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Classification of engines
OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES
Reciprocating engines are classified as sparkignition (SI) engines or compression-ignition (CI)
engines,
depending
on
how
the
E - Exhaust camshaft
I - Intake camshaft
S - Spark plug
V - Valves
P - Piston
R - Connecting rod
C - Crankshaft
W - Water jacket for
coolant flow
combustion
process in the cylinder is initiated.
In SI engines, the combustion of the airfuel
mixture is initiated by a spark plug.
In CI engines, the airfuel mixture is self-ignited as
a result of compressing the mixture above its
selfignition temperature.
The Crankshaft
Transforms the reciprocating motion of the piston and
connecting rod into rotary motion for the propeller.
Cylinder
The core of the engine is the cylinder, with the
piston moving up and down inside the cylinder.
Valves not shown
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Connecting rod
Link which transmits forces between the piston and
the crankshaft.
TDC & BDC
The piston reciprocates in the cylinder between two fixed positions called
the top dead center (TDC)the position of the piston when it forms the
smallest volume in the cylinderand the bottom dead center (BDC)
the position of the piston when it forms the largest volume in the
cylinder.
Stroke
Intake & exhaust valves
The distance between the TDC and the BDC is the largest distance
that the piston can travel in one direction, and it is called the stroke
of the engine. The diameter of the piston is called the bore.
The air or airfuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder through the
intake valve, and the combustion products are expelled from the
cylinder through the exhaust valve.
The intake and exhaust
valves open at the proper
time to let in air and fuel
and to let out exhaust.
Note that both valves are
closed during compression
and combustion so that
the combustion chamber
is sealed.
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Displacement volume
The minimum volume formed in the cylinder when the piston is at TDC is
called the clearance volume. The volume displaced by the piston as it
moves between TDC and BDC is called the displacement volume.
Compression ratio
The ratio of the maximum volume formed in the cylinder to the minimum
(clearance) volume is called the compression ratio r of the engine:
Indicated Work per Cycle
V max VBDC
V min VTDC
Indicated Work per Cycle
Given the cylinder pressure data over the operating cycle of the engine
one can calculate the work done by the gas on the piston. These data
are typically given as PV.
Given the cylinder pressure data over the operating cycle of the engine
one can calculate the work done by the gas on the piston. This data is
typically given as PV.
The indicated work per cycle is given by Wi
The indicated work per cycle is given by Wi
PdV
PdV
WA > 0
WB < 0
Compression
W<0
Power
W>0
Exhaust
W<0
Intake
W>0
Compression
W<0
Power
W>0
Exhaust
W<0
Intake
W<0
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The Otto and Diesel cycles are the ideal
cycles for the SI and CI reciprocating
engines respectively.
Four-stroke internal combustion engines
Otto Cycle
In most spark-ignition engines, the piston executes
The Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition
four complete strokes (two mechanical cycles)
reciprocating engines. It is named after Nikolaus A.
within the cylinder, and the crankshaft completes
Otto, who built a successful four-stroke engine in
two revolutions for each thermodynamic cycle.
1876 in Germany using the cycle proposed by
These engines are called four-stroke internal
Frenchman Beau de Rochas in 1862.
combustion engines.
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The air-standard Otto cycle is the ideal cycle that
approximates the spark-ignition combustion engine.
Process
Description
1-2
Isentropic compression
2-3
Constant volume heat addition
3-4
Isentropic expansion
4-1
Constant volume heat rejection
REAL ENGINES
Internal Combustion Engine: 4-stroke Otto cycle
Internal Combustion Engine: 4-stroke Otto cycle
Step 1: Induction Stroke - Intake of gas-air mixture from
the carburetor
Step 2: Compression stroke - Compression of the air-gas mixture
Engine pulls piston out
of cylinder;
Piston moves from BDC
to TDC;
Low pressure in
cylinder;
Both Inlet & exhaust
valves closed;
Atmospheric pressure
pushes fuel air mixture
into cylinder;
Engine does work on
gases during this
stroke;
Engine pushes piston
into cylinder (volume
decreases): high pressure
and temperature in
cylinder;
Inlet valve open,
exhaust valve closed;
Engine does work on
gases during this stroke;
Piston moves from TDC
to BDC.
At the end of this stroke
a spark is introduced.
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Internal Combustion Engine: 4-stroke Otto cycle
Internal Combustion Engine: 4-stroke Otto cycle
Step 3: Power / Working Stroke - Ignition and Expansion of the
air-gas mixture
Step 3: Power / Working Stroke - Ignition and Expansion of the
air-gas mixture
Mixture burns to form
hot gases: pressure
increases suddenly;
Gases push piston
from TDC to BDC,
generating work;
Both inlet & exhaust
valves are kept closed;
Gas does work on
engine during this
stroke: engine develops
power.
Only during this stroke the engine develops power;
For the compression and expansion strokes, engine gets
power from its crankshaft;
Power required for the compression and expansion
strokes is only a fraction of the power developed by the
engine.
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS: REAL ENGINES
Internal Combustion Engine: 4-stroke Otto cycle
Step 4: Exhaust Stroke - Exhaust of waste gas
Engine pushes piston back
into cylinder: pressure
inside pushes burnt gas
out of cylinder through
open exhaust valve;
Piston moves from BDC to
TDC;
Inlet valve is kept closed
to prevent exhaust gas to
reach the inlet manifold;
Engine does work on gas
during this stroke.
Inline-4
Flat-4
Complete removal of exhaust gas is very important for the efficient
combustion of the next cycle.
V-6
Overhead Cam-4
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Actual and ideal cycles in spark-ignition engines
Actual and ideal cycles in spark-ignition engines
1. The energy addition in an actual process is never at constant pressure
or at constant volume;
2. The process of expansion and compression are never isentropic
because of the heat transfer to or from the system;
3. A finite amount of work is required for the suction of fresh air or
charge and the discharge of products of combustion.
MEP or imep (pi)
The mean effective pressure found from the indicator
diagram is referred to as the indicated mean effective
pressure, imep (pi)
The mean effective pressure (MEP) is a fictitious pressure that, if it
operated on the piston during the entire power stroke, would produce the
same amount of net work as that produced during the actual cycle.
MEP
Wnet
wnet
Vmax Vmin vmax vmin
The mean effective pressure can be
used as a parameter to compare
the performances of reciprocating
engines of equal size. The engine
with a larger value of MEP delivers
more net work per cycle and thus
performs better.
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Indicated Power (ip)
Net work done per cycle (area of power loop area of pumping loop)
The indicated power is defined as the rate of work done by
Work done per cycle = MEP x A x L
the gas on the piston as evaluated from an indicator
diagram.
Where
Indicated Power (ip)
MEP
Mean effective pressure;
Area of piston;
length of stroke.
Brake Power (bp)
The term brake power, bp , is used to specify that the power
ip
= Work done per cycle x cycles per unit time
is measured at the output shaft, this is the usable power
= MEP x A x L x cycles per unit time
delivered by the engine to the load.
= MEP x A x L x N x n / nR
Where
N
crankshaft (or engine) speed in rev/s;
nR
number of crank revolutions per cycle;
= 2 for 4-stroke;
= 1 for 2-stroke;
n
- number of cylinders.
The engine is connected to a brake which can be loaded in
such a way that the torque (T) exerted by the engine can
be measured:
The torque (T) is obtained by reading off a net load, W, at
a known radius, R, from the axis of rotation.
T=WR
N crankshaft (or engine) speed in rev/s
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Brake Power (bp)
Torque is measured off the output shaft using a dynamometer.
An IC engine was tested in the lab at a speed of 1000
rpm with an effective load of 1 kN on the brake drum
b
Stator
having a radius of 0.75 m. Calculate the brake power
Force F
Rotor
produced by the engine.
N
Load cell
78.6 kW
The torque exerted by the engine is T = Load (W) x radius (R)
The brake power, bp, delivered by the engine turning at a speed N and
absorbed by the dynamometer is:
bp T ( 2 N ) T
rad rev
units :
( J ) W (1 kW 1.341 hp )
rev s
Friction Power & Mechanical Efficiency
The difference between the ip and the bp is the friction
power (fp), and is that power required to overcome the
frictional resistance of the engine parts:
Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP)
The indicated mean effective pressure, imep (pi) does not contain
the effect of friction or work necessary to pump the gases in and
fp = ip bp
out and drive the camshaft and various accessories. It consequently
The mechanical efficiency of the engine is defined as:
Mechanical efficiency, M
bp
ip
where M usually lies between 80 and 90%.
is higher than the brake mean effective pressure or bmep (pb).
bmep = M x imep
or
imep
bmep
M
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Brake mean effective pressure, bmep (pb)
A four-stroke single cylinder IC engine develops 5 kW
of brake power with a mechanical efficiency of 80%
The pi is consequently higher than the brake mean effective
pressure or bmep (pb).
running at 1500 rpm. If the indicated mean effective
pressure is 7 bar, find the dimensions of the cylinder
assuming that stroke length and diameter are equal.
bmep = M x imep
pb = M x pi
97 mm
or
imep
bmep
M
pi
pb
M
We know that
Brake mean effective pressure, bmep
Mechanical efficiency, M
bp
ip
bp M x ip
M and MEP are difficult to obtain and are usually combined
and replaced by brake mean effective pressure, bmep (pb):
bmep = M x MEP
and
ip = pi x A x L x N x n / nR
For a four-stroke engine (nR = 2)
x pi x A x L x N x n
bp M
2
bp
But
bmep x A x L x N x n
2
bp T ( 2 N ) T
2NT
bmep A L N n
2
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Brake Power (bp)
Brake mean effective pressure, bmep
Torque is measured off the output shaft using a dynamometer.
bmep A L N n
2NT
2
4
bmep
T
ALn
bmep T
bmep is directly proportional to the engine torque and
b
Force F
Stator
Rotor
N
Load cell
The torque exerted by the engine is T = Load (F) x radius (R)
The brake power, bp, delivered by the engine turning at a speed N and
absorbed by the dynamometer is:
bp T ( 2 N ) T
rad rev
units :
( J ) W (1 kW 1.341 hp )
rev s
is independent of the engine speed.
Morse Test
Morse Test
For a four-cylinder engine:
Morse Test is applicable to multi-cylinder engines:
If the values of ip of the cylinders are denoted by I1, I2, I3 and I4,
1. The engine is run at desired speed and output is noted;
and the power losses in each cylinder are denoted by L1, L2, L3
2. One of the cylinders is cut out by short circuiting spark plug.
and L4, then the value of bp, B, at the test speed with all
Under this condition other cylinders motor this cut cylinder.
The
cylinders firing is given by:
speed falls because of the loss of power with one
cylinder but is restored by reducing the load.
3. The Torque is measured again when the speed has reached
its original value.
4. The difference in output is measure of the indicated power
of cut-out cylinder. Thus for each cylinder indicated power
is obtained to find out total indicated power.
B = (I1 L1) + (I2 L2) + (I3 L3) + (I4 L4)
and if number 1 cylinder is cut off, then I1 = 0. The new bp, B1:
B1 = (0 L1) + (I2 L2) + (I3 L3) + (I4 L4)
B - B1 = I1
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Brake Thermal Efficiency, BT
Morse Test
By cutting out each cylinder in turn the values , I2, I3 and I4 can
The power output of the engine is obtained from the
chemical energy of the fuel supplied.
be obtained:
I = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4
The overall
efficiency of the engine is given by the brake thermal
efficiency, BT,
BT
brake work
energy supplied
BT
Where
bp
x Q net,v
m
mf
is the mass of fuel consumed per unit time;
Q net,v is the net calorific value of the fuel.
Specific fuel consumption, sfc
The specific fuel consumption (sfc) is the mass flow rate
Indicated Thermal Efficiency, IT
It is the ratio of indicated power developed on the piston to
of fuel consumed per unit power output, and is a
the energy content of the fuel supplied. It represents the
criterion of economical power production:
conversion factor of chemical energy of fuel into linear
mf
sfc
bp
mechanical power.
IT
IT
Indicated power (ip)
Fuel power
ip
.
m f x Q net,v
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Indicated Thermal Efficiency, IT
Dividing BT by IT
BT
Volume of air induced (V) & Swept Volume(Vs)
bp
TDC
m f x Q net, v
Stroke
VS
VS
VS
VS
BDC
IT
ip
.
m f x Q net, v
BT
bp
M
IT
ip
Volumetric Efficiency, V
V
V
Bore
Ve = VS n
Ve = (/4) D2 L n
Where:
Ve = engine capacity, Vs = cylinder swept volume
n = number of cylinders, L = stroke, D = bore diameter
Volumetric Efficiency, V
Air Entering the Engine
Engine Displacement
Volume of Air Entering the Engine
Swept Volume
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Volumetric Efficiency, V
Engines are only capable of 80% to 90% volumetric
efficiency.
Volumetric efficiency depends upon throttle opening
and engine speed as well as induction and exhaust
system layout, port size and valve timing and opening
duration.
High volumetric efficiency increases engine power.
Turbo charging is capable of increasing volumetric
efficiency up to 50%.
&
A four-cylinder petrol engine has a bore of 57 mm and a stroke of 90 mm.
Its rated speed is 2800 rev/min and it is tested at this speed against a brake
which has a torque arm of 0.356 m. The net brake load is 155 N and the
mass of fuel consumed is 0.001 376 kg/s and it has a lower calorific value of
44 200 kJ/kg.
A Morse test is carried out and the cylinders are cut out in the order 1, 2, 3,
4, with corresponding brake loads of 111, 106.5, 104.2 and 111 N,
respectively. Calculate for this speed:
a) the engine torque;
b) the bmep;
c)
the brake thermal efficiency;
d) the specific fuel consumption;
e) the mechanical efficiency and the imep.
(55.2 Nm; 7.55 bar; 26.6%; 0.306 kg/kWh; 82.8%; 9.12 bar)
A quality governed four-stroke, single cylinder gas
engine has a bore of 146 mm and a stroke of 280 mm. At
475 rev/min and full load the net load on the friction
brake is 433 N, and the torque arm is 0.45 m. The
indicator diagram gives a net area of 578 mm2 and a
length of 70 mm with a spring rating of 0.815 bar per
mm. Calculate the ip, bp and mechanical efficiency.
(12.49 kW; 9.69 kW; 77.6%)
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Thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle as a
function of compression ratio (k = 1.4)
Timing diagram
For a given compression ratio, an ideal Otto cycle using a monatomic
gas (such as argon or helium, k = 1.667) as the working fluid will have
the highest thermal efficiency.
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Two-Stroke Engine
A two-stroke, two-cycle, or two-cycle engine is a type of internal
Two-Stroke Engine
Less moving parts:
Piston
Crank shaft
Reed valve
combustion engine which completes a power cycle in only one
crankshaft revolution and with two strokes, or up and down
Oil is mixed in fuel for lubrication,
Hence engine can operate at any angle
movements, of the piston in comparison to a "four-stroke
engine", which uses four strokes to do so.
Runs hotter , quicker in acceleration,
and lighter in weight then 4-stroke.
Top of the piston is wedged shape in
order to help incoming gases to enter
and exhaust gases to escape.
Get fewer km per litre
Operation of two-stroke engine
The two stroke engine employs the crankcase as
well as the cylinder to achieve all the elements of
the cycle in only two strokes of the piston.
Intake & Compression stroke
Intake. The fuel/air mixture is first drawn into
the crankcase by the vacuum created during the
upward stroke of the piston through the reed valve.
360 degrees rotation of crankshaft
completes the cycle.
Compression. The piston then rises, driven by
flywheel momentum, and compresses the fuel
mixture. (At the same time, another intake stroke
is happening beneath the piston).
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Power & Exhaust/Transfer Stroke
Operation of Two-stroke
Power. At the top of the stroke the
spark plug ignites the fuel mixture.
The burning fuel expands, driving
the piston downward.
Exhaust/Transfer:Toward the end of the stroke,
the piston exposes the intake port, allowing the
compressed fuel/air mixture in the crankcase to
escape around the piston into the main cylinder.
This expels the exhaust gasses out the exhaust
port, usually located on the opposite side of the
cylinder.
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