ADVANTAGES OF INDOOR SUBSTATION OVER THE OUTDOOR SUBSTATION

WHY CONDUIT WIRING IS BETTER THAN OTHER TYPES OF WIRINGS

Electrical conduit provides very good protection to enclosed conductors from impact, moisture, and
chemical vapors. Varying numbers, sizes, and types of conductors can be pulled into a conduit, which
simplifies design and construction compared to multiple runs of cables or the expense of customized
composite cable. Wiring systems in buildings may be subject to frequent alterations. Frequent wiring
changes are made simpler and safer through the use of electrical conduit, as existing conductors can be
withdrawn and new conductors installed, with little disruption along the path of the conduit.
Both metal and plastic conduit can be bent at the job site to allow a neat installation without excessive
numbers of manufactured fittings. This is particularly advantageous when following irregular or curved
building profiles. Special equipment is used to bend the conduit without kinking or denting it.
The cost of conduit installation is higher than other wiring methods due to the cost of materials and labor. In
applications such as residential construction, the high degree of physical damage protection may not be not
required, so the expense of conduit is not warranted. Conductors installed within conduit cannot dissipate
heat as readily as those installed in open wiring, so the current capacity of each conductor must be reduced
(derated) if many are installed in one conduit. It is impractical, and prohibited by wiring regulations, to have
more than 360 degrees of total bends in a run of conduit, so special outlet fittings must be provided to allow
conductors to be installed without damage in such runs.
BEACONS
A beacon is an intentionally conspicuous device designed to attract attention to a specific location.
Beacons can also be combined with semaphoric or other indicators to provide important information, such
as the status of an airport, by the colour and rotational pattern of its airport, or of pending weather as

indicated on a weather beacon mounted at the top of a tall building or similar site. When used in such
fashion, beacons can be considered a form of optical telegraphy.
Beacons help guide navigators to their destinations. Types of navigational beacons
include radar reflectors, radio beacons, sonic and visual signals. Visual beacons range from small, singlepile structures to large lighthouses or light stations and can be located on land or on water. Lighted
beacons are called lights; unlighted beacons are called day beacons.
Beaconing is the process that allows a network to self-repair network problems. The stations on the
network notify the other stations on the ring when they are not receiving the transmissions. Beaconing is
used in Token ring and FDDI networks.
Light is the medium of energy by which we perceive our environment through our eyes. It is one form
of electromagnetic radiation which also includes things like ultraviolet, infrared, and radio waves.
Like all electromagnetic radiation, light is transmitted by individual packets (or quanta) of energy known as
photons. These photons are the units by which the combined forces of electricity and magnetism are
communicated between other particles, such as the electrons associated with an atom. Depending on the
circumstances under which it is observed, a photon can behave like a particle or as a wave. This principle
is known as wave-particle duality.
Wave properties
The wave-like nature of electromagnetic radiation means it can be viewed as an oscillating electric and
magnetic field at right angles to the direction of travel of the wave. The frequency of these oscillations is
measured in the number of complete cycles per second, or hertz. The particular frequency of a photon
places it somewhere on a spectrum of possible frequencies. This is referred to as the electro-magnetic
spectrum. The range of frequencies that form the visual spectrum lie between 3.81014 hertz (dark red) and
7.51014 hertz (violet).
Intensity
The intensity of a source of radiation is the energy it emits per unit of surface area per unit of time and has
the units of Joules/(meter2 x second). As the energy radiated by a spherical surface, I0, moves away from
that surface the radiation intensity decreases as the inverse of the distance squared (I=I0/d2) because the
radiation spreads out. In other words, the perceived intensity of a light source by an observer is inversely
proportional to the distance from the light source squared. Thus for each doubling of distance from the
source, the intensity drops by a factor of four, or 2 2.
The brightness of stellar objects, such as a star, are determined by the amount of light they radiate and
their distance from the Earth. A bright star in the sky might actually be much more distant than an a dimmer
star, but because it is more intense and radiates a greater amount of light it appears to be closer.
Reflection
Mirror is a flat or curved surface usually made out of a highly-conductive material, such as a metal. When
light interacts with a mirrored surface, it undergoes specular reflection. That is, a beam of light striking the
mirror is reflected in only one direction. This direction is determined by the law of reflection, which states
that the angle with the surface at which the light is reflected is the same as the angle with the surface at
which it approaches.

Refraction
When light passes at an angle through a transparent medium, the material
causes the photons to change direction
slightly. This change in angle is called
refraction, and the angle by which the light is
bent is determined by the index of
refraction of the material.
Spectrum
For a given transparent material, such as
glass, the refraction of light varies with frequency. A white light consists
of photons of various energies. The red photons in the light will be deflected at a different angle than the
blue photons.
If the light passes through a transparent material with parallel sides, such as a sheet of glass, the beam will
emerge at the same angle as it entered. However when the two sides are not parallel, the angle will vary
depending on the frequency. This is the principle behind the prism. A glass prism is used to separate the
photons from a light source into a spectrum of frequencies from red to blue. A similar principle is what
creates a rainbow as the light from the sun passes through droplets of water.
Diffraction
Another wave-like property of light is a tendency to bend and spread whenever it meets an obstacle. Any
beam of light will also tend to spread with distance, so that it becomes impossible to maintain a tight beam
of an arbitrary length. The property of diffraction is what limits the resolution of a distant object.
When a beam of coherent light, such as that produced by a laser, is passed through two slit openings, the
light radiates from the slits like ripples in a pond. The semi-circular ripples from the two slits interact with
each other, sometimes adding together their wave heights and at other times cancelling each other out.
This is called constructive and destructive interference. If a screen is placed in the area where these ripples
interact, alternating bands of light and darkness would appear.

DIFFERENT METHODS USED FOR LIGHTING CONTROL AS ENERGY SAVING TOOL

Lighting control systems reduce energy usage and cost by helping to provide light only when and where it is needed.
Lighting control systems typically incorporate the use of time schedules, occupancy control, and photocell control (i.e.
daylight). Some systems also support demand response and will automatically dim or turn off lights to take advantage
of utility incentives. Lighting control systems are sometimes incorporated into larger building automation systems.
Many newer control systems are using wireless mesh open standards (such as ZigBee) which provides benefits including
easier installation (no need to run control wires) and interoperability with other standards-based building control systems
(e.g. security).
In response to day lighting technology, daylight harvesting systems have been developed to further reduce energy
consumption. These technologies are helpful, but they do have their downfalls. Many times, rapid and frequent switching of
the lights on and off can occur, particularly during unstable weather conditions or when daylight levels are changing around
the switching luminance. Not only does this disturb occupants, it can also reduce lamp life. A variation of this technology is
the 'differential switching or dead-band' photoelectric control which has multiple illuminances it switches from so as not to
disturb occupants as much.

METHODS USED FOR LIGHTING CONTROL AS ENERGY SAVING TOOL

A lighting control system is an intelligent network based lighting control solution that incorporates communication between
various system inputs and outputs related to lighting control with the use of one or more central computing devices. Lighting
control systems are widely used on both indoor and outdoor lighting of commercial, industrial, and residential spaces.
Lighting control systems serve to provide the right amount of light where and when it is needed. [1]
Lighting control systems are employed to maximize the energy savings from the lighting system, satisfy building codes, or
comply with green building and energy conservation programs. Lighting control systems are often referred to under the
term Smart Lighting.

Lighting controls vs. Lighting control systems

The term lighting controls is typically used to indicate stand-alone control of the lighting within a space. This may
include occupancy sensors, time clocks, and photocells that are hard-wired to control fixed groups of lights independently.
Adjustment occurs manually at each devices location. The efficiency of and market for residential lighting controls has been
characterized by the Consortium for Energy Efficiency.
The term lighting control system refers to an intelligent networked system of devices related to lighting control. These
devices may include relays, occupancy sensors, photocells, light control switches or touch screens, and signals from other
building systems (such as fire alarm or HVAC). Adjustment of the system occurs both at device locations and at central
computer locations via software programs or other interface devices.

Advantages
The major advantage of a lighting control system over stand-alone lighting controls or conventional manual switching is the
ability to control individual lights or groups of lights from a single user interface device. This ability to control multiple light
sources from a user device allows complex lighting scenes to be created. A room may have multiple scenes pre-set, each
one created for different activities in the room. A major benefit of lighting control systems is reduced energy consumption.
Longer lamp life is also gained when dimming and switching off lights when not in use. Wireless lighting control systems
provide additional benefits including reduced installation costs and increased flexibility over where switches and sensors
may be placed.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF OUTDOOR FLOOD LIGHTING AND THEIR USES

Floodlights are broad-beamed, high-intensity artificial lights. They are often used to illuminate outdoor playing fields while
an outdoor sports event is being held during low-light conditions. More focused kinds are often used as a stage lighting
instrument in live performances such as concerts and plays.
In the top tiers of many professional sports, it is a requirement for stadiums to have floodlights to allow games to be
scheduled outside daylight hours. Evening or night matches may suit spectators who have work or other commitment earlier
in the day. The main motivation for this is television marketing, especially in sports such as Gridiron which rely on TV rights
money to finance the sport. Some sports grounds which do not have permanent floodlights installed may make use of
portable temporary ones instead. Many larger floodlights (see bottom picture) will have gantries for bulb changing and
maintenance. These will usually be able to accommodate one or two engineers.

USES OF FLOOD LIGHT

Floodlights are also used in other sports such as racing, baseball, and tennis. Accept that these are used in in the fields of
football, cricket and rugby league.

WHAT IS FENESTRATION? DEFINE THEIR TYPES AND THEIR ADVANTAGES

AND DISADVANTAGES.

DISCUSS VARIOUS TYPES OF ASPECTS OF

LIGHTING FOR SURVEILLANCE.

2013

short questions
Define glare in daylighting
Daylighting is the controlled admission of natural light direct sunlight and
diffuse skylight into a building to reduce electric lighting and saving
energy. By providing a direct link to the dynamic and perpetually evolving
patterns of outdoor illumination, daylighting helps create a visually
stimulating and productive environment for building occupants, while
reducing as much as one-third of total building energy costs.
Define solid angle and plane angle
The dimensionless unit of plane angle is the radian, with 2 radians in a
full circle. A solid angle, , made up of all the lines from a closed curve
meeting at a vertex, is defined by the surface area of a sphere subtended
by the lines and by the radius of that sphere.
Compare incandescent lamp with fluroscent tube by giving three

distinctions.
The flux emitted by a lamp in all directions is 1000 lumens
calculate its mscp.

State any two general rules for internal wiring.

Electricity supply for domestic consumers, according to MS IEC 60038
standards, meets the following specifications: i. Single phase supply with nominal voltage of 230V, range +10%, -6%;
ii. Three phase supply with nominal voltage of 400V, range +10%, -6%;
iii. Permitted frequency is 50Hz + 1%;
iv. Earthing system type (TT System) as in Figure 2.1 and Figure 2.2.
what is inverse square law?
a law stating that the intensity of an effect such as illumination or
gravitational force changes in inverse proportion to the square of the
distance from the source.
What is meant by LED,LCD,CFL&SVL?
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is
a basic pn-junction diode, which emits light when activated.
A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat panel display, electronic visual
display, or video display that uses the light modulating properties of liquid
crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly.
Compact fluorescent lamp (CFL)
SVL-SNOUT TO VENT LENGTH
Define depriciation factor and utilization factor.
Utilization factor or Coefficient of Utilization: Utilization Factor ()
Is the ratio of effective luminous flux to the total luminous flux of light
sources. Always less than one Fn Effective luminous flux U.F.= = F Total
luminous flux of all the
Depreciation factor/ Maintenance factor: It is the ratio of illuminance
halfway through a cleaning cycle, to what the illuminance would be if the
installation was clean. This factor allows for the fact that the effective

candle power of all lamps or luminous sources deteriorates due to

blackening and/ or accumulation of dust or dirt on the globes and
reflectors etc .
Differenciate between direct and semi-direct lighting.
Direct Lighting
Lighting provided from a source without reflection from other surfaces. In
daylighting, this means that the light has travelled on a straight path from
the sky (or the sun) to the point of interest. In electrical lighting it usually
describes an installation of ceiling mounted or suspended luminaires with
mostly downward light distribution characteristics.
Semi-Direct Lighting is the kind of lighting provided from a source
without reflection from other [Link] electrical lighting it usually
describes an installation of ceiling mounted or suspended luminaires with
mostly downward light distribution characteristics.
what is standby ups system
An uninterruptible power supply, also uninterruptible power source, UPS
or battery/flywheel backup, is an electrical apparatus that provides
emergency power to a load when the input power source, typically mains
power, fails. A UPS differs from an auxiliary or emergency power system
or standby generator in that it will provide near-instantaneous protection
from input power interruptions, by supplying energy stored in batteries,
supercapacitors, or flywheels. The on-battery runtime of most
uninterruptible power sources is relatively short (only a few minutes) but
sufficient to start a standby power source or properly shut down the
protected equipment
The power rating of the UPS
UPS have both maximum Watt ratings and maximum VA ratings. Neither
the Watt nor the VA rating of a UPS may be exceeded. It is a de-facto
standard in the industry that the Watt rating is approximately 60% of the
VA rating for small UPS systems, this being the typical power factor of
common personal computer loads. In some cases, UPS manufacturers
only publish the VA rating of the UPS. For small UPS designed for
computer loads, which have only a VA rating, it is appropriate to assume
that the Watt rating of the UPS is 60% of the published VA rating. For
larger UPS systems, it is becoming common to focus on the Watt rating of
the UPS, and to have equal Watt and VA ratings for the UPS, because the
Watt and VA ratings of the typical loads are equal
What is fenestration ?advantages and disadvantages of types of
fenestaration.

various aspects of lighting for surveillance

Illuminance

2007
2(b)-explain the principles of light raditaion
[Link] does it affect the normal vision?

with

suitable

Light radiation is the medium of energy by which we perceive our

environment through our eyes. It is one form of electromagnetic radiation
which also includes things like ultraviolet, infrared, and radio waves.
Like all electromagnetic radiation, light is transmitted by individual
packets (or quanta) of energy known as photons. These photons are the
units by which the combined forces of electricity and magnetism are
communicated between other particles, such as the electrons associated
with an atom. Depending on the circumstances under which it is
observed, a photon can behave like a particle or as a wave. This principle
is known as wave-particle duality.
Wave properties
The wave-like nature of electromagnetic radiation or light radiation means
it can be viewed as an oscillating electric and magnetic field at right
angles to the direction of travel of the wave. The frequency of these
oscillations is measured in the number of complete cycles per second, or
hertz. The particular frequency of a photon places it somewhere on a
spectrum of possible frequencies. This is referred to as the electromagnetic spectrum. The range of frequencies that form the visual
spectrum lie between 3.81014 hertz (dark red) and 7.51014 hertz
(violet).

The speed of light, given the symbol c, has been very precisely measured,
as 299,792,458 m/s or 3.00 x 108 m/s or three hundred thousand
kilometers per second. The frequency and wavelength of light are directly
related by the following equation:

c=f

where c is the conventional symbol for the speed of light, usually in

meters per second, f is the frequency of light in hertz, and is the
wavelength in meters.
Given the speed of light as 3.00 108 meters per second.

Control of one lamp from Two switches (Staircase wiring):This system is commonly used for stair case wiring. It consists of two way switches (the
switch operates always in one of the two possible positions) the circuit diagram is as shown in
figure above.
Assume that the lamp is in between ground floor and first floor with switch S1 is on ground
floor and S2 is on first floor. When the position of the switches S1 & S2 is as shown in figure then
the lamps is ON. When a person reaches on first floor the lamp is required to be switched OFF
so the person will change the position of switch S2 such that the lamp will be switched OFF.