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Welding Process

process of welding

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

100 views31 pages

Welding Process

process of welding

Uploaded by

Mohamad Taufik

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

Manual Metal Arc (MMA)
GMAW (MIG) / FCAW / MCAW
GTAW (TIG) Welding
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Gas Welding
Oxy-Fuel Cutting
Laser
Welding Process Comparisons
Plasma Cutting
Thermic Lancing

Manual Metal Arc (MMA)

GMAW (MIG) / FCAW / MCAW

GTAW (TIG) Welding

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Gas Welding
Oxy-Fuel Cutting
Laser

101

106
110

Welding Process Comparisons

114

Plasma Cutting

116

Thermic Lancing

117

Welding
Processes
IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

Welding Processes

Manual Metal Arc (MMA)

Manual Metal Arc (MMA) welding is an electric arc welding process

in which the arc is struck between a covered metal electrode
and the workpiece. The central metal electrode or core wire is
consumable to provide the filler metal for the weld. Shielding of the
weld pool is provided by the decomposition of some components
of the electrode covering.

1
2
3
4
5
6

Core wire
Droplets
Gas shroud
Slag
Weld
Weld pool

Overview

MMA welding is the most flexible and one of the most

widelyused arc welding processes
The process uses an electric arc to fuse joint areas

The consumable electrode consists of a metal core wire covered

in a concentric clay-like mixture

5
6

The process may be operated with an AC or DC power source

This process requires highly skilled welders to produce
goodquality welds

Schematic of MMA process in operation

The process does not require a separate shielding gas

The MMA process can be used to weld:

Engine-driven generators can be used in the field as well as in the

workshop, and in remote areas where mains power is not available,
thereby extending MMA weldings versatility.
With MMA welding only a limited amount of weld metal can be
deposited from one electrode. This means electrodes have to be
replaced frequently, making it a less productive process than other
welding methods.

Applications

Most steels

Nickel alloys

Stainless steels

Copper alloys

Cast irons

Aluminium alloys

MMA welding is also used for hardfacing, and for gouging, cutting
and grooving of ferritic alloys.
Applications for MMA are many and varied:

Operation
MMA is a fusion welding process that uses the heat generated by
an electric arc to fuse metal in the joint area, the arc being struck
between a covered consumable electrode and the workpiece.
The process consists of a welding power source, that may provide
either an AC, DC or DC and AC electric current. Connected to
this power source is an electrode holder into which the electrode
is placed. The circuit is completed with an earth return cable fixed
between the power source and the workpiece.
When the arc is struck between the tip of the electrode and the
workpiece, the core wire begins to melt, and the coating provides a
protective gas and slag covering to the weld.
As the core wire melts, the operator must maintain a constant
arc length distance between the end of the electrode and the
workpiece to prevent the arc extinguishing. Parent metal in the
immediate area of the arc is also melted and this combines with
molten metal from the electrode to form a weld pool.

General fabrication

Pipelines

Structural steelwork

Shipbuilding

Power plant

Bridge-building

Process plant

Offshore fabrication

Pressure vessels

Cryogenic plant

Repair and maintenance in

a wide variety of industries

MMA is particularly suited to site and external welding applications

such as the repair of agricultural equipment.

MMA Welding Equipment

The equipment used for MMA welding consists of:

Power source

Electrode

Electrode cable

Work clamp

Electrode holder

Return cable

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

Manual Metal Arc (MMA)

MMA
(Carbon steel and alloys)

MMA
(Stainless steel)

MMA
(Hard facing)

Gas required

(none)

Metal Consumables

MMA carbon steel electrodes

MMA alloy electrodes

MMA stainless steel electrodes

Other Consumables and Accessories

MMA hard facing

Other Consumables and Accessories

Abrasives

Cable connectors

Chipping hammers

227

Chipping hammers

227

Chipping hammers

227

Electrode holders

MMA (welding cable)

NDT Dye penetrant sprays

Pickling and passivating paste

Welding screens

Wire brushes

Work clamps

225

Work clamps

225

Work clamps

225

Other Consumables and Accessories

Abrasives

Gas Equipment

(none)

Gas Equipment

(none)

Equipment

Gas Equipment
Equipment

Equipment

Electrode ovens

XX
XX

Electrode ovens

Fume extractors

Grinders

Hot boxes

266

Hot boxes

266

Hot boxes

266

MMA machines

220

MMA machines

220

MMA machines

220

Personal Protective Equipment

Aprons

Boots

Eye protection

Dust masks

Ear muffs

Earth leakage equipment

Face shields

Fire extinguishers

Gloves

Hand shields and helmet

Hat and caps

Overalls

Signage

For more information on MMA refer to

Consumables section of this manual.

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

Consumables

Welding Processes

GAMW (MIG) /
FCAW / MCAW
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW),
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) and
Metal Cored Arc Welding (MCAW)

Gas MEtal Arc Welding (GMAW)

GMA commonly referred to as Metal Inert gas MIG) welding
embraces a group of arc welding processes in which a continuous
electrode (the wire) is fed by powered feed rolls (wire feeder)
into the weld pool. An electric arc is created between the tip of
the wire and the weld pool. The wire is progressively melted at the
same speed at which it is being fed and forms part of the weld pool.
Both the arc and the weld pool are protected from atmospheric
contamination by a shield of inert (non-reactive) gas, which is
delivered through a nozzle that is concentric with the welding wire
guide tube.

Operation
MIG welding is usually carried out with a handheld gun as a semiautomatic process. The MIG process can be suited to a variety of
job requirements by choosing the correct shielding gas, electrode
(wire) size and welding parameters. Welding parameters include
the voltage, travel speed, arc (stick-out) length and wire feed rate.
The arc voltage and wire feed rate will determine the filler metal
transfer method.

5
1
6
7
8
2
3

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Gun trigger
Welding wire
Weld
Weld pool
Gun
Shroud
Gas diffuser
Contact tip
Shielding
Droplets

9
10

This application combines the advantages of continuity, speed,

comparative freedom from distortion and the reliability of
automatic welding with the versatility and control of manual
welding. The process is also suitable for mechanised set-ups, and its
use in this respect is increasing.

MIG welding can be carried out using solid wire, flux cored, or a
copper-coated solid wire electrode. The shielding gas or gas mixture
may consist of the following:

Argon

Carbon dioxide

Argon and carbon dioxide mixtures

Argon mixtures with oxygen or helium mixtures

BOC recommends BOC shielding gas mixtures (see pages 120133).

Each gas or gas mixture has specific advantages and limitations.
Other forms of MIG welding include using a flux cored continuous
electrode and carbon dioxide shielding gas, or using self-shielding
flux cored wire, requiring no shielding.

Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

How it Works
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) uses the heat generated by a
DC electric arc to fuse the metal in the joint area, the arc being
struck between a continuously fed consumable filler wire and the
workpiece, melting both the filler wire and the workpiece in the
immediate vicinity. The entire arc area is covered by a shielding gas,
which protects the molten weld pool from the atmosphere.
FCAW is a variant of the MIG process and while there are many
common features between the two processes, there are also several
fundamental differences.
As with MIG, direct current power sources with constant voltage
output characteristics are normally employed to supply the welding
current. With flux cored wires the terminal that the filler wire is
connected to depends on the specific product being used, some
wires running electrode positive, others running electrode negative.
The work return is then connected to the opposite terminal. It has
also been found that the output characteristics of the power source
can have an effect on the quality of the welds produced.
The wire feed unit takes the filler wire from a spool, and feeds
it through the welding gun, to the arc at a predetermined and
accurately controlled speed. Normally, special knurled feed rolls are
used with flux cored wires to assist feeding and to prevent crushing
the consumable.
Unlike MIG, which uses a solid consumable filler wire, the
consumable used in FCAW is of tubular construction, an outer
metal sheath being filled with fluxing agents plus metal powder.

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

GMAW (MIG) / FCAW / MCAW

Theflux fill is also used to provide alloying, arc stability, slag cover,
de-oxidation, and, with some wires, gas shielding.
In terms of gas shielding, there are two different ways in which this
may be achieved with the FCAW process.

Additional gas-shielding supplied from an external source, such as

a gas cylinder
Production of a shielding gas by decomposition of fluxing agents
within the wire, self-shielding

Gas shielded wires are available with either a basic or rutile flux fill,
while self-shielded wires have a broadly basic-type flux fill. The flux
fill dictates the way the wire performs, the properties obtainable,
and suitable applications.

Gas-shielded Operation
Many Cored Wire consumables require an auxiliary gas shield in the
same way that solid wire MIG consumables do. These types of wire
are generally referred to as gas-shielded.
Using an auxiliary gas shield enables the wire designer to
concentrate on the performance characteristics, process tolerance,
positional capabilities, and mechanical properties of the products.

Flux cored arc welding does, however, have the same drawback as
solid wire MIG in terms of gas disruption by wind, and screening
is always necessary for site work. It also incurs the extra cost of
shielding gas, but this is often outweighed by gains in productivity.

Self-shielded Operation
There are also self-shielded consumables designed to operate
without an additional gas shield. In this type of product, arc
shielding is provided by gases generated by decomposition of some
constituents within the flux fill. These types of wire are referred to
as self-shielded.
If no external gas shield is required, then the flux fill must
provide sufficient gas to protect the molten pool and to provide
de-oxidisers and nitride formers to cope with atmospheric
contamination. This leaves less scope to address performance, arc
stabilisation, and process tolerance, so these tend to suffer when
compared with gas shielded types.
Wire efficiencies are also lower, at about 65%, in this mode of
operation than with gas-shielded wires. However, the wires do have
a distinct advantage when it comes to site work in terms of wind
tolerance, as there is no external gas shield to be disrupted.

In a flux cored wire the metal sheath is generally thinner than that
of a self-shielded wire. The area of this metal sheath surrounding the
flux cored wire is much smaller that than that of a solid MIG wire.
This means that the electrical resistance within the flux cored wire
is higher than with solid MIG wires and it is this higher electrical
resistance that gives this type of wire some of its novel operating
properties.
One often quoted property of fluxed cored wires are their higher
deposition rates than solid MIG wires, what is often not explained
is how they deliver these higher values and whether these can be
utilised. For example, if a solid MIG wire is used at 250 amps, then
exchanged for a flux cored wire of the same diameter, and welding
power source controls are left unchanged, then the current reading
would be much less than 250 amps, perhaps as low as 220 amps.
This is because of Ohms Law that states that as the electrical
resistance increases if the voltage remains stable then the current
must fall.
To bring the welding current back to 250 amps it is necessary to
increase the wire feed speed, effectively increasing the amount of
wire being pushed into the weld pool to make the weld. It is this
affect that produces the higher deposition rates that the flux cored
wire manufacturers claim for this type of product. Unfortunately in
many instances the welder has difficulty in utilising this higher wire
feed speed and must either increase the welding speed or increase
the size of the weld. Often in manual applications neither of these
changes can be implemented and the welder simply reduces the
wire feed speed back to where it was and the advantages are lost.
However, if the process is automated in some way then the process
can show improvements in productivity.
It is also common to use longer contact tip to workplace distances
with flux cored arc welding than with solid wire MIG welding and
this also has the effect of increasing the resistive heating on the
wire further accentuating the drop in welding current. Research has
also shown that increasing this distance can lead to an increase in
the ingress of nitrogen and hydrogen into the weld pool, which can
affect the quality of the weld.
Flux cored arc welding has a lower efficiency than solid wire MIG
welding because part of the wire fill contains slag forming agents.
Although the efficiency varies differs by wire type and manufacturer
it is typically between 75 and 85%.

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

Extended self shielded flux cored wire nozzle

When using self-shielded wires, external gas supply is not

required and, therefore, the gas shroud is not necessary. However,
an extension nozzle is often used to support and direct the
long electrode extensions that are needed to obtain high
depositionrates.

Metal Cored Arc Welding (MCAW)

How it Works
Metal Cored Arc Welding (MCAW) uses the heat generated by
a DC electric arc to fuse metal in the joint area, the arc being
struck between a continuously fed consumable filler wire and the
workpiece, melting both the filler wire and the workpiece in the
immediate vicinity. The entire arc area is covered by a shielding gas,
which protects the molten weld pool from the atmosphere.
As MCAW is a variant of the MIG welding process there are many
common features between the two processes, but there are also
several fundamental differences.
As with MIG, direct current power sources with constant voltage
output characteristics are normally employed to supply the welding
current. With metal cored wires the terminal the filler wire is
connected to depends on the specific product being used, some
wires designed to run on electrode positive, others preferring
electrode negative, and some which will run on either. The work
return lead is then connected to the opposite terminal. Electrode
negative operation will usually give better positional welding

GMAW (MIG) / FCAW / MCAW

characteristics. The output characteristics of the power source can

have an effect on the quality of the welds produced.
The wire feed unit takes the filler wire from a spool or bulk pack,
and feeds it through the welding gun, to the arc at a predetermined
and accurately controlled speed. Normally, special knurled feed rolls
are used with metal cored wires to assist feeding and to prevent
crushing the consumable.
Unlike MIG, which uses a solid consumable filler wire, the
consumable used in MCAW is of tubular construction, an outer
metal sheath being filled entirely with metal powder except for
a small amount of non-metallic compounds. These are added to
provide some arc stability and de-oxidation.
MCAW consumables always require an auxiliary gas shield in the
same way that solid MIG wires do. Wires are normally designed to
operate in argon-carbon dioxide or argon-carbon dioxide-oxygen
mixtures or carbon dioxide. Argon rich mixtures tend to produce
lower fume levels than carbon dioxide.
As with MIG, the consumable filler wire and the shielding gas are
directed into the arc area by the welding gun. In the head of the gun,
the welding current is transferred to the wire by means of a copper
alloy contact tip, and a gas diffuser distributes the shielding gas
evenly around a shroud which then allows the gas to flow over the
weld area. The position of the contact tip relative to the gas shroud
may be adjusted to limit the minimum electrode extension.
Modes of metal transfer with MCAW are very similar to those
obtained in MIG welding, the process being operable in both dip
transfer and spray transfer modes. Metal cored wires may also be
used in pulse transfer mode at low mean currents, but this has not
been widely exploited.
Process Schematic Diagram for MIG / FCAW and MCAW
1

5
6
7
8

9
10
11

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Gas hose
Gas cylinder
Power source
Return cable
Continous wire
Wire feed unit
Power cable
Torch conduit
Welding gun
Arc
Workpiece
Earth clamp

Circuit diagram of MIG process

Dip Transfer
Also known as short-circuiting arc or short-arc, this is an allpositional process, using low heat input. The use of relatively
low current and arc voltage settings cause the electrode to
intermittently short-circuit with the weld pool at a controlled
frequency. Metal is transferred by the wire tip actually dipping into
the weld pool and the short-circuit current is sufficient to allow the
arc to be re-established. This short-circuiting mode of metal transfer
effectively extends the range of MIG welding to lower currents so
thin sheet material can readily be welded. The low heat input makes
this technique well-suited to the positional welding of root runs on
thick plate, butt welds for bridging over large gaps and for certain
difficult materials where heat input is critical. Each short-circuit
causes the current to rise and the metal fuses off the end of the
electrode. A high short-circuiting frequency gives low heat input. Dip
transfer occurs between 70-220A, 1423 arc volts. It is achieved
using shielding gases based on carbon dioxide and argon.
1

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Time
7

Short circuit
Necking
Arc re-ignition
Arc established
Arc gap shortens
Short circuit
Current (A)
Voltage (V)

8
Short circuit cycle

Arcing cycle

Schematic of Dip Transfer

Metal cored wires transfer metal in dip mode at low currents just
like solid MIG wires. This transfer mode is used for all positional
work with these types of wire.

Globular Transfer
Metal transfer is controlled by slow ejection resulting in large,
irregularly-shaped globs falling into the weld pool under the action
of gravity. Carbon dioxide gas drops are dispersed haphazardly. With
argon-based gases, the drops are not as large and are transferred in
a more axial direction. There is a lot of spatter, especially in carbon
dioxide, resulting in greater wire consumption, poor penetration
and poor appearance. Globular transfer occurs between the dip and
spray ranges. This mode of transfer is not recommended for normal
welding applications and may be corrected when encountered
by either decreasing the arc voltage or increasing the amperage.
Globular transfer can take place with any electrode diameter.

Modes of Metal Transfer

1 Large droplet
2 Splatter
3 Workpiece

The mode or type of metal transfer in MIG welding depends upon

the current, arc voltage, electrode diameter and type of shielding gas
used. In general, there are four modes of metal transfer.
Modes of metal transfer with FCAW are similar to those obtained
in MIG welding, but here the mode of transfer is heavily dependent
on the composition of the flux fill, as well as on current and voltage.

The most common modes of transfer in FCAW are:

Dip transfer

Globular transfer

Spray transfer

Pulsed arc transfer operation has been applied to flux cored

wires but, as yet, is not widely used because the other transfer
modes are giving users what they require, in most cases.

Schematic of Globular Transfer

Basic flux cored wires tend to operate in a globular mode or in

a globular-spray transfer mode where larger than normal spray
droplets are propelled across the arc, but they never achieve a true
spray transfer mode. This transfer mode is sometimes referred to as
non-axial globular transfer.

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

GMAW (MIG) / FCAW / MCAW

Self-shielded flux cored wires operate in a predominantly globular
transfer mode although at high currents the wire often explodes
across the arc.

Spray Transfer
In spray transfer, metal is projected by an electromagnetic force
from the wire tip in the form of a continuous stream of discrete
droplets approximately the same size as the wire diameter. High
deposition rates are possible and weld appearance and reliability
are good. Most metals can be welded, but the technique is
limited generally to plate thicknesses greater than 6mm. Spray
transfer, due to the tendency of the large weld pool to spill
over, cannot normally be used for positional welding. The main
exception is aluminium and its alloys where, primarily because of
its low density and high thermal conductivity, spray transfer in
position can be carried out.

Pulsed Transfer
Pulsed arc welding is a controlled method of spray transfer,
using currents lower than those possible with the spray transfer
technique, thereby extending the applications of MIG welding into
the range of material thickness where dip transfer is not entirely
[Link] pulsed arc equipment effectively combines two power
sources into one integrated unit. One side of the power source
supplies a background current which keeps the tip of the wire
molten. The other side produces pulses of a higher current that
detach and accelerate the droplets of metal into the weld pool. The
transfer frequency of these droplets is regulated primarily by the
relationship between the two currents. Pulsed arc welding occurs
between 50-220A, 2335 arc volts and only with argon and argonbased gases. It enables welding to be carried out in all positions.

The current flows continuously because of the high voltage

maintaining a long arc and short-circuiting cannot take place. It
occurs best with argon-based gases.

Gas shroud
Wire
Shielding gas
Droplets
Weld
Workpiece

2
4

Pulsed arc droplets

300
Current (A)

1
2
3
4
5
6

200
0

18 ms

Time

Schematic for Pulse Transfer

Dip
Transfer

Globular
Transfer

Schematic of Spray Transfer

Process

In solid wire MIG, as the current is increased, dip transfer passes

into spray transfer via a transitional globular transfer mode. With
metal cored wires there is virtually a direct transition from dip
transfer to spray transfer as the current is increased.

Metal InertGas
(MIG)

Flux Cored
(GasShielded)

Flux Cored
(SelfShielded)

For metal cored wire spray transfer occurs as the current density
increases and an arc is formed at the end of the filler wire,
producing a stream of small metal droplets. Often the outside
sheath of the wire will melt first and the powder in the centre flows
as a stream of smaller droplet into the weld pool. This effect seems
to give much better transfer of alloying elements into the weld.

Metal Cored

Spray
Transfer

Pulsed
Transfer

Not
TrueSpray

In spray transfer, as the current density increases, an arc is formed

at the end of the filler wire, producing a stream of small metal
droplets. In solid wire MIG this transfer mode occurs at higher
currents. Flux cored wires do not achieve a completely true spray
transfer mode but a transfer mode that is almost true spray may
occur at higher currents and can occur at relatively low currents
depending on the composition of the flux.
Rutile flux cored wires will operate in this almost-spray transfer
mode, at all practicable current levels. They are also able to operate
in this mode for positional welding too. Basic flux cored and selfshielded flux cored wires do not operate in anything approaching
true spray transfer mode.

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

GMAW (MIG) / FCAW / MCAW

MIG
(Carbon steel and alloys)

MIG
(Copper/silicon bronze)

Gas required
Carbon Dioxide
Argoshield mixture

Gas required
53
5862

Metal Consumables
MIG wire (carbon steel)

MIG
(Stainless steel)
Gas required

Specshield Copper

Alushield mixture

MIG wire (copper/copper alloys)

6364

Metal Consumables
MIG wire (stainless steel)

Metal Consumables
XX

Stainshield mixture

Other Consumables and Accessories

Abrasives

Anti spatter compounds

Contact tips

264

Contact tips

264

Cylinder trolleys

192

Cylinder trolleys

192

Earthing clamps

225

Earthing clamps

225

Earthing clamps

225

MIG nozzles and other consumables

265

MIG nozzles and other consumables

265

MIG nozzles and other consumables

265

MIG torches

249

MIG torches

249

MIG torches

249

Hoses and fittings

174

Hoses and fittings

174

Hoses and fittings

174

Machine spares

NDT Dye penetrant sprays

Pickling and passivating paste

Welding cable

Welding screens

Other Consumables and Accessories

Abrasives

Other Consumables and Accessories

Abrasives

Anti spatter compounds

Contact tips

264

Cylinder trolleys

Gas Equipment

Regulator and flowmeter

156

Regulator and flowmeter

156

Regulator and flowmeter

156

Integrated regulator flowmeter

156

Integrated regulator flowmeter

156

Integrated regulator flowmeter

156

Equipment

Fume extractors

MIG machines

228

MIG machines

228

MIG machines

228

Grinders

Wire feeder rolls

Wire feeders

247

Wire feeders

247

Wire feeders

247

Personal Protective Equipment

Aprons

Boots

Eye protection

Dust masks

Ear muffs

Face shields

Fire extinguishers

Gloves

Hand shields and helmet

Hat and caps

Overalls

Signage

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

GMAW (MIG) / FCAW / MCAW

MIG
(Aluminium)

FCAW
(Carbon steel)

Gas required
52

Carbon Dioxide

Alushield mixture

Argoshield 52

Metal Consumables
MIG wire (aluminium)

Gas required
53
5862

Metal Consumables
XX

Other Consumables and Accessories

Abrasives

FCAW
(Stainless steel)

Gas required

Argon

FCAW wire (carbon steel)

Abrasives

Anti spatter compounds

Contact tips

264

Cylinder trolleys

Carbon Dioxide
Argoshield 52

53
5862

Metal Consumables
XX

Other Consumables and Accessories

FCAW wire (stainless steel)

Other Consumables and Accessories

Abrasives

Anti spatter compounds

Contact tips

264

Contact tips

264

192

Cylinder trolleys

192

Cylinder trolleys

192

Earthing clamps

225

Earthing clamps

225

Earthing clamps

225

MIG nozzles and other consumables

265

MIG nozzles and other consumables

265

MIG nozzles and other consumables

265

MIG torches

249

MIG torches

249

MIG torches

249

Hoses and fittings

174

Hoses and fittings

174

Hoses and fittings

174

Machine spares

NDT Dye penetrant sprays

Welding cable

Pickling and passivating paste

Welding screens

Welding cable

Welding screens

Gas Equipment

Regulator and flowmeter

156

Regulator and flowmeter

156

Integrated regulator flowmeter

156

Integrated regulator flowmeter

156

Equipment

Gas Equipment
Regulator and flowmeter

156

Integrated regulator flowmeter

156

Fume extractors

MIG machines

228

MIG machines

228

Fume extractors

Grinders

MIG machines

228

Wire feeder rolls

Grinders

Wire feeders

247

Wire feeders

247

Wire feeder rolls

Wire feeders

247

Personal Protective Equipment

Equipment

Aprons

Boots

Aprons

Eye protection

Boots

Dust masks

Eye protection

Ear muffs

Dust masks

Face shields

Ear muffs

Fire extinguishers

Face shields

Gloves

Fire extinguishers

Hand shields and helmet

Gloves

Hat and caps

Hand shields and helmet

Overalls

Hat and caps

Signage

Overalls

Signage

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

Personal Protective Equipment

Welding Processes

GTAW (TIG) Welding

The Gas Tungsten Arc Welding commonly referred to as Tungsten

Inert Gas (TIG) process, uses the heat generated by an electric
arc struck between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the
workpiece to fuse metal in the joint area and produce a molten
weld pool. The arc area is shrouded in an inert or reducing gas
shield to protect the weld pool and the non-consumable electrode.
The process may be operated autogenously (without filler), or
filler may be added by feeding a consumable wire or rod into the
established weld pool.

The addition of filler is optional

Only inert or reducing gases can be used as the shielding gas

TIG welding is a high quality, versatile and commonly-used process

TIG is suitable for welding ferrous and non-ferrous materials

The TIG process can be run on DC-, DC+, or AC

The TIG process is capable of producing very high quality welds in a

wide range of materials and in thicknesses up to about 8 or 10mm.
It is particularly suited to welding of sheet material and for putting
in the root run of pipe butt welds.
The process tends to be very clean, producing little particulate
fume, although it is capable of generating ozone in appreciable
amounts and is not regarded as a high-productivity process.

Operation
Direct or alternating current power sources with constant current
output characteristics are normally employed to supply the welding
current. For DC operation, the tungsten may be connected to either
output terminal but is most often connected to the negative pole.
The output characteristics of the power source can have an effect
on the quality of the welds produced. Shielding gas is directed into
the arc area by the welding torch, and a gas lens within the torch
distributes the shielding gas evenly over the weld area. In the torch,
the welding current is transferred to the tungsten electrode from
the copper conductor. The arc is then initiated by one of several
methods between the tungsten and the workpiece.

Operating Modes

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Shielding gas
Arc
TIG filler rod
Weld pool
Collet
Tungsten Electrode
Workpiece

Schematic of the TIG welding process

DC Electrode Negative (DCEN)

In this mode the tungsten electrode is the negative pole in the
welding circuit, the workpiece being the positive pole.
DC Electrode Positive (DCEP)
In this mode the tungsten electrode is the positive pole in the
welding circuit, the workpiece being the negative pole.
Alternating Current (AC)
In this mode the polarity of the tungsten electrode and the
workpiece alternate between negative and positive at the frequency
of the applied welding current.
Process Variants
There are three main variations of the TIG process designed to
improve productivity:

Orbital TIG

Direct Current Electrode Negative (DCEN)

Hot-wire TIG

Direct Current Electrode Positive (DCEP)

Narrow-gap TIG

Alternating Current (AC)

Cold-wire TIG

The TIG process may be operated in one of the following modes:

The mode used is largely dependent on the parent material

beingwelded.

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

GTAW (TIG) Welding

Application
The TIG process is very versatile and may be used to weld any
metal or alloy system over a wide range of thicknesses, but is
usually restricted to 10mm and under for economic reasons. It is
particularly suited to welding sheet materials and for the root run in
pipe butt welds.
DCEN is the most common mode of operation, and is widely used
for welding all carbon, alloy and stainless steels, as well as nickel
and titanium alloys. Copper alloys, with the exception of those
containing aluminium in significant amounts, can also be welded with
this polarity.
DCEP is used for aluminium alloys when welding with pure helium
as the shielding gas, since this polarity has a strong cathodic cleaning
effect capable of removing the tenacious aluminium oxide film from
the surface. It may also be used for TIG welding magnesium alloys.
AC polarity is used most commonly when welding aluminium
and its alloys with pure argon or argon-helium mixtures to take
advantage of the combination of the cyclic heating and cleaning
action. It is also suitable for welding magnesium alloys and
aluminiumbronze.
Hot-wire TIG is used predominantly for steel and nickel alloys
where the electrical resistance of the wire can be used to increase
productivity.

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

Applications
High quality fabrications in stainless steel

Aluminium, copper and nickel alloys

Welding reactive and refractory metals such as titanium, tantalum
and zirconium

The process is used extensively in the nuclear and aerospace

industries and also in the construction and maintenance of chemical
and cryogenic process plant and pipework. It is also used for
fabrication of tube heat-exchangers in petrochemical and powergeneration plant, and for brewing and food-processing vessels.
Orbital TIG welding is used in the nuclear, pharmaceutical, semiconductor and food industries for the installation of pipework
especially where high quality standards are required.
Specialist equipment for tube and tube-plate welding for heat
exchangers has been developed. These systems may operate from
the outside or inside depending on tube diameter and the size of
the welding head.

TIG Welding Equipment

The equipment used for TIG welding consists of:

Power source

Welding torch

Tungsten electrode

Leads and connectors

Gas supply system

Arc and re-ignition system

GTAW (TIG) Welding

TIG
(Carbon steel)

TIG
(Stainless steel and nickel)

Gas required
Argon

Gas required
52

Argon
Alushield mixture

Metal Consumables
TIG wire (carbon steel)

TIG
(Aluminium)

Other Consumables and Accessories

Gas required
52
XX

Metal Consumables
TIG wire (stainless steel)

Abrasives

Ceramic shrouds

Abrasives

Cylinder trolleys

192

Earthing clamps

225

TIG torches

Argon

Alushield mixture

Metal Consumables
XX

Other Consumables and Accessories

TIG wire (aluminium)

Other Consumables and Accessories

Abrasives

Ceramic shrouds

Cylinder trolleys

192

Cylinder trolleys

192

271

Earthing clamps

225

Earthing clamps

225

Tungsten electrodes

273

TIG torches

271

TIG torches

271

Hoses and fittings

174

Tungsten electrodes

273

Tungsten electrodes

273

Machine spares

Hoses and fittings

174

Hoses and fittings

174

NDT Dye penetrant sprays

Machine spares

Welding cable

NDT Dye penetrant sprays

Welding screens

Pickling and passivating paste

Welding cable

Welding screens

Gas Equipment
Regulator and flowmeter

156

Integrated regulator flowmeter

156

Equipment
Fume extractors

Grinders

TIG machines

266

Personal Protective Equipment

Gas Equipment
Regulator and flowmeter

156

Integrated regulator flowmeter

156

Gas Equipment
Regulator and flowmeter

156

Integrated regulator flowmeter

156

Equipment
Fume extractors

Equipment

Fume extractors

Grinders

TIG machines

266

TIG machines

266

Aprons

Boots

Aprons

Eye protection

Aprons

Boots

Dust masks

Boots

Eye protection

Ear muffs

Eye protection

Dust masks

Face shields

Dust masks

Ear muffs

Fire extinguishers

Ear muffs

Face shields

Gloves

Face shields

Fire extinguishers

Hand shields and helmet

Fire extinguishers

Gloves

Hat and caps

Gloves

Hand shields and helmet

Overalls

Hand shields and helmet

Hat and caps

Signage

Hat and caps

Overalls

Signage

Personal Protective Equipment

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

Welding Processes

Submerged Arc
Welding (SAW)
How it Works
SAW uses the arc struck between a continuously fed electrode
and the work piece to melt the metal in the joint area and provide
additional filler metal under a blanket of granular flux. This arc is
completely submerged under the molten flux, which protects the
molten metal from the atmosphere. There is no visible arc, spatter
or fume during the welding operation.

The continuous electrode maybe a solid or cored wire. The solid

wires are normally copper coated. The cored wires may contain
either metallic materials or a mixture of metallic and flux materials.
Flux cored wires affect the welding characteristics and metallurgical
quality of the deposited weld metal. On surfacing applications a strip
electrode can be used instead of a wire.

1 Submerged arc wire

2 Straightening rollers
2

3 Feed rollers
4 Power lead
5 Contact tube

6 Extension tube
11

12
13

7 Electrode guide
8 Electrode
9 Flux bed
10 Lead to earth
11 Slag sieve
12 Flux hopper
13 Excess flux recovery system

14 Flux delivery tube

15 Slag
16 Weld bead

17 Work piece

Schematic of SAW process

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

A wide range of flux compositions is used with submerged

arc welding. Generally speaking fluxes with the best welding
characteristics give inferior weld metal mechanical properties, these
fluxes are known as acid fluxes. Neutral fluxes generally give a good
all round performance. While basic fluxes give the best metallurgical
results but possess inferior welding characteristics. The normal
approach is to select the flux with the best running characteristics
which will meet the metallurgical requirements comfortably.

Application

SAW may be carried out using either DC or AC power sources. The

best all round welding conditions are normally obtained with DC
electrode positive. DC electrode negative will give higher deposition
rates but fusion characteristics are reduced so that this mode of
transfer is mainly used on weld surfacing applications. AC welding
may also be used but arc control is not as good as on DC electrode
positive. This means that many fluxes are developed primarily for
DC operation and will not operate satisfactorily on AC.

Typical Welding Applications

Operating Parameters
SAW is capable of operating at high welding currents. Welding
current is the parameter that controls weld deposition rate. It also
controls the depth of weld penetration and the amount of base
metal melted.
Arc voltage controls the arc length and this has a major influence on
the shape of the weld and its exterior appearance. Raising the arc
voltage increases the arc length and this in turn increases the weld
width. Lowering the arc voltage has the opposite effect.
The travel speed controls the heat input into the joint area.
Increasing travel speed reduces the heat input and supplies less filler
metal per unit length of weld resulting in less weld reinforcement.
Increasing travel speed reduces weld penetration but can cause
undercut. Reducing travel speed provides time for the gases to
escape from the molten metal and thus porosity may be reduced.
Electrode stick out, the distance between the contact tube and
the arc has a major affect on weld penetration and deposition rate.
Increasing the stick out increases deposition rate and reduces
weld penetration. However, to maintain optimum process control
the electrode stick out is normally maintained between 2535mm
unless special nozzle adapters are fitted.

100

SAW is widely used for welding carbon, carbon manganese, alloy and
stainless steels. It is also used for joining some nickel based alloys.
The ability to produce high quality, defect free welds at high
deposition rates, with deep weld penetration makes the SAW
process highly suitable for all mechanized and automatic welding and
surfacing applications.

Welding longitudinal and spiral welded pipes. The longitudinal welds

are carried out using a two-pass welding procedure. A welding
station located inside the pipe deposits the inside weld and the joint
is completed by another station with a single weld on the outside
of the pipe. Spiral welded pipes are produced from a continuous
coil of strip which is folded into a spiral. One welding head deposits
a single weld on the inside and another completes the joint from
theoutside.
In shipbuilding, the process is used to produce butt welds with a
two pass welding procedure depositing a single run on each side of
the joint. Stiffeners are produced using single and twin fillet welding
procedures. Major shipyards carry out this operation using panel
lines where large sections are produced prior to transfer to the
construction berth.
Submerged arc welding is widely used on general structural steel
welding applications including mass production of repetitive short
welds. Single side welding procedures using a copper backing system
are often used on applications such as propane cylinder production.
Typical Surfacing Applications
Roll resurfacing is carried out as a continuous operation.
Circumferential bead welds are deposited on the roll surface.
When a weld is completed around the roll the welding head is
automatically adjusted to produce the next bead adjacent to
the previous one. This process is continued until the complete
roll has received one layer of surfacing deposit. The head is then
repositioned to produce a second and further layers of weld metal
as required.
Submerged arc welding is widely used for cladding carbon and alloy
steels with stainless steel and nickel alloy deposits. This process is
usually carried out using strip electrodes and alloy bearing fluxes
which compensate for alloy losses in the arc.

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

Welding Processes

Gas Welding

We will begin by considering the requirements for combustion.

Combustion can only take place if three conditions are satisfied.

1
2

There must be a fuel. A fuel is a material that burns or combusts

with oxygen to release energy. The hot gases produced by
combustion form a flame. Most, but not all, fuels are hydrocarbons.
Oxygen must be present. Oxygen is a chemical element with which
most chemical compounds will combine in an exothermic reaction.
Ignition is required for the fuel / oxidant mixture to ignite and
produce a flame. The source of ignition may be a pilot flame, an
electrical spark, a hot spot or a sudden pressure [Link] the
process of combustion, ignition causes a fuel to react with oxygen.
The products of complete combustion, in the case of hydrocarbon
fuels, are oxides such as carbon dioxide and water, and a large
amount of energy in the form of heat and light.

1 Nozzle
2 Primary flame (or inner cone)
3 Secondary flame (or outer cone)

Schematic of the Gas Welding Flame

Farther out from the primary zone is the reducing [Link] little
combustion takes place in this zone as most of the oxygen available
was consumed in the previous [Link] outside zone is where the
remaining by-products of the initial combustion burn with oxygen
from the atmosphere. Here the reactions are:

When oxygen and a fuel gas are burned together at the end of a
nozzle a flame is created and it is this flame that is used to melt
both the parent and filler material. Of all the fuel gases available
acetylene is the most widely used because of its higher flame
temperature and the ease a which the flame can be set.

2CO + O2 2CO22H2 + O2 2H2O

When equal quantities of acetylene and oxygen are burned a neutral

flame is created and this has two visibly distinct zones within it. In
actual fact there are more than two zones within a neutral flame,
there are four.

Although the neutral flame is the most commonly used for gas
welding two other flame types, oxidising flame and carburising flame
are used for different applications.

Looking from the nozzle the first zone is an unburned mixture of

oxygen and acetylene, no combustion takes place here because the
gases are effectively at room temperature and there is no source
ofheat.

Neutral Flame

These outside two zone form what is termed the secondary zone
or outer envelope.

Flame Types

In the neutral flame the primary zone is sharp and clearly defined.

On the edge of this inner zone is a bright blue-white stationary

combustion zone where burning takes place. The reaction within
this area can be defined by the equation:
C2H2 + O2 2CO + H2
The outside of this zone is the hottest point of the flame.
These two zones form what is called the primary zone or primary
cone of the flame.

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

The neutral flame is used for gas welding:

Carbon and Alloy Steels

Stainless Steel

Cast Iron

Copper

101

Gas Welding

Oxidising Flame
As the name suggests in an oxidising flame an excess of oxygen is
present. This produces a much shorter, brighter secondary zone, the
oxidising flame is also noisier than the other two flame types.

The oxidising flame is primarily used for gas welding brass.

Carburising Flame
The carburising flame is created by having a small excess amount of
acetylene present in the flame. This flame is clearly distinguished by
a small feather of acetylene at the end of the primary zone.

The excess of acetylene in the flame adds carbon into the weld pool
and is used predominantly for hardfacing applications.

Application
The application of gas welding is wide and various, both in terms of
the thickness range and the materials that can be welded with it. It
can also be used to weld in all positions as long as the operator has
the skill required to carry out the task.
The industries that use gas welding are varied, the relatively low
cost equipment and its flexibility means that every engineering
workshop is likely to have a system on site. Of these systems oxyacetylene is by far the most common because it is the only gas
combination that can be used to weld all materials.
Gas welding has also become a favourite with the home DIY
hobbyist, again because of its flexibility.

102

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

Gas Welding
The Oxy-Fuel Welding Process
Welding

Brazing

Welding is using a flame to melt the plate and add filler.

Brazing is adhesion of one plate to another without melting at

temperatures above 450C but below the melting point of the base
metal. The filler material to form the union is non-ferrous.

Welding (fusion welding) takes place when a flame is used to heat

the edges of the joint melting temperature. When the metal is in a
molten state the edges flow together. Addition of the welding rod
may be required, depending on the type of joint being welded.

Braze Welding
Brazing and braze welding take place at temperatures above 450C,
but below the melting point of the base metal.
Braze welding happens when the edges of the joint to be welded
are heated sufficiently to melt the braze welding rod which then
flows onto the joint edges, producing a fillet in the joint. The parent
metal does not melt. The process is one of adhesion.
An advantage of braze welding is reduced distortion because of the
lower temperatures.
The filler material is an alloy of copper and zinc and may also
contain other elements such as silicon, nickel or manganese.
A flux, either coated on or contained within the rod, must
chemically clean the surface of the parent metal during heating.
The edges of the joint to be welded are heated sufficiently to melt
the braze welding rod which then flows on to the joint edges. The
parent metal does not melt.
Comparisons
Advantages of braze welding:

Less distortion because of lower heat input

Faster welding speeds because of lower heat input

Often referred to as silver brazing or silver soldering

Fast metal joining achieved because:

Brazing rod has lowest achievable melting point which can lead
to capillary action
Whole joint is raised to the correct temperature (in contrast
with localised heat applied in welding)
Brazing rod flows by capillary action along joint edges and
through to the reverse side of the joint

Braze joints
Fillet joints

Lap joints

Butt joints not suitable for brazing

Fluxes in brazing
Fluxes clean the metal surface
When fluxes which are used to clean the surface chemically, the
parent metal does not melt. The cleaning permits a good bond
between the parent metal and the brazing welding rod whenbrazing:

Mild steel

Stainless steel

Weakness of joint at high temperatures

Cast iron

Mismatch of colour between parent metal and the bronze

welded deposit

Copper

Disadvantages:

Features of Brazing
Filler metal in a thin film (0.02540.0085mm) between two or
more tightly fitted pieces of base metal

Braze welded joints

Fillet joints

Lap joint

Butt joint

No fusion of the joint edges

Pronounced build up of the filler metal

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

Removal of fluxes
Removal of fluxes after brazing is important when using aluminium
as the flux residues are very corrosive to aluminium.
Flux not needed
When using the copper phosphor brazing rod to braze with copper,
a flux is not needed.

103

Gas Welding

The Oxy-Fuel Welding Process (cont)

Soldering

Types of joints

Soldering is also adhesion at a lower temperature. Filler metal or

solder alloy with a melting temperature of less than 450C is used.
The filler metal wets the parent metal, spreads, makes contact with
the joint opening and is drawn into the joint by capillary action.

The lap joint is best used because it offers maximum strength. The
solder alloy must completely fill the gap to prevent moisture getting
in and causing corrosion.

Filler metals in soldering

Soldering is another type of adhesion process.

Only the correct clearance between the joint faces will enable the
solder to enter the joint by capillary action. The filler alloy must be
selected for joint gap, as those with a narrow melting range tend to
rise higher than those with a wide melting range.

Filler metal or solder alloy with a melting temperature of

<450C is used
Binary-tin-lead alloys are most commonly used
Some tin-lead filler metals contain a little antimony (up to 3%) to
improve the mechanical properties of the soldered joints
The filler metal wets the parent metal, spreads, makes
contact with the joint opening and is drawn into the joint by
capillaryaction.

Fluxes in soldering
Fluxes consist of either:

Various forms of inorganic weak acid solutions and salts

Resins dissolved in organic solvents

Acid and salt fluxes are corrosive and residues must be removed
after soldering
Resin fluxes not corrosive

Function of fluxes in soldering

The function of the flux is:

To prevent

To dissolve

To remove

oxide films and other contaminants.

It is NOT a function of the flux to clean dirt from the base metal.
Precleaning of the joint faces must be done.

Suitability of Various Metals for Soldering

Metal

Solder

Flux

Stainless steel

965 solder

965 flux

Copper, copperalloys
and brass

Lead-tin alloys

Moderately active flux

Aluminium and
aluminium alloys

Alloys of zinc, cadmium, tin and aluminium

Active flux or aluminium zinc rub on fluxless alloys

Cast iron

Parent metal must be pre-tinned with pure tin. This allows

wetting of the joint, despite the presence of free carbon.

965 flux

Tin-plated and
galvanised steel

Soldering is widely used for thin sheet metal, galvanised

or tin-plated. A wide variety of solders can be used.

Highly active flux to protect cut faces and joints

Plated materials
Chrome plating

Very difficult to solder

Silver plating

Easily soldered

Anodised aluminium

Soldering destroys anodised finish

104

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

Gas Welding
Brazing

Soldering

Gas required
Acetylene
Oxygen
MAPP
Propane/Propylene/LPG

Gas Welding

Gas required
69

Acetylene

Oxygen

XX
71

Metal Consumables

MAPP
Propane/Propylene/LPG

Gas required
69

Acetylene

Oxygen

XX
71

Metal Consumables

Brazing rods or hard solder

Fluxes

Soft solder

Other Consumables and Accessories

Metal Consumables
Fluxes

Gas welding rods (carbon steel)

TIG wire (stainless steel)

Other Consumables and Accessories

Abrasives

Cylinder trolleys

192

Cylinder trolleys

192

Cylinder trolleys

192

Flint lighters

191

Flint lighters

191

Flint lighters

191

Hoses and fittings

174

Hoses and fittings

174

Hoses and fittings

174

Soldering and brazing fluxes

Wire brushes

Gas Equipment
Flashback arrestors

166

Brazing tips

Gas welding torches

197

Flashback arrestors

166

Flashback arrestors

166

Master Kit

202

Gas welding torches

178

Gas welding torches

178

Masterstart Kit

202

LT Kit

203

LPG air torches

PortaPack

204

Master Kit

202

LT Kit

203

Promaster Kit

201

Masterstart Kit

202

MAPP torhces

Welding tips

Masterstart LPG Kit

203

Masterstart LPG Kit

203

Series 5000 (PortaPack) regulators

205

PortaPack

204

PortaPack

204

Series 8000 regulators

153

Promaster Kit

201

Series 5000 (PortaPack) regulators

205

Series 5000 (PortaPack) regulators

205

Series 6000 propane regulators

154

Series 6000 propane regulators

154

Series 8000 regulators

153

Series 8000 regulators

153

Gas Equipment

Fume extractors

Personal Protective Equipment

Fume extractors

Personal Protective Equipment

Equipment
Fume extractors

Equipment

Personal Protective Equipment

Aprons

Boots

Eye protection

Aprons

Fire extinguishers

Aprons

Boots

Gloves

Boots

Eye protection

Goggles

Eye protection

Fire extinguishers

Hat and caps

Fire extinguishers

Gloves

Overalls

Gloves

Goggles

Signage

Goggles

Hat and caps

Overalls

Signage

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

105

Welding Processes

Oxy-Fuel Cutting

Overview
Flame cutting, oxy-fuel cutting, fuel gas cutting and oxygen cutting
are terms that are generally used for the same process. Of all the
terms used oxygen cutting best describes how the process operates.
In oxygen cutting, the metal is heated to its ignition temperature
and then a jet of pure oxygen is added which reacts with the metal
creating the cut.
Originally developed in the beginning of the 20th century, and
while the basics of the process hasnt really changed over the years
there has been significant improvements in equipment design. The
process is very versatile and can be used both manually or built
as a machine with either single or multiple torches for higher
operatingefficiencies.

Multi-head oxy-fuel cutting machine

106

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

Oxy-Fuel Cutting
Although a worker can be trained in a short time to make
acceptable cuts with the process, considerable skill is necessary to
produce cut surfaces suitable for welding. The equipment for this
process is also relatively cheap and portable.
Although the equipment for mechanised cutting is more expensive,
there is still a high level of skill required by the operator. As
profile cutting machines become more program controlled a good
understanding of computers is also becoming advantageous.

How it Works
The oxygen cutting process can be considered as a combination
of two distinct and separate processes. First the material to be cut
must have its temperature increased to the point where it will burn
in the presence of oxygen. This is called the ignition temperature of
the steel. In oxygen cutting of steel this is achieved by pre-heating
a localised area until the metal reaches a bright cherry red heat at
about 870900C.
1
2
3
4
5

Although the ignition temperature is dependent upon the material

being cut the choice of fuel gas has an effect on how quickly the
flame will raise the material to the ignition temperature. The higher
flame temperature of oxy-acetylene, 3160C compared to 2828C
for oxy-propane, will mean that if oxy-acetylene is used then cutting
would commence sooner than for oxy-propane. The thicker the
material the more pronounced this effect becomes.
As cutting begins it is theoretically possible to turn off the preheat flame as the reaction of the oxygen and steel is exothermic,
generating heat. In reality heat is conducted away from the cut face
by the material and the pre-heat flame is needed to counteract
thiseffect.
The purity of the cutting oxygen stream is very important and the
pre-heat flame acts as a barrier keeping out the nitrogen in the
atmosphere that would react with the cutting oxygen producing
oxides of nitrogen. Should these oxides be produced they would
reduce the cutting speeds and increase oxygen consumption

Cutting oxygen nozzle

Heated steel
Cutting oxygen
Direction of cut
Steel

Schematic of the oxygen cutting process

At this point a jet of cold oxygen is passed through the centre of

the nozzle onto the red-hot steel. This causes a chemical reaction
between the steel and the oxygen, generating more heat, melting the
steel. This is called anexothermic reaction.
The steel immediately below the oxygen jet is converted to a metal
oxide or slag, and is blown away by the jet. If the oxygen stream
isnt powerful enough, or the cutting speed is too quick, the slag will
solidify in the cut, and a cut will not be achieved.
As the torch begins to move, more steel is preheated and the
oxygen jet burns more of the steel, creating the cut.
Preheat Flame
The pre-heat flame is formed by the combustion of the pre-heat
oxygen and the fuel gas combined either in the torch or the nozzle.
It serves three purposes:

It raises the metal to its ignition temperature.

It counters heat losses due to conduction into the bulk metal.

It shields the cutting oxygen from the effects of entrainment

from the surrounding atmosphere.

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

107

Oxy-Fuel Cutting

Cutting
Oxy-Acetylene Cutting

Oxy-Propane Cutting

Gas required

Acetylene

Oxygen

Propane/propylene/LPG

Metal Consumables

(none)

Other Consumables and Accessories

Abrasives

Chipping hammers

227

Chipping hammers

227

Cylinder trolleys

192

Cylinder trolleys

192

Flint lighters

191

Flint lighters

191

Hoses and fittings

174

Hoses and fittings

174

Gas Equipment
Acetylene cutting nozzles

Gas Equipment
186187

BOC oxy-fuel cutting torches

199

Flashback arrestors

166

High purity regulators

161 ?

LT Kit

199
166
161 ?
203

Master Kit

202

Master Kit

Masterstart Kit

202

Master LPG Kit

?-XX

Oxy Gas Kit

Masterstart Kit

202

PortaPack

204

Masterstart LPG Kit

203

Promaster Kit

201

Promaster Kit

Series 5000 (PortaPack) regulators

205

Propane cutting nozzles

Series 8000 regulators

153

Series 6000 regulators

154

Series 8000 regulators

153

Equipment
Fume extractors

Grinders

Personal Protective Equipment

202

201
186187

Equipment
Fume extractors

Grinders

Aprons

Boots

Aprons

Eye protection

Boots

Face shields

Eye protection

Fire extinguishers

Face shields

Gloves

Fire extinguishers

Goggles

Gloves

Hat and caps

Goggles

Overalls

Hat and caps

Signage

Overalls

Signage

108

Personal Protective Equipment

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

Oxy-Fuel Cutting

Heating and Gouging

Heating
Flame Heating

General Purpose Pre-Heating

Flame heating is a method of raising the

temperature of components which are
usually large and the flame heating process is
usually associated with the welding process.

Gas required

Fabrications may need preheat, interpass

temperature control and post heat
treatment to follow welding procedures of
critical components and structures or flame
heating may be required to simply remove
moisture from a weld joint prior to welding.
Flame heating is also used to locally heat
components prior to another process such
as bending or forming being carried out.
Specialised equipment is manufactured for
all types of heating applications and may
range from a specialist heating equipment
and nozzle to an adaptor for a welding or
cutting torch.
The process is mobile and all positional,
making it ideal for use on large components
or structures.
Fuel gas processes by their very nature use
flammable, potentially explosive, gases, often
in conjunction with oxygen. The gases may
be supplied in and used from pressurised
gas cylinders and mixed in welding or
cutting torches. The main hazards, therefore,
are from naked flames, fire, and explosion.

Propane/Propylene/LPG

General Purpose Heating

Gas required
71

Metal Consumables
(none)

Other Consumables and Accessories

Cylinder trolleys

192

?-XX

BOC oxy-fuel cutting torches

199

Flashback arrestors

Propane heating nozzles

Oxygen

Propane/Propylene/LPG

Metal Consumables
(none)

Other Consumables and Accessories

Gas Equipment
Acetylene heating nozzles

Acetylene

?-XX

Cylinder trolleys

Gas Equipment
Acetylene heating nozzles
BOC oxy-fuel cutting torches

Series 6000 propane regulators

154

Flashback arrestors

Series 8000 regulators

153

Propane heating nozzles

Equipment
(none)

192

?-XX
199
XX
?-XX

Series 8000 regulators

153

Series 6000 propane regulators

154

Equipment

Personal Protective Equipment

(none)

Boots

Eye protection

Fire extinguishers

Boots

Gloves

Eye protection

Overalls

Fire extinguishers

Signage

Gloves

Overalls

Signage

Personal Protective Equipment

Gouging
Arc Air Gouging

Flame Gouging

The air-arc gouging process uses the heat

generated by an arc struck between the
electrode and the workpiece to melt metal
and a high velocity jet of air to force the
melted metal away. Conventional welding
power sources are suitable for the process.
Electrode holders are designed to provide
both the current and the air jet.

Gas required

The electrodes used are made of carbon

covered by a layer of copper. The supply
of air is generally provided from a shop
compressor. The main feature of the process
is a forceful, piercing arc capable of making
deep grooves and [Link] process may be
used for cutting and removing weld metal
in a wide range of ferrous and non-ferrous
alloys although its main use is for cutting
carbon and alloy steels.
The main safety issues with the process are
electrical, high levels of noise, ejection of hot
metal, and fume generation.

Arc Air Gouging

Gas required

Acetylene

Oxygen

Air

Metal Consumables
(none)

Other Consumables and Accessories

Cylinder trolleys

192

Oxy gouging nozzles

Gas Equipment
BOC oxy-fuel cutting torches

199

Flashback arrestors

Equipment
(none)

Personal Protective Equipment

Arc air gouging rods

Gas Equipment
(none)

Equipment
Air compressors

Arc air gouging torch

DC power source

Welding cable

Personal Protective Equipment

Boots

Eye protection

Fire extinguishers

Gloves

Overalls

Hearing

Signage

Overalls

Respiratory

Signage

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

109

Welding Processes

Laser

Industrial lasers offer a high power energy source in the form of

light that can easily be manipulated using optics such as mirrors and
lens. The ability to concentrate many kilowatts of energy into the
area of a pin head has heralded a new era in manufacturing.
There are a wide range of laser sources generally characterised by
their wavelength ranging from the infra-red to the ultraviolet. Lasers
such as CO2, Nd:YAG, Excimer, diode, fiber and disk are being
extensively used in industry with each laser type having developed
its own niche of specific applications.
The word LASER is an acronym meaning:
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
The acronym explains that energised (excited) atoms in the laser
medium can emit a specific kind of light laser light. It is the laser
medium which determines the type of laser light produced and the
application it is used for.

6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Laser resonator
Lasing gas
Laser beam
Beam flight path (220m long)
Mirror
Purge gas
Assist gas
Lens
Nozzle

8
7
9

Laser Medium
Schematic of gases used in the laser process

Lasing Gases
1

1
2
3
4

Fully reflective mirror

Laser excitation source
Partially reflective mirror
Laser beam

Schematic of key elements of a laser

Role of Gas
Most industrial lasers need gases both to generate the laser light
(laser or lasing gases) and to assist in the process, be it cutting
or welding (assist gases). The correct gas quality is important
to maintain laser reliability and to ensure the highest process
productivity and quality.

110

CO2 and Excimer lasers use gases for generating the laser light. It
is important to use lasing gases that meet the tolerances specified
by the laser manufacturer for reliability and optimum laser beam
quality. The purity of lasing gases is typically 99.995% or better.
While the absolute purity is important, so are the types of
impurities present in the gas. Moisture and hydrocarbons can have a
particularly detrimental effect on laser operation.
Assist Gases
Assist or process gases are used at the point where the laser
interacts with the material. The choice of assist gas is extremely
important and can have a significant effect on the process quality
and productivity.
Beam Path Purge Gas
Most laser processing systems require a controlled purge through
the laser beam delivery tubes to maintain laser beam quality to the
point of use. The use of nitrogen as the purge gas can give superior
performance compared with compressed air specifically for high
powered CO2 lasers.

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

Laser
Applications

Laser Welding

Laser Cutting
This process uses intense energy provided by a focussed laser
beam to melt and/or vaporise material, and an assist gas flowing
at pressure through a nozzle to remove the molten or vaporised
material. The beam is focussed on or slightly below the surface
of the work-piece, whilst the gas jet is introduced co-axially with
thebeam.
One of the determining factors of the cutting speeds achievable
is laser power. The type of assist gas used, the supply pressure and
flow rate are also important for attaining required cutting speed and
quality for specific material thickness. Laser nozzle standoff distance
and diameter affect the gas supply requirements.

Laser welding is a fast growing application area for industrial lasers.

Owing to the high energy density of the laser beam, laser welding
is a low heat input process compared to conventional arc welding
and results in deep penetration (key hole) and low distortion
welds. Other advantages include high welding speed, high quality
weld properties, and capability to weld geometries that cannot be
achieved through conventional arc welding.
The laser beam is focused on the materials to be welded and
the process is generally autogenous, requiring no additional filler
material. However, filler wire is sometimes used to bridge joint
fit up gaps and when metallurgical properties of the weld need to
beimproved.
There are three basic laser welding processes:

1
2
3
4
5
6

Mirror
Lens
Focused laser beam
Laser beam
Assist gas inlet
Materal

2
5

1. Conduction welding
The laser beam heats and melts the metal surface. The heat is
conducted to the joint where the weld takes place.

Suitable for thin sheet metal lap joints

Shield gas is not essential but can reduce oxidation

Does not require a high intensity

2. Deep penetration welding

The laser beam penetrates the metal and forms a plasma in
thekeyhole

Requires shield gas

Requires high intensity

Poor fit-up can be addressed by adding filler wire

Schematic of laser cutting

High quality parallel sided cuts are a feature of laser cutting and with
sophisticated CNC control accuracies are measured in microns
rather than millimetres.
Lasers can cut a wide range of materials including ferrous and nonferrous metals. It is common practice for carbon steels to be cut
using lasers coupled with an oxygen assist gas jet, taking advantage
of the exothermic reaction between steel and oxygen to increase
cutting speed. Stainless steel is more usually cut using nitrogen as
the assist gas producing a shiny oxide free edge with a small heat
affected zone. The process is extremely versatile allowing a wide
range of thicknesses to be cut, from very thin foils to inch (25mm)
thick plate and new process developments are steadily increasing
the thickness capability range.

Can weld thick material (up to 15mm) in a single pass but good
fit-up required

3. Hybrid laser-arc and laser-plasma welding

The arc/plasma provides additional cost effective heat to speed
up process (typically 50% increase)

Enlarged melt pool gives more tolerance to poor fit-up

Requires shield gas

Controlled cooling rate reduces cracking

1
4

1
2
3
4
5
6

Metal vapour, plasma

Heat conduction
Evaporation
Shielding gas
Multiple reflection
Keyhole

Non-ferrous metals such as aluminium, nickel, titanium and all their

alloys are widely cut by laser. However, there are some limitations
particularly in thickness in the highly reflective and conductive
materials.
Lasers are also widely used for cutting non-metallic materials such
as wood, plastics, rubber, fabrics and even ceramics. From wooden
die boards to nylon sails - lasers can cut it all.
CO2 lasers are most commonly used for cutting due to their high
power output and relatively low cost, however, Nd:YAG lasers are
also used where extremely fine cutting is required or where fibre
beam delivery is advantageous.

2
5
3

Schematic of keyhole laser welding

As with conventional welding a shielding gas is normally required

the choice of which is governed by the laser type and the material
to be welded. In general the shielding gas protects the molten pool

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

111

Laser

from oxidation, supports the stability of the welding conditions

and can improve the mechanical properties of the weld. In CO2
welding the shielding gas also takes on an important plasma
suppressionrole.
The lasers typically used for welding are CO2 and Nd:YAG and they
are widely used to join carbon steel, stainless steel, aluminium and
some other metals.
CO2 laser welding has found wide application in the automotive
industry for assembling transmission parts such as gears to shafts
or in the manufacture of body panels by tailor welded blanking.
The laser beam is directed usually from a stationary welding head
onto the joint configuration that is manipulated under the head by a
CNC system.
Nd:YAG lasers are also widely used and are renowned for joining
thin sheet metal particularly in a pulsed mode, where each
pulse generates a spot weld with high precision joints formed
by overlapping the spots to form a continuous weld. This type
of welding is often employed for hermetic sealing of electronic
packages. In high power continuous mode they can be used for
welding thicker metal.
Recent developments in laser technology has seen the introduction
of a new solid state lasers (fibre, disk) with very long focal lengths
(2m) and excellent beam quality, which has expanded the range of
application of this technology.
Laser Drilling
Laser drilling was actually the first industrial application for lasers
and since then its use for this application has proliferated. All of
the main industrial laser types CO2, Nd:YAG and Excimer are
used for drilling. The choice of laser depends very much on the hole
requirement and material.
Laser drilling is used in a diverse range of applications from the
perforation of cigarette filters to the generation of cooling holes in
aero engine turbine blades. The electronic industry in particular has
seen wide spread use of laser drilling, from the manufacture of via
holes in printed circuit boards to ink jet printer nozzles.
Laser drilling can produce small, deep and accurate holes in many
materials which are otherwise difficult to machine. Lasers offer
precision and programmability. The absence of tooling allows
a CNC laser program to be modified quickly to accommodate
design changes.
There are a number of techniques that can be used depending on
the type of hole required. These include single shot, percussion and
trepanning drilling techniques.

112

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

Laser
Laser Resonator

Laser Welding

Gas required

Laser Cutting
(Carbon steel)

Gas required

Helium, Ultra High Purity

Argon, Welding Grade

Nitrogen, Ultra High Purity

Helium, High Purity

Carbon Dioxide, Laser Grade

Shielding gas mixture

Nitrogen, Laser Grade

Metal Consumables
(none)

(none)

Equipment
(not applicable)

161

Equipment

(none)

Gas Equipment
161

Equipment
(not applicable)

Personal Protective Equipment

(not applicable)

Personal Protective Equipment

Metal Consumables

Concoa gas equipment

Gas Equipment
Concoa gas equipment

Oxygen, Laser Grade

(none)

(none)
161

Gas required

Other Consumables and Accessories

(none)

Other Consumables and Accessories

Gas Equipment
Concoa gas equipment

56
7778

Metal Consumables

Other Consumables and Accessories

Boots

Eye protection

Boots

Eye protection

Boots

Fire extinguishers

Eye protection

Gloves

Fire extinguishers

Goggles

XX
XX

Personal Protective Equipment

Goggles

Gloves

Hat and caps

Goggles

Overalls

Hat and caps

Signage

Overalls

Signage

Laser Cutting
(Stainless steel)

Laser Cutting
(Aluminium)

Gas required
Nitrogen Laser Grade

Gas required
75

Metal Consumables

Nitrogen Laser Grade

Gas required
75

Metal Consumables

(none)

Other Consumables and Accessories

Equipment

Concoa gas equipment

Gas Equipment
161

Equipment

(not applicable)

(none)

Equipment

(not applicable)

Personal Protective Equipment

Other Consumables and Accessories

(none)

Gas Equipment
161

(none)

Gas Equipment

Air

Metal Consumables

(none)

Other Consumables and Accessories

Concoa gas equipment

Laser Cutting
(Non-metallic)

(not applicable)

Personal Protective Equipment

Boots

Eye protection

Fire extinguishers

Gloves

Goggles

Hat and caps

Overalls

Signage

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

113

Welding Processes

Welding Process
Comparisons
Weld costs, productivity, weld positions, weld materials and welder
skill are all criteria to be considered when selecting welding
processes and their appropriate equipment and consumables.
These factors will significantly affect the quality of the weld and
the overall process costs.

TIG to MMA
MMA is predominantly a manual process but TIG is used both
manually and for the automatic orbital welding of pipe

MMA Comparisons
MIG to MMA
MMA is an intermittent, low-productivity process with electrode
replacement being necessary at regular intervals

MMA is predominantly a manual process whereas MIG can be

used manually, automatically and robotically
MMA electrodes are available primarily for ferrous materials
and nickel alloys but electrodes can be tailored to suit the
composition of the parent material. MIG covers a wider range of
standard materials but all grades are not always available
MMA requires no shielding gas
MMA is ideally suited to outside and site work; MIG suffers from
draughts affecting the gas shield
Consumable wastage levels in MMA are high
MMA requires the slag to be removed, as MIG doesnt create a
slag cover
Welding speeds are much quicker with MIG, so joint completion
times are much lower
With MMA, only about 65% of the consumable weight is
converted into weld metal compared to about 98% for MIG

MMA requires no shielding gas

MMA is ideally suited to outside and site work, TIG suffers from
draughts affecting the gas shield
Consumable wastage levels in MMA are high
MMA requires the slag to be removed, as TIG doesnt create a
slag cover
Welding speeds are higher with MMA but with clean-up added
there can be little difference between the processes
TIG welding power sources are normally capable of being used
for MMA welding
Both processes require good operator technique to produce
high quality welds

FCAW to MMA
MMA is predominantly a manual process whereas FCAW can be
used manually, automatically and robotically

114

MMA electrodes are available primarily for ferrous materials

and nickel alloys but electrodes can be tailored to suit the
composition of the parent material. TIG covers a wide range of
both ferrous and non-ferrous materials

MMA electrodes and flux cored wires cover very similar ferrous,
nickel and hardfacing materials
MMA requires no shielding gas. Some types of cored wire
require a shielding gas but others dont
MMA is ideally suited to outside and site work as are gasless
cored wires
Consumable wastage levels in MMA are high compared to
coredwires
Welding speeds are much quicker with cored wires, so joint
completion times are much faster
With MMA only about 65% of the consumable weight is
converted into weld metal compared to about 80% for FCAW

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

Welding Process Comparisons

MIG Comparisons

TIG Comparisons

MMA to MIG
MIG is a high-productivity continuous process requiring little
downtime

MMA to TIG
TIG can be used manually or automatically whereas MMA is
predominantly a manual process

MIG can be used manually, automatically and robotically whereas

MMA is predominantly a manual process
MIG covers a wide range of standard materials. MMA electrodes
are available primarily for ferrous materials and nickel alloys but
electrodes can be tailored to suit the composition of the parent
material
MIG requires a shielding gas, which is often different for different
materials. MMA requires no shielding gas
MIG suffers from draughts affecting the gas shield. MMA is ideally
suited to outside and site work because it doesnt require a
shielding gas
There is little wastage associated with MIG welding. Consumable
wastage levels in MMA are high

Welding speeds are much quicker with MIG, so joint completion

times are much lower
With MIG about 98% of the consumable weight is converted
into weld metal compared to about 65% for MMA

Skill levels for MIG welding are lower than those required
forTIG
Welding speeds for MIG are generally about double those
forTIG
Weld costs per unit length are much higher in TIG welding
It is generally considered that defect levels in TIG welds are
lower than those for MIG

FCAW to MIG
Both MIG and FCAW can be used manually, automatically and
robotically

MIG doesnt create a slag cover but MMA requires the slag to
beremoved

TIG to MIG
MIG and TIG welding can both be carried out either manually or
automatically

MIG wires are available for a wide range of ferrous and nonferrous materials. FCAW is limited to steel and some types of
stainless steels

TIG can be used for all metals and alloys whereas MMA
electrodes are available primarily for ferrous materials, stainless
steels, and nickel alloys
TIG can be used to weld refractory metals because of its inert
gas shield. MMA is not suited to welding these materials
TIG filler compositions are restricted but MMA electrodes can
be tailored to suit the composition of the parent material
TIG requires a shielding gas but MMA does not
TIG can suffer from drafts disrupting the gas shield. MMA is
ideally suited to outside and site work because it doesnt require
a shielding gas
There is very little consumable wastage with TIG welding, almost
all of it being converted into weld metal. Consumable wastage
levels in MMA are high, only approximately 65% ending up as
weld metal
TIG doesnt create a slag cover and needs little post-weld
cleaning but MMA requires the slag to be removed

MIG to TIG
TIG and MIG welding can both be carried out either manually or
automatically

Skill levels for TIG welding are much higher than those required
for MIG
Welding speeds for TIG are generally about half those for MIG,
with the exception of hot-wire TIG
Weld costs per unit length are much higher in TIG welding
compared with MIG
Less defects are normally detected in TIG than MIG welds

Plasma to TIG
TIG and plasma welding can both be carried out either manually
or automatically

The arc in plasma welding is hotter than that for TIG

Plasma can weld greater thicknesses in a single pass than TIG by
using the keyhole welding technique
TIG has a greater tolerance to fit-up of components than plasma

Positional welding can be easier using some flux cored wires

than with MIG
MIG requires a shielding gas. Some types of cored wire require a
shielding gas but others dont
MIG is predominantly a workshop process but gasless cored
wires are designed for site work
Flux cored wires are much less efficient. With MIG, about 98% of
the consumable weight is converted into weld metal compared
to about 80% or basic and rutile FCAW, and 65% for gasless
cored wires
Welding speeds are very similar between MIG and FCAW
MIG doesnt create a slag cover but FCAW requires the slag to
be removed
Weld costs per unit length are generally higher with FCAW
thanMIG

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

115

Welding Processes

Plasma Cutting

Plasma cutting uses the heat and pressure

generated by a constricted electric arc to
cut material. DC power sources are used
and need high open circuit voltage.
The process is operated using the
transferred arc mode, in which the arc is
maintained between the electrode and the
material to be cut; a pilot arc is maintained
between the electrode and the constricting
orifice. The cutting process uses high plasma
gas flows and active gases.
The features of the process are a high
energy density heat source to give melting
and ejection of molten material in the high
velocity plasma jet.

Plasma Cutting
(Carbon steel)

Plasma Cutting
(Other materials)

Gas required
Air
Argoplas mixture

Gas required
XX
6667

Air
Carbon Dioxide

Carbon Dioxide

Argoplas mixture

Nitrogen

Metal Consumables

XX
53
6667
47

Metal Consumables

(none)

Other Consumables and Accessories

Abrasives

Ceramic shrouds

It can be used for a wide range of ferrous

and non-ferrous alloys and is particularly
suited to cutting of aluminium alloys and
stainless steels.

Chipping hammers

227

Chipping hammers

227

Cylinder trolleys

192

Cylinder trolleys

192

Earthing clamps

225

Earthing clamps

225

Hoses and fittings

174

Hoses and fittings

174

Plasma gases may be argon/hydrogen

mixtures, nitrogen, air, or even oxygen, and
water-cooled electrodes with tantalum tips
are often used. Secondary gases may be
CO2, N2, or air.

Machine spares

Plasma cutting torches

279

Plasma cutting torches

279

Plasma torch consumables and spares

281

Plasma torch consumables and spares

281

Welding screens

Welding fume is generally high but some

modern equipment is capable of maintaining
low fume levels. The process tends to be
noisy and generates high levels of radiation.
Electrode
Shield Gas

Plasma Gas

Gas Equipment
High purity regulators

Gas Equipment
161 ?

Equipment

Workpiece

116

161 ?

Equipment

Air compressors

Fume extractors

Grinders

Plasma cutting machines

276

Plasma cutting machines

276

Personal Protective Equipment

Coaxially
directed
Shield Gas

High purity regulators

Personal Protective Equipment

Aprons

Boots

Eye protection

Face shields

Fire extinguishers

Gloves

Goggles

Hat and caps

Hand shields and helmet

Overalls
Signage

XX
Overalls
XX
IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

Signage

Welding Processes

Thermic Lancing

The thermic lance or oxygen lance came

into use at around the beginning of the
20thcentury for tapping blast furnaces. It
was then just hollow steel or iron gas pipe
into which oxygen was fed after the end had
been heated to its ignition temperature.
The process generates heat up to 2,200C
by the chemical reaction between
heated iron and pure oxygen, called an
exothermicreaction.
It was not until much later that the potential
for melting materials such as concrete,
bricks, stone and most metals was realised
and the thermic lance became a tool for
dismantling waste material into manageable
pieces for disposal.
The modern tool, called a packed lance
because it is packed with steel wires, is used
for boring, cutting and reclamation as well as
scrap disposal.
Variation of the process equipment, used for
more precise work, is the hollow lance or
cable lance.

Thermic Lancing
Gas required
Oxygen

Metal Consumables
Thermic lances

Other Consumables and Accessories

Cylinder trolleys

192

Hoses and fittings

174

Thermic lance holders

Gas Equipment
High purity regulators

161

Series 8000 regulators

153

Equipment
Lance handle

Ignition cartridge

Personal Protective Equipment

Aprons

Boots

Eye protection

Dust mask

Ear muffs

Face shields

Fire extinguishers

Gloves

Goggles

Hat and caps

Hand shields and helmet

Overalls

Signage

Spats

IPRM 2006 : Section 4 : Welding Processes

117

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