SECTION B
1. Briefly describe site investigation and why?
Process of the collection of information, the appraisal of data, assessment, and
reporting without which the hazards in the ground beneath the site cannot be
known.
Site investigation is carried out in order to enable a geotechnical and geo
environmental assessment of the ground conditions and analysis of the
engineering and environmental considerations related to the proposed
development.
2. Describe various types of soil sampling techniques and their samplers to acquire
a soil sample?
Soil samples are taken using a variety of samplers; some provide only
disturbed samples while others can provide relatively undisturbed samples.
Shovel
Samples can be obtained by digging out soil from the site. Samples
taken this way are disturbed samples.
Sampling by Standard Split Spoon
Attached to the drilling rod and then lowered to the bottom of the
borehole.
The sampler is driven into the soil at the bottom of the borehole by
means of hammer blows.
After driving is completed, the sampler withdrawn and the shoe and
coupling are removed. The soil sample collected inside the split tube is then
removed and transported to the lab in small glass jars.
Modified California Sampler
The sampler barrel has a larger diameter and is usually lined with
metal tubes to contain samples.
Samples from the Modified California Sampler can be considered
undisturbed if the soil is not excessively soft, does not contain gravel, or is
not a very dense sand.
Piston Samplers
These samplers are thin-walled metal tubes which contain a piston at
the tip.
The samplers are pushed into the bottom of a borehole, with the piston
remaining at the surface of the soil while the tube slides past it. These
samplers will return undisturbed samples in soft soils, but are difficult to
advance in sands and stiff clays, and can be damaged (compromising the
sample) if gravel is encountered.
The Livingstone corer is a commonly used piston sampler. A
modification of the Livingstone corer with a serrated coring head allows it
to be rotated to cut through subsurface vegetable matter such as small roots
or buried twigs.
Pitcher Barrel Sampler
This sampler is similar to piston samplers, except that there is no
piston. There are pressure-relief holes near the top of the sampler to prevent
pressure build-up of water or air above the soil sample.
3. Briefly describe the recommended tests for determining the strength of rocks
and rock aggregate.
Laboratory test of rock strength suffer because of rock variation all values recognize
error of 20%.
Unconfined Compressive Tests (UCS)
Cube or cylinder of rock with flat, cut, parallel faces, loaded axially between
flat steel plates; sample diameter 54mm.
Point Load Test
Cylinder of rock loaded across its diameter between two 60 steel points with
tip radius of 5mm.
Use 54mm core.
Brazilian Test
Cylinder of rock loaded across its diameter between two flat steel platens.
Ring Shear Test
Transverse shear on 2 surfaces across rock cylinder. Restricted to soils and
weak rocks.
Triaxial Test
Cylinder of rock loaded axially with equal confining stresses on radial axes
due to fluid bath pressure.
4. Describe the main factor, which influence the strength of rocks.
Type of rock
Metamorphic rocks are usually stronger.
Degree of weathering
Confining pressure
Strength increases with confining pressure.
Pore pressure
Porous rocks are weaker.
Pore water pressure
Strength decreases with water pressure in pores.
5. What is sinkhole? Discuss about this phenomena.
Sinkholes are considered a type of land subsidence, because they involve a
vertical downward movement of the land surface.
There are three types of sinkholes, each of which forms in a different way.
Solution Sinkholes
Subsidence Sinkholes
Collapse Sinkholes
Collapse sinkholes are the most hazardous to humans because of how
suddenly they can form.
New sinkholes have been correlated to land-use practices, especially from
ground-water pumping and from construction and development practices.
Sinkholes can also form when natural water-drainage patterns are changed and
new water-diversion systems are developed.
Some sinkholes form when the land surface is changed, such as when
industrial and runoff-storage ponds are created.
The substantial weight of the new material can trigger an underground
collapse of supporting material, thus causing a sinkhole.
6. Describe the mechanisms that contribute the slow down slope movement called
creep.
Caused by shear stress sufficient to produce permanent deformation, but too
small to produce shear failure.
Creep is an extremely slow movement of soil downslope, and is caused
primarily by freezing and thawing. The four major types of mass movement
are creep, flow, slide, and fall.
7. List and briefly explain six (6) possible factors triggered by the landslides.
Slope angle the steeper the slope, the less stable it is.
Local relief the vertical distance between valley floor and mountain summit
was great, allowing the mass to pick up speed and momentum.
Thickness of debris over bedrock
Planes of weakness (in bedrock)
Bedding planes; foliation; joints
Parallel to slope most dangerous
Weathering and climate
Ice
Water
Precipitation
Vegetation decreases water saturation of a slopes material that would lead
to a loss of shear strength.
Gravity
Shear force
Normal force
Shear strength
Water content
Additional weight
Increased pore pressure in saturated debris decreases shear strength.
Surface tension in unsaturated debris increases shear strength.
Triggering Mechanisms
Overloading result from human activity and result from dumping, filling
or piling.
Undercutting
Earthquakes strong vibration
8. Explain four (4) preventive measures you may take in the above cases in order to
avoid slope failures.
Surface and subsurface drainage of a hillside
It reduces the weight of the material likely to slide and
Increases the shear strength of the slope material by lowering pore pressure.
Reduce slope angle
Cut-and-fill method
Material is removed from the upper part of the slope and used as fill at the
base providing a flat surface for construction and reducing the slope.
Benching
Cutting a series of benches or steps into hillside.
This process reduces the overall average slope and the benches serve as
collecting sites for small landslides or rock falls that might occur.
Retaining walls
Constructed to provide support for the base of the slope.
Tieback Anchors
Usually anchored well into bedrock, backfilled with crushed rock, and provided
with drain holes to prevent the build-up of water pressure in the hillside.
9. Define earthquakes and describe four (4) types of waves generated by
earthquake with sketches.
Vibrations of earth, produced by the rupture and sudden movement of rocks,
which are caused by stresses beyond the elastic limits of rocks.
P waves (primary waves) Compression waves, which push (compress) and
pull (expand) rock particles in the direction the waves are traveling.
S Waves (secondary waves) Moves at the right angles to the direction the
waves are traveling.
Raleigh waves Both vertical and radial (inside the propagation direction and
the vertical plane).
Loves waves Purely transverse motion (perpendicular to the propagation
direction and parallel to the surface).
10. Explain the scales used to define the magnitude and the damage caused by an
earthquake.
Earthquake Magnitude
Measures the amount of energy released by an earthquake.
The best known magnitude scale is Richter Scale, developed by Charles
Richter of Caltech.
Richter magnitude is determined by:
The largest amplitude of the seismogram recorded at the WoodAnderson instrument and the distance from the focus.
Richter scale is logarithmic. Each unit increase corresponds to tenfold increase
in amplitude and 32 fold increase in energy.
Damage Caused By Earthquake
Ground shaking
Accelerations produced at a specific location by a certain design earthquake.
Most destructive.
Liquefaction
Sudden loss of strength in certain soils.
Surface rupture
Permanent ground deformation along a fault where it intersects the ground
surface.
Other permanent ground deformations
Those that occur away from faults.
Tsunamis
Earthquake generated waves in bodies of water.
11. Where earthquakes do most commonly occurs.
Earthquakes occur all the time all over the world, both along plate edges. The earth's
crust (the outer layer of the planet) is made up of several pieces, called plates. The
plates under the oceans are called oceanic plates and the rest are continental plates.
Along Plate Edges
Most earthquakes occur along the edge of the oceanic and continental
plates.
The plates are moved around by the motion of a deeper part of the
earth (the mantle) that lies underneath the crust. These plates are
always bumping into each other, pulling away from each other, or past
each other. The plates usually move at about the same speed that your
fingernails grow.
Earthquakes usually occur where two plates are running into each other
or sliding past each other.
Earthquakes occur at depths from near the surface to nearly 700 km, although
a great majority of earthquakes are shallow.
Shallow earthquakes: 0 70 km
Intermediate earthquake: 70 300 km
Deep earthquakes: 300 700 km
12. Differentiate between intensity of shaking and the magnitude of an earthquake?
INTENSITY
Mercalli intensity scale measures the damage
MAGNITUDE
Measures the amount of energy released by
from an earthquake at a specific location.
Earthquake intensity depend not only the
an earthquake.
The best known magnitude scale is Richter
strength of the earthquake but also distance
Scale, developed by Charles Richter of
from the epicentre.
Caltech.
Richter magnitude is determined by the
The nature of the surface materials and
largest amplitude of the seismogram recorded
building designs.
at the Wood Anderson instrument and the
distance from the focus.
Richter scale is logarithmic. Each unit
The intensity was based on a scale of 1 to 12.
increase corresponds to tenfold increase in
amplitude and 32 fold increase in energy.
13. List factors that affect the amount of destruction caused by seismic vibrations.
Strength of earthquake
Duration (and aftershocks)
Distance from epicentre
The site materials
Building design
14. What is a tsunami and explain how it triggered?
Great wave in harbour in Japanese.
Also known as a seismic sea wave.
A series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large
volume of water, generally in an ocean.
Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions (including
detonations of underwater nuclear devices), landslides, glacier calvings,
meteorite impacts and other disturbances above or below water all have the
potential to generate a tsunami.
15. Name and explain four hazards, which may be caused by volcanic eruption.
Lava
800 - 1200 degrees C - generally destroys property only - can outwalk most
lava flows.
Three types of lava flows:
Pahoehoe smooth ropy surface
AA rough jagged surface
Block - large boulders and rubble
Flows move downhill and contained within valleys - easy to predict where
they will go. May extend for many miles. May be contained by natural and
man-made barriers. Can also be controlled by spraying water. This cools
and solidifies the flow as was done at Heimaey, Iceland in 1973. Explosions
may also divert flows by punching holes in solidifying crust.
Pyroclastic
ash falls and flows - vary in size of particles. May spread for hundreds of or
even thousands of miles and be transported around the world by winds of
the upper atmosphere. Examples: Pompeii and Krakatoa
Lahars
Mud flows caused by ash mixing with water from glacial melting - may
travel many miles (100) from volcano downstream channels. Potentially
they are very destructive. Examples: Mt. Rainier, Washington; Mt Pinatubo,
Philippines.
Steam explosions
Water comes into contact with magma and flashes into steam - powerful
explosions. Example: Krakatoa, 1883 - shot material 80 km into the air explosion heard 3000 miles away - ash covered 750,000 sq. km, 100 ft
tsunamis, 35,000 killed