Chapter 7.
Functions of Several Variables
7.1
Introduction
In elementary calculus, we encountered scalar functions of one variable, e.g. f
= f (x). However,
many physical quantities in engineering and science
are described in terms of scalar functions of several
variables. For example,
(i) Mass density of a lamina can be described by
(x, y), where (x, y) are the coordinates of a point
on the lamina.
(ii) Pressure in the atmosphere can be described by
P (x, y, z) where (x, y, z) are the coordinates of a
point in the atmosphere.
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
(iii) Temperature distribution of a heated metal ball
can be described by T (x, y, z, t) where (x, y, z)
are the coordinates of a point in the ball and t is
the time.
7.1.1
Functions of Two Variables
A function f of two variables is a rule that assigns
to each ordered pair of real numbers (x, y) a real
number denoted by f (x, y).
We usually write z = f (x, y) to indicate that z is
a function of x and y. Moreover, x, y are called the
independent variables and z is called the dependent
variable. The set of all ordered pairs (x, y) such that
f (x, y) can be defined is called the domain of f .
2
7.1.2
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Example
(a) f (x, y) = x2y 3.
This is a function of two variables which is defined
for any x and y. So the domain of f is the set of
all (x, y) with x, y R.
(b) f (x, y) =
1 x2 y 2.
This function is only defined when 1x2 y 2 0,
or equivalently x2 + y 2 1.
So the domain of f is the set
D = {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 1}.
Note that D represents all the points in the xy
plane lying within (and on) the unit circle.
3
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
(c) We can also define f in pieces as a compound
function. For example
x y if x > y,
y x if x < y,
f (x, y) =
1
if x = y .
7.1.3
Functions of Three or More Variables
We can define functions of three variables f (x, y, z),
four variables f (x, y, z, w), etc in a similar way.
7.2
7.2.1
Geometric Representation
Graphs of functions of two variables
The graph of a function f (x) of one variable is a curve
in the xy-plane, which can be regarded as the set of
all points (x, y) in the xy-plane such that y = f (x).
By analogy, we have the graph of a function f (x, y)
4
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
of two variables is the set of all points (x, y, z) in the
three dimensional xyz-space such that z = f (x, y).
This set represents a surface in the xyz-space.
7.2.2
Example
The graph of f (x, y) = 5 3x 2y is the plane with
equation z = 5 3x 2y (or 3x + 2y + z = 5).
7.2.3
Example
The graph of g(x, y) = 8x2 + 2y 2 is the paraboloid
(see diagram below) with equation z = 8x2 + 2y 2.
z
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7.3
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Partial Derivatives
Let f = f (x, y) be a function of two variables. Either
a change of x or a change of y can cause a change of
f . In order to measure the rate of change of f with
respect to the variable x, we need to fix the variable
y, and vice versa. Note that when we fix one of the
variables of f (x, y), then it becomes a function of one
variable.
7.3.1
Example
Let f (x, y) = x2 2xy + 3y 3. If we fix y = 2, say,
then
f (x, 2) = x2 4x + 24
is a function in x alone.
6
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Similarly, if we fix x = 1, then
f (1, y) = 1 + 2y + 3y 3
is a function in y alone.
7.3.2
First order partial derivatives
Let f (x, y) be a function of two variables. Then the
(first order) partial derivative of f with respect to x at the point (a, b) is
d
f (x, b)
dx
x=a
f (a + h, b) f (a, b)
= lim
h0
h
We say that the partial derivative does not exist at
(a, b) if the limit on the RHS above does not exist.
When the above partial derivative exists, we denote
f
it by
or fx(a, b).
x (a,b)
7
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Similarly, the (first order) partial derivative of
f with respect to y (instead of x) at the point
(a, b) is:
d
f (a, y)
dy
f (a, b + h) f (a, b)
h0
h
= lim
y=b
and is denoted by
f
or fy (a, b).
y (a,b)
If we let z = f (x, y), we also write
fx =
z
,
x
and fy =
z
.
y
In practice, when we compute fx(a, b) (resp. fy (a, b)),
we simply treat the y (resp. x) variable of f (x, y) as
constant and differentiate f with respect to x (respectively y) before substituting x = a and y = b.
8
7.3.3
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Example
Let f (x, y) = (x3 + y) cos (y 2).
Find fx(2, 0), and fy (2, 0).
Solution: Treat y as a constant and compute
d
d 3
fx =
f (x, y) =
(x + y) cos (y 2)
dx
dx
= 3x2 cos (y 2)
Then fx(2, 0) = 3(2)2 cos(02) = 12.
Treat x as a constant and compute
fy =
d
d 3
f (x, y) =
(x + y) cos (y 2)
dy
dy
= cos (y 2) (x3 + y) sin (y 2) 2y.
Then fy (2, 0) = cos (02) (23 + 0) sin (02) 2(0) = 1.
10
7.3.4
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Geometric interpretation
Geometrically, fx(a, b) measures the rate of change
of f in the direction of vector i at the point (a, b). If
we consider the line y = b on the xy-plane parallel to
the x-axis and passing through the point (a, b), the
image of this line under f is a curve C1 on the surface
z = f (x, y). Then fx(a, b) is just the gradient of the
tangent line to C1 at (a, b).
the tangent line to the
curve C1 has gradient
fx (a, b) .
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f (a, b)
z = f (x, y)
(a, b)
the line y = b
10
11
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
the tangent line to the
curve C2 has gradient
fy (a, b)
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f (a, b)
(a, b)
x
Similarly, fy (a, b) is just the gradient of the tangent
line at (a, b) of the curve C2 traced out as the image
of the line x = a under f .
7.3.5
Higher order partial derivatives
We have seen that the partial derivatives fx and fy of
a function of two variables f are also functions of two
variables. Hence, we can study the partial derivatives
of fx and fy .
11
12
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
The second order partial derivatives of f are:
fxx
fyx
2f
= (fx)x = 2
x
2f
= (fy )x =
xy
fxy
fyy
2f
= (fx)y =
yx
2f
= (fy )y = 2 .
y
If z = f (x, y), we also have the following notation:
fxx
7.3.6
2z
= 2
x
fxy
2z
=
yx
fyx
2z
=
xy
Example
Find the second partial derivatives of
f (x, y) = 4x3 + x2y 3 6y 2.
Solution:
We have fx = 12x2 + 2xy 3, so
fxx = 24x + 2y 3,
fxy = 6xy 2.
We have fy = 3x2y 2 12y, so
fyx = 6xy 2,
fyy = 6x2y 12.
12
fyy
2z
= 2.
y
13
7.3.7
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Mixed Derivatives
For most functions in practice, we have
fxy (a, b) = fyx(a, b).
7.3.8
(1)
Example
ey
Let f (x, y) = xy + 2
. Find fyx.
y +1
Solution:
The notation fyx means differentiating
first with respect to y and then with respect to x.
This is the same as fxy , i.e. we can postpone the
differentiation with respect to y and differentiate first
with respect to x:
fx = y = fxy = (fx)y = 1.
This is much easier than to first differentiate with
respect to y!
13
14
7.3.9
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Functions of Three or More Variables
For functions of three or more variables, we have similar definitions and notations for partial derivatives.
For example, for functions of three variables f (x, y, z),
we fix two of the variables and differentiate with respect to the third one.
fx, fy ,
7.4
fz ,
or
f f f
,
,
.
x y z
Chain Rule
Suppose the length `, width w and height h of a box
change with time. At time t0, the dimensions of the
box are ` = 2 m, w = 3 m, h = 4 m, and ` and w are
increasing at a rate of 5 ms1 while h is decreasing
14
15
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
at a rate of 6 ms1. What is the rate of change of
the volume of the box at time t0?
In the above problem, the volume V of the box is a
function of three variables in `, w, h:
V = V (`, w, h)
while these three variables are in turn functions of
time t: ` = `(t),
w = w(t),
h = h(t). Clearly, a
change of t will cause a change of V .
We say that V is a composite function of t and write
V (t) = V (`(t), w(t), h(t)).
dV
.
dt
dV
d` dw
dh
Can we express
in terms of ,
, and ?
dt
dt dt
dt
The rate of change of V is given by
The answer is given by Chain rule.
15
16
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Chain rule for one independent variable on f (x, y)
7.4.1
Suppose z = f (x, y) is a function of two variables x
and y, and x = x(t), y = y(t) are both functions of
t. Then z is a function of t: z(t) = f (x(t), y(t))
and
dz f dx f dy
=
+
.
dt x dt y dt
Example
7.4.2
Let z = 3xy 2 + x4y, where x = sin 2t, y = cos t.
Find
dz
.
dt
Solution:
dz z dx z dy
=
+
dt x dt y dt
= (3y 2 + 4x3y)(2 cos 2t) + (6xy + x4)( sin t).
16
17
7.4.3
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Chain rule for two independent variables on f (x, y)
Suppose z = f (x, y) is a function of two variables x
and y, and x = x(s, t), y = y(s, t) are both functions of two variables s and t. Then z is a function
of s and t: z(s, t) = f (x(s, t), y(s, t)) and
z f x f y
=
+
s x s y s
7.4.4
and
z f x f y
=
+
t x t y t
Example
Let z = e2x cos 3y, where x = st2, y = s2t.
z z x z y
=
+
s x s y s
= (2e2x cos 3y)t2 + (3e2x sin 3y)(2st).
z z x z y
=
+
t x t y t
= (2e2x cos 3y)(2st) + (3e2x sin 3y)(s2).
17
18
7.4.5
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Chain rule for one independent variable on f (x, y, z)
Chain rules can be extended in a similar way for functions of three or more variables.
For example, suppose w = f (x, y, z) is a function of
three variables x, y and z, and x = x(t), y = y(t),
z = z(t) are functions of t. Then w is a function of
t:
w(t) = f (x(t), y(t), z(t)) and we have
dw f dx f dy f dz
=
+
+
.
dt
x dt y dt z dt
7.4.6
Example
Back to the problem at the beginning of this section.
The volume
V (`, w, h) = ` w h.
18
19
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Hence
V
V
V
= wh,
= `h,
= `w.
`
w
h
By chain rule,
V d` V dw V dh
dV
=
+
+
dt
` dt w dt
h dt
d`
dw
dh
= wh + `h
+ `w
dt
dt
dt
We are given, at time t0,
` = 2 m, w = 3 m, h = 4 m,
while
dw
dh
d`
= 5 ms1,
= 5 ms1 and
= 6 ms1.
dt
dt
dt
Hence
dV
= (3)(4)(5)+(2)(4)(5)+(2)(3)(6) = 64 m3s1.
dt
19
20
7.4.7
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Chain rule for two independent variables on f (x, y, z)
Now suppose w = f (x, y, z) is a function of three
variables x, y and z, and x = x(s, t), y = y(s, t),
z = z(s, t) are functions of two variables s and t.
Then w is a function of s and t:
w(s, t) = f (x(s, t), y(s, t), z(s, t)) and we have
w f x f y f z
=
+
+
s
x s y s z s
w f x f y f z
=
+
+
t
x t y t z t
7.5
7.5.1
Directional Derivatives
Extension of Partial Derivatives
We have seen earlier that, given a function f (x, y),
the partial derivatives give the rates of change of f
20
21
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
with respect to x and y, i.e. along the directions of
x- and y-axes.
A natural question to ask is, what is the rate of
change of f along an arbitrary direction? This gives
rise to the notion of directional derivatives.
Let f be a function of x and y.
The directional derivative of f at (a, b) in the
direction of a unit vector u = u1 i + u2 j is
f (a + hu1, b + hu2) f (a, b)
h0
h
Duf (a, b) = lim
if this limit exists.
Note that Dif (a, b) = fx(a, b) and Djf (a, b) = fy (a, b),
where i and j are the standard unit vectors of the xyplane.
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22
7.5.2
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Geometrical meaning
Let L be the line in the xy-plane passing through the
point (a, b) and parallel to u. Then L traces out a
curve C on the surface represented by z = f (x, y) as
shown in the diagram.
z
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z = f (x, y)
(a, b)
Then Duf (a, b) gives the gradient of the tangent line
to the curve C at the point (a, b).
22
23
7.5.3
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
A formula
We can derive by chain rule a formula to compute
directional derivatives in terms of partial derivatives.
Duf (a, b) = fx(a, b)u1 + fy (a, b)u2
7.5.4
Example
Let f (x, y) = x2 3xy 2 +2y 3. Find Duf (2, 1), where
3
1
u=
i + j.
2
2
Solution: First, fx = 2x 3y 2, fy = 6xy + 6y 2.
Thus fx(2, 1) = 1 and fy (2, 1) = 6.
Therefore,
3
36
1
Duf (2, 1) = (1)( ) + (6)( ) =
.
2
2
2
23
24
7.5.5
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Physical meaning
As we mentioned at the beginning of this section, the
directional derivative Duf (a, b) measures the change
in the value df of a function f when we move a small
distance dt from the point (a, b) in the direction of
the vector u:
df = Duf (a, b) dt.
7.5.6
Example
Let f (x, y) = x2y 3 + 1.
Estimate how much the value of f will change if a
point Q moves 0.1 unit from (2, 1) towards (3, 0).
24
25
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Solution: Q moves in the direction (3 i + 0 j)
(2 i + j) = i j.
1
1
The unit vector u along this direction is i j.
2
2
Now fx = 2xy 3, fy = 3x2y 2.
Thus fx(2, 1) = 4 and fy (2, 1) = 12.
Therefore,
1
1
8
Duf (2, 1) = (4)( ) + (12)( ) = .
2
2
2
So
8
df = Duf (2, 1) dt = ( )(0.1) 0.57.
2
So the value of f decreases by approximately 0.57
unit.
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7.5.7
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Functions of Three Variables
We can also define directional derivatives for functions of three variables.
Let f be a function of x, y and z. The directional
derivative of f at (a, b, c) in the direction of a unit
vector u = u1 i + u2 j + u3 k in the xyz space is
Duf (a, b, c)
f (a + hu1, b + hu2, c + hu3) f (a, b, c)
h0
h
= lim
if this limit exists.
Similarly, we have the formula
Duf (a, b, c) = fx(a, b, c)u1+fy (a, b, c)u2+fz (a, b, c)u3
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7.6
7.6.1
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Maximum and Minimum Values
Local maximum and minimum
(1) f (x, y) has a local maximum at (a, b) if
f (x, y) f (a, b) for all points (x, y) near (a, b).
The number f (a, b) is called a local maximum
value.
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(2) f (x, y) has a local minimum at (a, b) if
f (x, y) f (a, b) for all points (x, y) near (a, b).
The number f (a, b) is called a local minimum
value.
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7.6.2
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Critical Points
A function f may have a local maximum or minimum
at (a, b) if
(i) fx(a, b) = 0 and fy (a, b) = 0; or
(ii) fx(a, b) or fy (a, b) does not exist.
A point of f that satisfies (i) or (ii) above is called a
critical point.
7.6.3
Example
Let f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 + 4x 8y + 24. Find the local
maxima and local minima of f , if any.
Solution:
The partial derivatives exist for any
point.
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MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
So we solve fx(x, y) = 0 and fy (x, y) = 0.
fx = 2x + 4 = 0 x = 2
fy = 2y 8 = 0 y = 4.
This gives a solution (x, y) = (2, 4).
Is this point a local maximum, a local minimum, or
none?
By completing squares, we have
f (x, y) = 4 + (x + 2)2 + (y 4)2 4.
Therefore, we conclude that (2, 4) is a local minimum of f with minimum value 4.
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7.6.4
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Example
The following diagram shows the graph of a function
f (x, y) which has a local maximum at a point (a, b)
but fx(a, b) and fy (a, b) does not exist.
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7.6.5
Saddle points
Let (a, b) be a point of f with fx(a, b) = 0 and
fy (a, b) = 0. We say (a, b) is a saddle point of
f if there are some directions along which f has a
local maximum at (a, b) and some directions along
which f has a local minimum at (a, b).
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7.6.6
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Example
Find the local maximum or local minimum of f (x, y) =
2y 2 3x2, if any.
Solution: As before, we solve
fx = 6x = 0 and fy = 4y = 0.
The only solution is (x, y) = (0, 0). So this is the
only critical point of f .
However, this point (0, 0) is neither a local maximum
nor a local minimum of f .
To see this, consider the function f along the x-axis
which has equation y = 0. Substituting this equation
into f (x, y), we have
f (x, 0) = 3x2 0.
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MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
So along x-axis, f has a local maximum at (0, 0).
On the other hand, if we consider f along the y-axis
which has equation x = 0, we have
f (0, y) = 2y 2 > 0.
So along y-axis, f has a local minimum at (0, 0).
Therefore f has a saddle point at (0, 0).
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7.6.7
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Second Derivative Test
When the partial derivatives exist, we can determine
the type of critical point using the following systematic approach:
Let fx(a, b) = 0 and fy (a, b) = 0.
D = fxx(a, b)fyy (a, b) fxy (a, b)2.
(a) If D > 0 and fxx(a, b) > 0, then f has a local
minimum at (a, b).
(b) If D > 0 and fxx(a, b) < 0, then f has a local
maximum at (a, b).
(c) If D < 0, then f has a saddle point at (a, b).
(d) If D = 0, then no conclusion can be drawn.
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7.6.8
MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Example
Find the local maximum, local minimum and saddle
points (if any) of f (x, y) = x3 + y 3 + 3x2 3y 2 8.
Solution:
First, we solve fx = 3x2 + 6x = 0 and
fy = 3y 2 6y = 0.
On solving, we obtain x = 0 or 2 and y = 0 or 2.
Therefore, the critical points are (0, 0), (0, 2), (2, 0)
and (2, 2).
To apply the second derivative test, we compute the
second order partial derivatives.
fxx = 6x + 6,
fyy = 6y 6,
fxy = 0.
2
Thus D(x, y) = fxxfyy fxy
= 36xy36x+36y36.
At (0, 0), D(0, 0) = 36 < 0.
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MA1505 Chapter 7. Functions of Several Variables
Hence, f has a saddle point at (0, 0).
At (0, 2), D(0, 2) = 36 > 0 and fxx(0, 2) = 6 > 0.
Hence f has a local minimum at (0, 2).
At (2, 0), D(2, 0) = 36 > 0 and fxx(2, 0) =
6 < 0. Hence f has a local maximum at (2, 0).
At (2, 2), D(2, 2) = 36 < 0. Hence f has a
saddle point at (2, 2).
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