WEEK2:MODULE1

MathematicsandPhysicsPrerequisites

Introduction

Mathematics and Physics are the prime requirements for making somethingbefore you actually
make it! In other words, it helps youtomodel thewhole machine in your brain and paper, and
even simulate it, without actually making it. Itis both an essential skillas well as an important
techniquethatisusedeverydaybyengineerstobuildmachinesthatworkwellandnotfail.

The topics covered in thefollowingchapterswillbeexplainedwithrespecttothephysicalworld,

and will directly focus on its applications. They will not cover the mathematical rigor of the
derivations but help you lay the foundationsof Engineering Mathematics and Physics and guide
youindiscoveringthesubjectsbeauty.

Neverworry,thiscoursewillbemoreenjoyableanddifferentfromyourregularhighschoolmath
and physics classes and will also haveconcept clearing quickquizzesas a follow upafter every
modulethatyoustudy.

Cheers!

HOWTOREADTHISMATERIAL

TodayscoursewillbeonimportantMathandPhysicsprinciples.

As we focus on the principles and laws that describe and explain the various phenomena,your
efforts should center on internalizing the meaning of the information. Avoid memorizing the
information,andavoid abstracting the informationfrom the physical worldthatitdescribesand
[Link],contemplatetheinformation,thinkingaboutitsmeaninganditsapplications.

You shall study the following topics in the order of their appearance and then after fully
understanding the topics covered, attempt the quiz shared with you. You should not feel
embarrassed in askingyourdoubts from the instructors, or even your own coursemates group,
butremember that the material that wellstudy in the future will bebuilt upon thisonly,soitis
advisabletogothroughthedocumentcarefully,andanalyzecriticallyalltheexamplesprovided.

You can even study the topics further form the internet or book if you like, but the material
providedshallbecompleteenoughfortheknowledgebaserequiredforthesessions.

Happylearning!

CHAPTER1

MathematicsPrerequisites

Mathematicsisabsolutebeauty,youllknowwhyinawhile.

Whatyoulllearninthischapter:
TheCartesiancoordinatesystem,Trigonometry,Graphingoffunctions

THECARTESIANCOORDINATESYSTEM
To represent and define points on a 2D plane, we use the cartesian coordinate system. In the
cartesian coordinate system,the positionof a point is denoted by how far itisfromtheoriginin
the direction of x and y axes. For example, a point A at (1,2) is1 units fromthe origin in thex
(horizontal)directionand2unitsawayinthey(vertical)direction.

Figure1:Thepoint(2,1)ontheCartesianPlane

TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometry means measurement of triangles. Trigonometry tells us the correlation of the
lengths of sides and the angles in a triangle. For this course, youll only learn about basic
trigonometric functions in right angled triangles. There are3basictrigonometricfunctions: sine,
cosine, and tangent. Remember, all trigonometric ratios are functions taking angle measuresas
inputs.

Wellusethisreferencetriangleforexplanationofthesefunctions:

Figure2:Arightangledtriangle

Understandingthesides:
Inarightangledtriangle,wenamethethreesidesasHypotenuse,PerpendicularandBase.
[Link],itissideDE.
The Perpendicular is the side oppositetothe angle we use in thefunction. Wellbeusing
angle(onpointE)forourfunctions,sosideDFistheperpendicular.
The Base is the remaining side, the side which forms the angle with [Link]
thiscase,itissideEF.

Figure3:AlabelledRightAngledtriangle

SineFunction
Sine(usuallywrittenassin)[Link],

sin() = HP
Hereisavisualizationtomakeitclearer:

Figure4:Thevariationofthesinefunctionwithdifferentangles

Thevalueofsin()rangesfrom1to1.

CosineFunction
Cosine(usuallywrittenascos)[Link],

cos() = HB
Hereisavisualizationtomakeitclearer:

Figure5:Thevariationofthecosinefunctionwithdifferentangles

Thevalueofcos()rangesfrom1to1.

TangentFunction
Tangent(usuallywrittenastan)[Link],

tan() = PB

Hereisavisualizationtomakeitclearer:

Figure6:Thevariationofthetangentfunctionwithdifferentangles

Thevalueoftan()rangesfromto+.

GRAPHINGOFFUNCTIONS
A function is like a machine that has an input and an output. And the output
(y) is related
somehowtotheinput(
x)
.Itiswrittenas:

y = f (x)

Where x is the independentvariable,orthevaluethatcantchange,butduetowhichthefunction

changes values. It is what is inputted into the function
(or the machine) and what comes as an
outputiscalledthedependantvariableory.
We can plot a graph of any function [Link],to
plot sin(x), a computer findsoutthevalueofsin(x)formanymanyvaluesofx,eachdifferingbya
smallinterval,andthendisplays
(plots)
thesepointsonagraphbyjoiningthoseoutputpoints.

For a better understanding of trigonometric ratios, weve shown their graphs [Link] that
thexaxisinallthesegraphsareindegrees.

Thisisthegraphofsinefunction:

Figure7:Graphofthefunctiony=sin(x)

Weveshownthelinesy=1,y=0&y=1forreferenceinthegraph.
We can see,that thefunctionstartstorepeatitselfafterfixedintervals,thisiscalledtheperiodof
thefunction.

Thisisthegraphofcosinefunction:

Figure8:Graphofthefunctiony=cos(x)

Thisisagraphoftangentfunction:

Figure9:Graphofthefunctiony=tan(x)

Thisisthegraphofthefunction y

= x2 :

Figure10:Graphofthefunctiony=x
2

CHAPTER2

Physics
Physics [Link]
placeaccordingtosome basiclaws and
revealingthese laws of naturefromtheobservedevents
is
[Link]!

Whatyoulllearninthischapter:
Vectors and Scalars, Motion and its characteristics, Center of mass, Concepts of Torque and
Moments, Concepts of Work, Energy and Power, Transmission of motion : Gear transmission,
Gear ratio, Circuit components, Electricity, Ohmslaw, Combination of Resistors & Equivalent
Resistance,MagnetsandElectromagnetism.

VECTORANDSCALARQUANTITIES
In your school physics class, you would often have heard about physical quantities like speed,
distance, mass et cetera. These
quantities help
describe particular
qualityof a system
in the
[Link].

ScalarQuantities
Certain physical quantities are completely described by a numerical value alone (with units
specified) and are simply added/subtracted according to the ordinary rules of algebra. This
numerical value is called the
magnitude of the quantity being referred to. Suchquantities are
called
scalar
quantities.
For example, letstake mass (SI unit is kilogramorsimply kg). Massisapropertyofaphysical
body. Greaterthe massofabody,moredifficultitistostop itormakeitmove. Whenyoupushby
applyingthe same amount of force to a car and a penforexample,theybothhaveverydifferent
response. A car might/might not move
(depends if you drink bournvitaor not :P)
but a pen will
move with your hand effortlessly. All this is totally dependant on the mass of the body being
pushed, and on the forcewith which youare pushing.
(well discuss this topic in greater detail in
thefollowingsection)

Example1:

Figure11:WeighingBalance

This diagram shows an ordinary weighing scale

(same as the one vegetable vendors have)
, but
shown in a reduced form focus on only the useful parts. Identical balls are put in both the
containers, which resultsin abalancedconfiguration(sincesameamountofmassisoneachside,
1 +0.5 kg= 1.5kg),whichis also evident from the angle
(shownhereintheanglemeter)thatis0
degrees or parallel to the horizontal/ground. The intuition that whether the scale will be
balancedorunbalanced comesfrom your preconceived notion ofhowmassdifferentmassesare
addedor [Link] Cinthediagram,theequalmassesonbothsidecanceltheirnet
effect
**
,thusthescalehassuchaconfiguration.
On the contrary, when a ball from any one of the containers is taken away, the scale becomes
unbalanced, andtheheavierendlowersdown
(atananglewiththehorizontal)asshowninthe
diagrambelow.

Figure12:Unbalancedweighingscale

The above diagram made it clear that masscan beadded and subtracted inthe usualarithmetic
style, but doesnt it still seemunclearthathowexactlydidthemassescancelout?Maybebecause
they were on opposite sides, maybe because they have a tendency to rotate the arm clockwise
and anticlockwiseandthuscancel, maybe it is not massthatcancelsout...Wearesurelymissing
some detail,but dont worry, if youhadthesamedoubts,youareontherighttrackwewilltakea
lookatthissoon.

**Studentswhohave soundunderstandingofthis concept willsee thatwe arecarefullyavoidingthetermtorquehere,

sinceitwillbeexplainedlateron,butforminganintuitionofthetopiciswhatisbeingdone.

VectorQuantities

The quantities which have a directional sense in addition to the magnitude

(as in the case of a
scalar)
are called
vector [Link],ifI travel1kmfrommystartingpointinan
open field, I could be anywhere on a circle of radius 1 km
(all points are equidistant)
, but if I
report the direction (for example south,northwest, et cetera) inwhich Iwasheaded,thatwould
helptoexactlypinpointmypositioninthefield.

Figure13:Radiusof1kilometeraboutstartingpoint.

Now, that the sense of direction of a vector has been made clear, another property of vectors
shall beput [Link],ifI
walk a kilometeralong east
(x axis)
andanotherkilometeralongnorth
(yaxis)thenIwilllandon
thesame point (1,1) even ifI walk

(1) + (1)
2

(PythagorasTheorem)
.
= 2 km duenortheast

So the projections of the vector

A
along the x and y axes respectively are 1 km and 1 km. In
general, the the x component or projection along the x axis is given as
A
cos and the y
component orthe projection along the yaxis is given as A

sin where istheanglemadewith

thehorizontal/xaxis.

Figure14:Projectionsofavectoralongtwoperpendicularaxes

NOTE: Vectors are denoted by analphabet with either an arrow on top (signifyingdirection) or in
bold print. So vector Adenotingdisplacementcouldbeshownlike

or
A
.
Also,Themagnitudeof

a vector isshownas
|
|
or
|A|.
Thiscanalsobecalledasscalarrepresentationinonedimensional

systems, in whichthere is just a forward and backward [Link]

usingtheboldprintforoptimumintegritywiththetext.
Now, we shall list typical examples of vectors and scalars and understand the differences
betweenthem.

ScalarQuantity

VectorQuantity

Time

Velocity

Temperature

Acceleration

Speed

Displacement

Pressure

Force

Table1:Listofvectorandscalarquantities

The factthatmagnitude occursforbothscalarsandvectors [Link]

some quantities,likespeed,[Link],speed
isthe scalar magnitude of a velocity vector. A car going down theroad hasaspeed|
V|
(scalarin
one dimension) of 50 km/h. ItsvelocityV

(vector)is50km/[Link]
very confusing when the termsare used interchangeably!Another example is massandweight.
Weight is a force which is a vector and has amagnitude and [Link] isa scalar. Weight
and mass are related to one another
(which will be discussed next)
, but they are not the same
quantity.

For example, if I have to go from point A to point B in a football field, I could choosetwo paths,
onethat has lots of turns
(path 1) and another that directly takes metothedestination
(path2).
In both the cases,the displacement
(vector
AB
) remains the same which is x meters along east ,
butdistancestravelled are [Link] firstpathmakes you travel more thanthesecondpath,
thus distancetravelled could be greaterthanor equal to themagnitude of thedisplacement,but
never less, since displacement refers to the minimum distance along the line joining the two
points.

Figure15:Distanceanddisplacement

MOTIONANDITSCHARACTERISTICS
[Link].

When we talk about the velocity of something we first determine a

reference point andthen
according to this reference point we specify the velocity of the object. To verify the previous
statement, let us recall our experience of sitting in a t
rain
(moving at say 120 km/h, in the

morning,wheneveryoneisbusyeatingtheirbreakfast)
.
When youwatch your fellow passengerseating, theyseem to be at rest, that is, theydontreally
seem to be moving at 120 km/h, but as a matter of fact you know that the train and thus the
passengersareallmovingat120km/h!Whichstatementiswrongthen?
It is all about fixing that reference point, or the
frame of reference.
With respect to you
, the
passengersare at rest since allofthemincludingyou aremovingwiththesamevelocity,but
with
respect to apersonstandingbesidethetraintracksyouandyourfellowpassengerswillbemoving
at 120 km/h. So it isimportanttofixthe reference frame with respect to whichyouobservethe
motion.
Velocity of themovingobjectswithrespecttoothermovingorstationary objectiscalled
relative
velocity and this motion is called
relative motion
. Reference point is too important in physics.
We do allcalculationsaccordingtothereferencepoints. Forinstance, weobservetheplaneflying
in the air, velocity of thatplane with respect to us
(on the ground) is thesum of thevelocitiesof
plane and the [Link], thesame planehasdifferentvelocity with respect to apassenger
on the other plane. To sum up, we determine the directions and quantities of velocity of the
objectswithrespecttoachosenreferencepoint.

Butwhyistheremotionatall?Whatcausesittohappen?Again,wewillbeconsideringtheframe
ofreferenceasearthwhilestudyingthecausesofmotion
(partlybecausewithrespecttoJupiter,
evenadeadmanismoving:P)
IwillquoteNewtonsFirstlawofmotionwhichisthebasisforallmotionrelatedcalculationsand
understandingitscauses,becauseofthequalitativedefinitionofforcethatitprovides.

Anobjectatreststaysatrestandanobjectinmotionstaysinmotionwiththesamespeedandin
thesamedirection(velocity)unlessacteduponbyanunbalancedforce.

The above statement tells us that in order to make changes inthe bodys trajectory,we need to
applyan
externalunbalancedforcetoitor otherwiseitllcontinueinitsoriginalstateofmotioni.e
rest or a constant velocity
. Under the sole application of that force
(example friction, or a
push/kick)
, can the body start to accelerate
(the rate ofchangeofvelocityperunit of time)
,and
this acceleration is
along the direction of the force. Further, Newtons second law of motion
relatesthemagnitudesofaccelerationandforceapplied.

Theaccelerationofanobjectasproducedbyanetforceisdirectlyproportionaltothemagnitude
ofthenetforce,inthesamedirectionasthenetforce,andinverselyproportionaltothemassofthe
object.

F
a

m1
F
=
m
a

Greaterthe mass, lesser is the acceleration orgreater is the resistance to [Link]

was what the first law also indicated, but the second law further gave a quantitative linear
relationshipbetween all force, mass, andacceleration
(onearth,theaccelerationduetogravityor
2
g
is
9.8m/s
,andthusourweightonearthisgivenasmg

)
.

Newtons third law of motion gives an important property of forces:Theyalwaysoccurinaction

reactionpairs.

Whenonebodyexertsaforceonasecondbody,thesecondbodysimultaneouslyexertsaforce
equalinmagnitudeandoppositeindirectiononthefirstbody.

Figure16:AnillustrationofNewton'sthirdlaw[1]

In the illustration above, first skater on the left exerts a force

F
(action)
on the second skater
12
directed towards the right, and the second skater exertsa force
F21

(reaction)
onthe firstskater
directedtowardstheleft.
The magnitudes of both forces are equal, but they have opposite directions, as dictated by
Newton's thirdlaw,thus nullifying the effect of the forceapplied which isevidentfromthestate
ofrest
(ofboththeskaters)
beingundisturbed.

Wewillnowunderstandalloftheselawsthroughtheexamplegivenbelow:

Example1:

Consider that you have beengivenatasktoshiftthe almirahinyourroom

(withfrictionlessfloor)
from one corner to [Link],youfirstrecallthethreelawsofmotionyoujust
learnt,toapplytheminareallifeproblemasthis.
[Link] bedoneintwoways,
one is to make a detailed diagram of allthe entities involvedin the system and is shown in the
hand drawing below
(top part)
. But this method has too many things to focus on, you, your
almirah, theground etc, whilewejustneedtofocusonthealmirah
(becausethatisthethingto be
moved, not others)
. So we introduceanewmethodtodrawsystems,calledthe freebodydiagram
(bottom part)
. In this method, we reduce the almirah
(or the body in focus) to asmall box, and
only show the forces acting on itwhile removing all other bodies
(eg: yourself, keeping only the
forceappliedbyyou)
.

Figure17:Analysisofshiftinganalmirahusingthelawsofmotion

Soletussaythatyouhaveappliedaforce(
F
alonghorizontal)of540N
(onlytomakethe
calculationeasier,inrealityitcorrespondstoapproximately
54
kgweightoraforcethata
54kg
personappliesonthegroundwhilestanding)
.

Asaresultofthisforce,thealmirahwillstartto
2
540N
accelerateat 540kg = 1ms alongthedirectionoftheforce,[Link]
thisaccelerationisthatitsvelocitywillchangeby1m/[Link]
thatyoucanseearetheweight
(actingdownwards,duetothegravitationalpullofearth)
,andthe
normalreactionbytheground
(actingupwards)
.Thenormalreactionandweightarethe
[Link]

intothefloor,sothefloorappliesanequalandoppositeforceonthealmirahtokeepthenetforce
alongtheverticalzero,andthusthealmirahonlymoveshorizontally
(alongwhichthereisanan
unbalancedforce
F
acting)
andnotvertically
(alongwhichthereisnounbalancedexternalforce
acting)
.

CENTEROFMASS

TheCenterofMassisthe
averagepositionofthemass
[Link]
[Link],masslessshellwithallitsmasslocated
at
this
CenterofMass(CoM).

Figure18:Trajectoryofthecenterofmassofaball[2]

Whenwethrowabaseball,weexpectittofollowasmooth,curved
(parabolic)trajectory,whichit
does. Theball spins about itscenter of mass
(the red dotin the middle) andstillthe trajectoryof
the ball as a whole is uniform since the balls content/mass is uniformly distributed in all
directionsarounditscenterofmass.

Figure19:Trajectoryofthecenterofmassofabat[3]

When we throw a baseball bat

(or evenahalf filled bottle)
, however,its path or trajectory does
not seem smooth [Link]
(thereddot,nearer tothe
lower end of the bat)
, the center of mass itself isfollowing thesame smooth, curved
(parabolic)
paththatweexpectforasmaller,simplerobject,likeabaseball.

Figure20:Locationofthecenterofmassofabroomstick[4]

Thecenterofmassisthepointwhere [Link]
issupported at its centerofmassthereisnonettorqueactingonthebody
(discussedlater)andit
will remain in static equilibrium. To determine the location of the center of mass of an object,
gently slide your fingerstogether from [Link], you
will be at the center of mass at which you can easily holdup the object with only one finger as
long asit can withstand [Link] [Link]
object is uniform, for example a meter stick, the center of mass will be at the exact geometric
center; ifthe object is irregular inshape
(figure 19, figure 20)the centerofmasswill becloserto
theheavierend.

Now, let us recallour mechanicalweighing scale example. Recall thecase whenweremovedthe

ball from one end while keeping the one at the other end intact. This resulted in a tilted
configuration of theapparatus. Now we can deducethe location of the center ofmassofthetwo
different masses kept on different ends, and can conclude that it will be somewhere on the left
side of the pivot
(considering uniform and equal weights of the scales and suspension threadson
eachside)
.

Figure21:Centerofmassofthetwodifferentmassesonaweighingscale

CONCEPTSOFTORQUEANDMOMENTS

Figure22

When an object is in equilibrium the sum of the anticlockwisemoments abouta turning point
mustbeequaltothesumoftheclockwisemoments.
sumofanticlockwisemoments=sumofclockwisemoments
F
1xd

1=F

2xd

2
Whenever a force is appliedtoa rigid body (a bar, a beam, a pole)it usually results in the rigid
bodyrotatingaboutanaxisorpivotthatis,atorquehasbeenapplied.

In the following diagrams, we first see a uniform beam balanced on a knifeedge. This is
accomplished by placing the knifeedge in the exact center directly under the beam's centerof
gravity.

Figure23

Ifthebeamisshiftedtoeithertherightorleftsideoftheknifeedge,itwillnolongerremainin
[Link].

Figure24

If amasshaving thesameweightofthebeamisplacedequidistantfromthepivotontheopposite
side, the beam will once again be brought back to equilibrium and return to its original level
orientation.

Figure25

Tocalculatethemagnitudeofthetorqueproducedbyaforceweusetheformula
where

or

F
representsthemagnitudeofappliedforce
r
representsitsmomentarm

representstheangleformedbetween
F
and
r

If
F and
r are mutually perpendicular, sin 90= 1 and

. The magnitude of themoment

arm,
r
, isoften written as sinceit,moreoftenthannot,[Link]
moment arm is defined as the perpendicular distancefrom the line of action of theforce to the
pivot point. Since
F is measured in newtons and
is in meters, torque is measuredin mnt.
Alert!torqueisnotmeasuredinjoules,eventhoughajouleequalsanewtonmeter.

CONCEPTSOFWORK,ENERGY,ANDPOWER
Youmightbefamiliarwiththeexperienceofgettingtiredafterstudyingallday,andthen
[Link]
work
.Butin
thetermsofPhysics,theamountofworkdonebyyouis0J
(JorjoulesistheSIunitof
energy/work)
.InPhysicswedontconsideranythingasworkuntilithasacertainphysical
[Link]
displacementisthatirrespectiveofwhetheryoutravelalongapathhavinggreaterdistanceor
youtravelstraight
(onafrictionlessfloor)
youdothesameamountofwork
(refertoFigurex)
Whenaforceactsuponanobjecttocauseadisplacementoftheobject,itissaidthat
work
was
[Link]
ingredients
toworkforce,displacement,[Link]
orderforaforcetoqualifyashavingdone
work
onanobject,theremustbeadisplacementand
theforcemust
cause
[Link]
observedineverydaylifeahorsepullingaplowthroughthefield,afatherpushingagrocery
cartdowntheaisleofagrocerystore,afreshmanliftingabackpackfullofbooksuponher

shoulder,aweightlifterliftingabarbellabovehishead,anOlympianlaunchingtheshotput,etc.
Ineachcasedescribedherethereisaforceexerteduponanobjecttocausethatobjecttobe
displaced.

Figure26

TRANSMISSIONOFMOTION
Whenyoutravelinacar,youknowbyseeingthatthewheelsrotatebutthecardoesntrotate,
[Link]
transformationofmotion
.Tobring
Rotationalmotioncaneasilybetransmittedandchangedusingcombinationsofgears.

Therearecertainthingsyouneedtoknowaboutgears:
Adjacent gears rotate in opposite directions If one gear rotates clockwise, the one
adjacent to it will rotate anticlockwise. Thus, to keep thedirection of rotationthe same,
fromoneendtoanotherinalinearsetofgears,youneedtohaveanoddnumberofgears.
The ratio of rotational speed of two gears is equal to the inverse of the ratio of their
number of teeth refer to thediagram below. Thegear on thelefthas20teeth,whilethe
smaller gear on the right has 10 teeth. The smaller gear has half as many teeth, but it
rotates at double the speed. This is because one full rotation of the bigger gear
(movement of 20 teeth) causestwo full rotations of thesmallergear(2xmovementof 10
teeth).
Foundinwatches,eggbeater/whisk

Gearteeth(evenlyspaced,samesize)
[Link]([Link])
[Link](biggerormoreteeth=slower)
Teethonsprocketmustbeidentical
[Link]
[Link]=faster
[Link]
Chainandsprocketsystems:
Achainconnectsgearcomponentthatarefarapart

Figure27
SPEEDCHANGE
thespeedofthedrivencomponentdependsonthesizeratiowiththedrivercomponent
tocalculatethespeedweusethefollowingformula:
=#
h
/#
h

Example:Lookatthegearsbelowanddeterminethespeedchangeif:
A)Aisthedrivercomponent
B)Aisthedrivencomponent

Figure28:SpurGears
Abeltandpulleysystemareverysimilartothechainandsprocketsystem.
Thisusesabeltandapulleytotransferfromonepulleytoanother.
Thisisusedincarengines
Gearsmovethroughdirectcontactbetweentwoormoregears.
Thisisalsousedincars,butthistimeinthetransmission.
Wecanhavecomplexcombinationsofgearsfordifferentpurposes.
This shows that if the outputgear
GB
has more teeth than the input gear
GA
, then thegear train

amplifies the input torque. And, if the output gearhasfewerteeth than the inputgear, then the
geartrain
reduces
theinputtorque.
If the output gear of a gear trainrotates more slowlythanthe inputgear, then thegear train is
calleda
speed reducer
.In this case,because the output gear musthavemoreteeththantheinput
gear,thespeedreduceramplifiestheinputtorque.

Figure29

Figure30

ClutchShaft:[Link],theshaftis
supportedbyaspigotbearingpositionedclosetothesplinesontowhichtheclutchdrivenplate

[Link];normallyasealedradialballtype,
[Link]
alwaysinmeshwithalargergear,acconstantmeshwheel,thatIpartofthelayshaftgearcluster.
Notethatasmalldrivinggeariscalleda
pinion
andalargegeara
wheel
.

CounterShaft:Thisshaft,whichisnormallyfixedtothegearboxcasing,supportsthe
varioussizeddrivingpinionsofthelayshaftgearcluster.

MainShaft:Thissplinedoutputshaftcarriesspurgearwheelsthatslidealongtheshafttoengage
[Link],themainshaftissupportedbyaspigot
[Link]
fittedattheotherendtotaketheforceofthegearsastheattempttomoveapart.

Figure31
ByStationNT5BmediaOwnwork,CCBYSA3.0,
[Link]

Alloftheotherstransmitcircularmotion.
Thetransformationsystemschangethetypeofmotionthatispresentoneithersideofthe
system.
[Link]
[Link](calledRack)
[Link].
Arackandpinionarecomposedofarack,aflatgear,andapinion,whichisagear.
Astherackmovesbackandforththepinionrotatesandalsotheotherwayaround.
Thisisusedinthesteeringsystemofcars.
Thisinvolvescirculartorectilinearmovement.

Thisinvolvesanutbeingmovedbythecircularmotionofthescrew.
Thisisusedinscissorjacks.
Thisiscirculartorectilinearmovement.

Figure32:RackandPinion

CIRCUITCOMPONENTS
Throughout the course, well add circuit diagrams (Schematics) and simulations to give you a
visual representation of what we [Link] these diagrams,welluse standardcircuitsymbolsfor
[Link]:

Component

CircuitSymbol

DCpowersource/battery(Vcc)

ACpowersource

Ground(GND)

Wirewithcurrentflowingfromlefttoright

Resistor

Capacitor

Inductor

Bulb/Lamp

Switches

VariableResistor/Potentiometer

Relay

Voltmeter&Ammeter

Diode

LED

Transistors

The names of some of these components may sound gibberish to you. Dont worry, we will
explainallofthesecomponentsinafuturemodule.

VOLTAGEANDGROUNDREFERENCE
Theres a fancy term in the study of electricity called Electric Potential. Electric Potential is a
measure of an electric sources potential to make current flow through a circuit. Electric
[Link]
flow from a point of high pressure to low pressure, a difference in electric potential causes
electric current to flow from a point of high potential to low potential. Electric potential is
measuredinVolts(V).
Next, theres Potential Difference, also called Voltage. As the name suggests, Potential
DifferenceorVoltageissimplythedifferencebetweentheElectricPotentialoftwopoints.

Figure33
Note:[Link].

AAandAAACells(thecellsusedinmostremotesandtoys)arerated [Link]
thecellhas a potential difference of 1.5Volts. Inother words,the+veterminalofthecellisatan
electricpotential1.5Vhigherthantheelectricpotentialoftheveterminal.

There is one imaginary circuit component that we need to talk about the Ground. Ground
(often represented as GNDoralsocalledEarth)iswhatweassumetobea referencepointfor0
voltpotential. By convention, we generallyconnectthe negative terminal of avoltage sourcein
circuits as an assumption that the negative terminal of the battery is at a potential of 0V. If a
battery is at 12v, and we (virtually) connect its veterminaltoground, the +ve terminal is at a
potentialof12V+0V (12Vhigherthanthepotentialof veterminal)=[Link]+veterminal
ofthe12Vbatteryisatapotentialof12Vifassumeitsveterminalisconnectedtoground.

The concept of Ground may seem confusing at first, but believe us, its very very essential to
understandingelectronics.
WenowhavesomeexamplesofGroundtomakesureyouunderstandit.

Example1:

Figure34
In the circuit above, the ve terminal of the 12v battery is
(virtually) connected to [Link]
means thenegative terminal ofthe battery isat 0V. The +ve terminal is 12V higherthantheve,
so its at 12V. The voltmeter measures thepotential difference between the +ve terminal ofthe
batteryandtheground/ve,sothevoltmetershowsareadingof12V.

Note: Potential difference is almost always measured with respect to ground reference, unless
otherwisestated.

Example2:

Figure35

In this example, two batteries (one 12V and one 9V) have their ve terminals connectedtoGND.
Thus, the+ve terminal of the 12Vbattery is at a potential of 12Vandthe +ve terminal ofthe9V
battery is at a potential of [Link] voltmeter measures the potential difference between the +ve
terminalofthe12Vbatteryandthe+veterminalofthe9Vbattery,whichis12V9V=3V.
Note:
Inthiscircuit, if you try to connect the positive terminalsofthetwobatteriesdirectly,you
will mess something up. The 12V batteries will pour its charges into the 9V battery (because
current flowsfrom higher potential to lower potential). Thiswillbelikeuncontrolledandunsafe
charging of the 9V battery, and if your 9V battery is nonrechargable, it may explode.
Further
explanationonthisisinalatersectioninthismodule.

Example3:

Figure36

In the circuit above, the ve of the 9V battery [Link](whichis

at apotential of 9V) isconnectedtothe vetothe12V battery.Theveofthe12V batteryhasthe
samepotentialasthe+[Link]+veterminalofthe12Vbatteryisat12V
higher than its ve terminal, so it is at a potential of 12V + 9V = 21V. The orange voltmeter
measures potential difference across the +ve terminalofthe12Vbatteryandground,soitshows
21V. The blue and the green voltmeters measure voltage across the12V and the 9V battery, so
theyshow12Vand9V.

Example4:

Figure37

In the above circuit, thereare 2 subcircuits with different batteries, but with acommon ground.
The ve terminal of the 9V batteryisat0V(becauseitsconnectedtoGND).Thepositiveterminal
has to be 9V higher than its ve terminal to maintain a potential difference of 9V across the
terminals, so theits ve terminalhastobeata [Link]

higherpotential to alowerpotential,thecurrentflowsanticlockwiseinthe9Vcircuit(from0Vto
9V).

ELECTRICITYACANDDC
Electric Current can be categorized into two major categories: Alternating Current (AC) and
DirectCurrent(DC).
Direct Current is when we have current flowing in one direction. This is typicallythe casewhen
we
usebatteriesorotherDCpowersources.

Figure38:AcircuitwithDCflow

On the flipside, Alternating Current (AC) is when you have electric current changing direction
regularly. The mains supply in household wiring is AC. There is no +ve or ve terminal in
electrical sockets in homes because there is no specific direction of current flow. In India, the
mains supplyis220VRMSat50Hz [Link]
amainssupply.

Figure39:AcircuitwithACflow
Notice that the directionofcurrent [Link] theoppositedirection
wheneverthevoltageofthesourcebecomesve(withrespecttoGND).
Note:
As you can see in theanimation, the bulb flickers/blinks. In real life, thereisnoelectricity
going to the bulb at specific periods of time, this happens 100 times per second (in India and
other countries with 50Hz Mains supply). You dont notice this flicker in bulbs because of two
reasons: One, it flickers 100 times per second, which is too fast for theeyes to [Link],the
bulbs filament doesntcool downmuch during themomentarylossofelectricity,andstillglows
withprettymuchthesamebrightness.)
Note:
[Link]:

Figure40

In this circuit, although thevoltage is changing, the voltage nevergoesbelow0V(sinceoneofits

terminals has beenconnectedtoground). Because the voltage is always +ve (or0V),thecurrent
does
not
[Link],thisisDC,butwithvaryingvoltage.

OHMSLAW
Therearetwomorephysicalquantitiesweneedtodiscussbriefly:CurrentandResistance.
Current is the measure of theamount ofcharge(ornumberofelectrons)flowingthroughabody
[Link](A).
Resistance is the property of a material to limit the flow of current through [Link] have
veryvery high resistance, while conductors have [Link]
Ohm().
Potential difference across a conducting body causes current to flow through it. This current
flowsfrom higher potential to lower potential. Theamount ofcurrentis directlyproportionalto
thepotentialdifference(voltage)acrossthebody,andinverselyproportionaltoresistance.
Thus,weget

I VR
Reframingtheequationandusingtheproportionalityconstant(1),weget

V = IR
Thisequation,
V=IR
,holdstrueforallDCcircuits.
Using Ohms law, [Link],
wellshowyouhowtocalculatetheamountofcurrentflowinginthefollowingcircuit:

Figure41

WehaveV=9VandR=470.
UsingI=V/R,wegetI=0.0191Aor19.1mA.
Wecancheckouranswerusinganammeter.

Figure42

COMBINATIONOFRESISTORS&EQUIVALENTRESISTANCE
We need to know two typesof connections betweencomponents:SeriesconnectionandParallel
connection.
A series connection iswhen two components arejoined one after the other. Iftwocomponents
areisaseriesconnection,theyhaveonecommonnodebetweenthem.

Figure43:Thesetworesistorsareinaseriesconnection.

Figure44:Thesetwocellsareinaseriesconnection.

Aparallelconnectionis whentwocomponentshaveboththeirterminalsconnectedtoeachother.
Componentsinparallelhavetwocommonnodes.

Figure45:Thesetworesistorsareinaparallelconnection.

Figure46:Thesetwocellsareinaparallelconnection.

Note:
As recommended in Example 2, never connect batteries withdissimilar voltage ratingin
parallel. The battery with higher voltage will pour its charge intothe other, possibly damaging
thebattery oreven causing [Link],thevoltageofa
battery decreases slightly on being discharged. A 12Vbatterymaysupply11.5Vwhenithas only
10% charge left. As a rule of thumb, always put two batteries in parallel if they havethe exact
samevoltagerating
and
havethesameamountofchargeremaining.

We can combine multiple resistors in different ways to achieve different

combined resistance,
termedasEquivalentResistance.
TheEquivalentResistanceinaseriesconnectionissimplythesumofallindividualresistances.

RS = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... + Rn

Example5:

Figure47

The above circuit has 3 resistorsin series. Theequivalent series resistance is simply the sum of
their resistances. Therefore, theequivalent resistancefor this combinationis1k+2k +3k
=6k.

TheEquivalentResistanceinaparallelconnectionisgivenbythefollowingformula:

RP = 1 + 1 + 11 +...+ 1
R1

R2

R3

Rn

Example6:

Figure48

The above circuit has 3 resistors in parallel. Using theformula,wecan calculatethe equivalent
resistanceasR=1/(1/1000+1/2000+1/3000)=1/(11/6000)=6000/11=545.45.

Example7:

Figure49

Wecancolorizeitsoitseasytounderstand:

Figure50

Insuchcircuits,simplifythediagrambynotingallthesimplestseriesandparallelcombinations.
Notethat the purple resistorandthegreenresistorareinseries(and havethetheyellownodein
common). This series combination has an Equivalent Resistance of3k (2k + 1k), thus we
canreplacethesetworesistorsbyasingle3kresistorinthecircuit.

Also notethat the light blue and the dark blue resistors are in a parallelcombination (they have
the violet and the pink nodes common). The equivalent resistance of this combination is 2k
(1/(1/4000+1/4000)).Thus,thesetworesistorscanbereplacedwithasingle2kresistor.
Afterthisprocess,wegetthefollowingequivalentcircuitdiagram:

Figure51

Nowwerepeatthisprocessofsimplification.
The red and the blue resistorsarein series, and [Link]
this:

Figure52
And finally, calculate the equivalent resistance of these two resistors in [Link] answer is
1.5k.

MAGNETSANDELECTROMAGNETISM
Centuriesago,itwasdiscoveredthatcertaintypesofmineralrockpossessedunusualproperties
[Link],called
lodestone
,or
magnetite
,wasof
[Link]
revealedthatsteelcouldbesimilarlychargedwiththisunusualpropertyafterbeingrubbed
againstoneofthepolesofapieceoflodestone.
Unlikestaticelectriccharges(suchasthoseobservedwhenamberisrubbedagainstcloth),
magneticobjectspossessedtwopolesofoppositeeffect,denotednorthandsouthaftertheir
selforientationtotheearth.
Itisimpossibletoisolateoneofthesepolesbyitselfbycuttingapieceoflodestoneinhalf:each
resultingpiecepossesseditsownpairofpoles:

Figure53
Magneticfieldshavetwopoles,andbyconvention,wecallthemNorth&[Link]
electriccharges,samepolesrepeloneanother,[Link],likethat
causedbystaticelectricity,extendeditselfinvisiblyandinfinitelyoverspace.
ThephilosopherscientistReneDescartesnotedthatthisinvisiblefieldcouldbemappedby
[Link]
filingswillalignthemselveswiththemagneticfield,[Link]
thefieldcontinuesunbrokenfromonepoleofamagnettotheother:

Figure54

Aswithanykindoffield(electric,magnetic,gravitational),thetotalquantity,oreffect,ofthefield
isreferredtoasa
flux
,whilethepushcausingthefluxtoforminspaceiscalleda
force
.Michael
Faradaycoinedthetermtubetorefertoastringofmagneticfluxinspace(thetermlineis
morecommonlyusednow).Indeed,themeasurementofmagneticfieldfluxisoftendefinedin
termsofthenumberoffluxlines,althoughitisdoubtfulthatsuchfieldsexistinindividual,
discretelinesofconstantvalue.

Moderntheoriesofmagnetismmaintainthatamagneticfieldisproducedbyanelectricchargein
motion,andthusitistheorizedthatthemagneticfieldofasocalledpermanentmagnetssuch
aslodestoneistheresultofelectronswithintheatomsofironspinninguniformlyinthesame
[Link]
spinningisdictatedbytheatomicstructureofthematerial(notunlikehowelectrical
conductivityisdictatedbytheelectronbindinginamaterialsatoms).Thus,onlycertaintypesof
substancesreactwithmagneticfields,andevenfewerhavetheabilitytopermanentlysustaina
magneticfield.
[Link]
apermanentmagnet,theelectronswithintheatomsintheironorienttheirspinstomatchthe
magneticfieldforceproducedbythepermanentmagnet,[Link]
ironwillmagnetizeinsuchawayastoincorporatethemagneticfluxlinesintoitsshape,which
attractsittowardthepermanentmagnet,nomatterwhichpoleofthepermanentmagnetis
offeredtotheiron:

Figure55
Thepreviouslyunmagnetizedironbecomesmagnetizedasitisbroughtclosertothepermanent
[Link],theironwill
magnetizeinsuchawayastobeattractedtowardthemagnet:

Figure56

Referencingthenaturalmagneticpropertiesofiron(Latin=ferrum),a
ferromagnetic
material
isonethatreadilymagnetizes(itsconstituentatomseasilyorienttheirelectronspinstoconform
toanexternalmagneticfieldforce).Allmaterialsaremagnetictosomedegree,andthosethatare
notconsideredferromagnetic(easilymagnetized)areclassifiedaseither
paramagnetic
(slightly
magnetic)or
diamagnetic
(tendtoexcludemagneticfields).Ofthetwo,diamagneticmaterialsare
[Link],theyactuallybecomeslightly
magnetizedintheoppositedirection,soastorepeltheexternalfield!

Figure57
Ifaferromagneticmaterialtendstoretainitsmagnetizationafteranexternalfieldisremoved,it
issaidtohavegood
retentivity
.This,ofcourse,isanecessaryqualityforapermanentmagnet.

Thediscoveryoftherelationshipbetweenmagnetismandelectricitywas,likesomanyother
scientificdiscoveries,[Link]
Oerstedwaslecturingonedayin1820onthe
possibility
ofelectricityandmagnetismbeing
relatedtooneanother,andintheprocessdemonstrateditconclusivelybyexperimentinfrontof
hiswholeclass!Bypassinganelectriccurrentthroughametalwiresuspendedaboveamagnetic
compass,Oerstedwasabletoproduceadefinitemotionofthecompassneedleinresponsetothe
[Link]
[Link],Oerstedhadtorevisehislecturenotesforfutureclasses!Hisserendipitous
discoverypavedthewayforawholenewbranchofscience:electromagnetics.
Detailedexperimentsshowedthatthemagneticfieldproducedbyanelectriccurrentisalways
[Link]
calledthe
lefthandrule
.Simplystated,thelefthandrulesaysthatthemagneticfluxlines
producedbyacurrentcarryingwirewillbeorientedthesamedirectionasthecurledfingersofa
personslefthand(inthehitchhikingposition),withthethumbpointinginthedirectionof
electronflow:

Figure58

Themagneticfieldencirclesthisstraightpieceofcurrentcarryingwire,themagneticfluxlines
havingnodefinitenorthorsouthpoles.
Whilethemagneticfieldsurroundingacurrentcarryingwireisindeedinteresting,itisquite
weakforcommonamountsofcurrent,[Link]
createastrongermagneticfieldforce(andconsequently,morefieldflux)withthesameamount
ofelectriccurrent,wecanwrapthewireintoacoilshape,wherethecirclingmagneticfields
aroundthewirewilljointocreatealargerfieldwithadefinitemagnetic(northandsouth)
polarity:

Figure59

Theamountofmagneticfieldforcegeneratedbyacoiledwireisproportionaltothecurrent
[Link]
forceiscalled
magnetomotiveforce
(mmf),andisverymuchanalogoustoelectromotiveforce(E)

inanelectriccircuit.
An
electromagnet
isapieceofwireintendedtogenerateamagneticfieldwiththepassageof
[Link],an
electromagnetisusuallyconstructedinsuchawayastomaximizethestrengthofthemagnetic
[Link],
industry,medical,andconsumerproducts.
Asanelectricallycontrollablemagnet,electromagnetsfindapplicationinawidevarietyof
electromechanicaldevices:machinesthataffectmechanicalforceormotionthroughelectrical
[Link]
electricmotor
.
Anotherexampleisthe
relay
,[Link]
builtsothatitcanbeactuated(openedandclosed)bytheapplicationofamagneticfield,andan
electromagnetcoilisplacedinthenearvicinitytoproducethatrequisitefield,itwillbepossible
[Link],thisgives
usadevicethatenableselectricitytocontrolelectricity:

Figure60
Relayscanbeconstructedtoactuatemultipleswitchcontacts,oroperatetheminreverse
(energizingthecoilwill
open
theswitchcontact,andunpoweringthecoilwillallowittospring
closedagain).

Figure61

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1]BenjaminCrowell:AlinedrawingoftwoiceskatersdemonstratingNewton'[Link]
versioncreatedusingInkscape(
CCBYSA3.0
).
[Link]
wtons_third_law.svg

[2],[3]DougDavis:Imagecourtesy,EasternIllinoisUniversity,Linearmomentum
[Link]
[Link]

[4][Link],
PhysicsLAB
:Imagecourtesy,
[Link]