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SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
OBJECTIVES
Definition of weathering
Agents of erosion
Classification of sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary structures
Resources from sedimentary rocks
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Rock Cycle
FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
1 Weathering
1.
2. Erosion
3. Transport
4. Deposition
5 Diagenesis
5.
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External processes shaping the Earth:
1. Weathering the physical breakdown
(disintegration) and chemical alteration
(decomposition) of rocks at or near the Earths
surface
2. Erosion the removal of material by mobile
agents such as water, wind, ice or man
Weathering
Occurs when a rock is mechanically
fragmented (disintegrated) and/or chemically
altered (decomposed)
Two types of weathering:
1 Mechanical
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Mechanical Weathering
The physical breaking up of rock into smaller pieces
leads to an increase in surface area
requires the application of some
physical force or stress to be
applied to the rock
no accompanying changes to the
composition of rocks
Prevails in:
cold climates, high altitudes, dry regions
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Mechanical Weathering
1. Frost wedging
repeated cycles of
freezing and thawing;
the expansion force of
water as it freezes is
sufficient to split any
mineral or rock.
Mechanical Weathering
2. Heating and cooling - Differences in
temperature
p
in a rock g
give rise to differential
expansion (heating) and contraction (cooling).
3. Wetting and drying - The disruption of soil
results in the swelling and contracting of soil
particles.
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Mechanical Weathering
5. Organisms- Action of organisms, including
animals and plants, reduces the size of rocks and
minerals.
6. Unloading - the removal of thick layers of
sediments overlying deeply buried rocks by
erosion or uplift.
What produced these features?
Wetting and drying
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What produced these features?
Mechanical weathering by
biological activity
What produced these features?
Unloading
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Chemical Weathering
- breakdown of minerals by chemical reactions
with water,
water with chemicals dissolved in water or
with gases in the air
- progression from less stable minerals to more
stable minerals
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Chemical Weathering
1) Dissolution - the dissolving of a solid in a liquid
2) Hydrolysis
d l
- process off minerals
l reacting with
h water to
form hydroxides, which usually are more soluble than the
original mineral. example - pyroxene to Fe oxide 4FeSiO3
+ H2O + O2 4FeO(OH) + 4SiO2
3) Acidification - Weathering is accelerated by the
presence of hydrogen ion in water
water, such as that provided
by carbonic and organic acids.
4) Hydration - combination of a solid mineral or element
with water.
5) Oxidation and Reduction - used in mineral weathering,
i both
is
b th the
th chemical
h i l combination
bi ti off oxygen with
ith a
compound and the change in oxidation number of some
chemical element
(Reduction is the chemical process in which electrons
are gained.)
6) Ion
Ion-exchange
exchange - involves the transfer of charged atoms
(ions) of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium
between waters rich in one of the ions and a mineral
rich in another
(Most effective in clays.)
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Examples
Susceptibility of minerals to
chemical weathering
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Goldich Stability Series
describes the order in
which silicate minerals
weather.
Minerals which form at high
temperatures and
pressures are least stable,
and weather most quickly
because they are farther
from their "zone
zone of stability
stability
or the conditions under
which they formed.
The order of mineral stability in the weathering
environment is the same order as Bowen's
Reaction Series.
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The main products of weathering
(1). Soluble Ions
Sodium Na
C l i
Calcium
C
Ca
Potassium K
Magnesium Mg
(2) Clay Minerals
Kaolinite
M t
Montmorillonite
ill it
(3) Resistant Minerals
Quartz
H
Hematite
tit Fe2O3
F 2O3
Magnetite Fe3O4
Garnet, Gold,
Diamonds, etc.
Alterations due to Chemical Weathering:
**1. Decomposition of unstable minerals.
**2.
2. Generation or retention of those minerals which are in equilibrium
with the Earths surface.
**Account for predominance of certain minerals in soil.
Factors Controlling Weathering
Source Composition
Specifically involves the mineralogy, texture and
rock structure
Source rock lithology
Fine-grained rocks decompose chemically more
readily than coarse-grained rocks
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Factors Controlling Weathering
Climate
Temperature fluctuations determine importance of icewedging and insolation
Precipitation governs the extent of hydrolysis, hydration
and solution
Topographic Relief
Infl
Influence
ence the amo
amount
nt of rock e
exposed
posed to the forces of
weathering
Slope steepness controls the rate at which weathering
products are eroded to be transported elsewhere
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What produced this colorful landscape?
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How was the Pedestal Rock formed?
Differential weathering
Cagayan Valley
Differential weathering
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Whose face do you see?
Differential weathering
Product of weathering
Soil combination of rock, air, water and organic
material
Soil type varies in color, texture, mineral content
Types (orders) of soil:
Alfisols, Aridisols, Entisols, Histosols, Inceptisols,
M lli l Oxisols,
Mollisols,
O i l Spodosols,
S d
l Ultisols,
Ulti l Gelisols,
G li l
Andisols, and Vertisols
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Soil profile
O Horizon - organic layer of soil, made up mostly
of leaf litter and humus (decomposed organic
matter)
A Horizon - made up of humus (decomposed
organic
g
matter)) mixed with mineral p
particles
E Horizon - leaching layer; light in color; made up
mostly of sand and silt, having lost most of its
minerals and clay as water drips through the soil.
B Horizon contains clay and mineral deposits
(like iron, aluminum oxides, and calcium
carbonate) that it receives from layers above it
when
h water
t drips
d i ffrom th
the soilil above.
b
C Horizon it consists of slightly broken-up
bedrock. Plant roots do not penetrate into this layer
because of very little organic material..
R Horizon - unweathered rock layer
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Erosion
comes from old word meaning eat away
involves movement of rock or soil
Agents of Erosion:
1. gravity
2. ice
3 organism
3.
4. water
5. wind
Gravity as an agent of erosion
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Strong winds can also shatter rocks on impact
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result of glacial erosion
Through the years
1890
1920
1970
1990
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12 Apostles collapses
Parks Victoria, Sydney, Australia
Preventing erosion
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Preventing erosion
Weathering erosion deposition
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Transportation
Agents of sediment transport:
1. ice
2 water
2.
3. wind
Distance of sediment transport affects clast:
Roundness and Sphericity
Sorting
S ti
Ways of physically transporting particles:
Suspension
Saltation
Traction
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Sorting - measure of variation of grain sizes
Short distance
Poorly Sorted
Long distance
Well Sorted
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Roundness and Sphericity
measures how rounded corners are
measures sphere-like shape of clasts
Deposition
Transporting sediment requires energy
Grain size has relationship with energy
Smaller grains take less energy
Bigger grains take more
If river slows down, sediment will drop out
If river speeds up, water can pick up sediment
Larger
g sediments are deposited
p
in higher
g
energy
gy environments
Examples:
Gravel - needs fast moving water or rock slides
Sand - wind and wave action (beaches)
Silt and clay - lakes, swamps and deep oceans
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Diagenesis
physical, chemical, and biological processes which
collectively result in
transformation
t
f
ti off sediments
di
t into
i t sedimentary
di
t
rockk
modification of the texture and mineralogy of the rock
Stages of diagenesis:
Early diagenesis
takes place from sedimentation until shallow burial
Late diagenesis
from deep burial to subsequent uplift
The different types of diagenetic processes are:
Compaction
R
Recrystallization
t lli ti
Cementation
Replacement
Bioturbation
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Compaction is the process by which the
volume of a sediment is reduced as the
grains
i are squeezed
d ttogether.
th
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
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The simple ideal model for the evolution of sedimentary rocks says
there are three basic end products, that all sedimentary processes are
working to reach - quartz sandstone, shale, and limestone.
The three end products in the simple ideal model are not isolated,
each one stands for a class of weathering products.
Quartz
Q
t sandstone
d t
= all
ll visible
i ibl grains,
i
i l di such
including
h ones as
incompletely weathered feldspar from the granodiorite in the simple
ideal model.
Shale = all clay sized grains (clay is a generic name; there are
many kinds of clay minerals as well as other minerals that are clay
sized)
Limestone = all dissolved minerals, including
g not only
y calcite
CaCO3, but also halite (table salt; NaCl), and gypsum (CaSO4 . H2O)
among others.
CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
siliciclastic (or simply, clastic) rocks
chemical rocks
biochemical rocks
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Clastic rocks (sandstones,
shales, etc.) are classified on:
texture (grain size), and
composition.
iti
Clastic particles are divided into size categories based
on the WENTWORTH SCALE. The Wentworth scale is
straight
i h forward,
f
d and
d with
i h a ruler
l for
f scale
l iti iis relatively
l i l
easy to classify the rock.
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They have a clastic (broken or fragmental) texture
consisting of:
Clast (larger pieces, such as sand or gravel)
Matrix (mud or fine-grained sediment
surrounding the clasts)
Cement (the glue that holds it all together,
such as calcite, iron oxide, or silica)
Clastic rocks
Breccia - Grain size = 2
cm or greater
- Clasts are angular
C
Conglomerate
l
t - Grain
G i
size = 2 cm or greater
- Clasts are rounded
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Siltstone - Grain size =
1/256 to 1/16 mm
- gritty
itt texture
t t
Shale - Grain size =
less than 1/256 mm
Example:
Sandstone - Grain size =
1/16 mm to 2 mm
- classified according to the
amount of minerals found in
th rock
the
k
Arkose Sandstone - 75%
greater feldspar
Lithic Sandstone
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Quartz Sandstone - 95% or
greater quartz content
CARBONATES
composed of the mineral calcite (CaCO3 - calcium carbonate)
they form by both chemical and biochemical processes
tend to be mixed together in various combinations in the rocks.
They are extremely abundant and important.
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OTHER CHEMICAL ROCKS
Chert
a siliceous rock (composed of SiO2)
forms from the recrystallized skeletons of "animals "
(single-celled radiolarians and glass sponges) or singlecelled " plants " (diatoms, silicoflagellates)
Rock salt
(halite; NaCl) and gypsum (CaSO4 . H2O)
originally are dissolved in the sea water
water, thus making
the sea salty.
sea water evaporates in a closed area, such as a
lagoon, the salt concentration becomes very high,
supersaturated, and precipitates out.
OTHER BIOCHEMICAL ROCKS
Peat and coal
come from plant remains are biochemical
rocks
always form in the presence of clastic rocks sandstones and shales.
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COMMON SEDIMENTARY
STRUCTURES
Common
Sedimentary
Structures
One of the most obvious
features of sedimentaryy rocks
and sediment is the layered
structure which they
exhibit. The layers are
evident because of
differences in mineralogy,
clast size, degree of sorting,
or color of the different
layers.
Layer
Thickness
> 300 cm
Names
Massive
100-300 cm Very thickly bedded
30 - 100 cm Thickly bedded
10 - 30 cm
Mediumly bedded
3 - 10 cm
Thinly bedded
1 - 3 cm
Veryy thinly
y bedded
0.3 - 1 cm
Thickly laminated
<0.3 cm
Thinly laminated
Common Sedimentary Structures
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Common Sedimentary Structures
COMMON SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
Common Sedimentary Structures
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Common Sedimentary Structures
cross bedding
Common Sedimentary Structures
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Common Sedimentary Structures
Ripple marks
Ano ito?
bioturbation
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What two sedimentary structures are seen
here?
What sedimentary structure is seen here?
Cross bedding
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Resources from sedimentary rocks
1. Sediments are used as:
a. sand and gravel: used as road base, components
of concrete, fill, sand for sandboxes; if pure sand, for
glass making
b. pure clays for ceramics (dinner ware/plate ware)
2. Fossil fuels (e.g. coal, petroleum, natural gas)
3. Food additives (e.g. sodium and potassium salts)
4. Placer deposits (grains of economic minerals) e.g. gold,
diamond, garnet
5. Building stone, filtering materials
Sedimentary basins in the Philippines
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