.1 5th stage results---------------------------------------------------------------------------------1370
24.17.2 7th stage variation graphs---------------------------------------------------------------------1372
24.17 6th stage--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1376

24.17.1 6th stage results-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1376

24.17.2 6th stage variation graphs--------------------------------------------------------------------1378
24.18 7th stage--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1381
24.18.1 7th stage results-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1381
24.18.2 7th stage variation graphs-------------------------------------------------------------------1383
24.18 Exhaust nozzle -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1387
24.18.1 Introduction-------------------------------------------------------------------------1387
24.18.2 Construction and materials---------------------------------------------------------1393
24.19 Nozzle design--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1395
24.19.1 Take off design -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1395
[Link] For cold nozzle ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1395
[Link] For hot nozzle ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1397
[Link].1 Inlet--------------------------------------------------------------------------------1397
[Link].2 Outlet ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1398
24.19.2 Cruise design---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1399
[Link] Cold nozzle ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1399
[Link].1 Inlet--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1399
[Link].2 Outlet -------------------------------------------------------------------------------1400
[Link] For hot nozzle----------------------------------------------------------------------------1401