Department of Commerce National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service

NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE INSTRUCTION 10-1605

AUGUST 17, 2007
Operations and Services
Performance, NWSPD 10-16
STORM DATA PREPARATION

NOTICE: This publication is available at: [Link]

OPR: W/OS52 (B. MacAloney)
Type of Issuance: Routine

Certified by: W/OS5 (R. McLeod)

SUMMARY OF REVISIONS: This Directive supersedes National Weather Service

Instruction (NWSI) 10-1605, dated November 17, 2005.
The following changes were made:

Documentation on the new Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale replaced the old Fujita Scale
documentation. The F-scale was replaced by the EF-Scale on February 1, 2007.

The event name of Landslide was renamed to Debris Flow.

Descriptions of event times and locations were clarified. Three times (beginning,
met/exceeded advisory/warning criteria value, and ending) are now required for
Blizzard, Heavy Snow, Ice Storm, Lake-effect Snow, Sleet, and Winter Storm.

Old StormDat references were replaced with a generic Storm Data software
phrase.

Differences between direct and indirect fatalities and injuries were clarified.

A table of monetary estimates for storm damage was added as a new Appendix B.

Heat index tables were updated.

Flood/Flash Flood events were modified to reflect the new requirement that the cause
of a flood event be indicated in the event narrative.

Differences between Storm Surge/Tide events and Coastal Flood events were clarified.

Minor descriptive enhancements were done in several events.

Event narratives were made a requirement for Thunderstorm Wind events with
estimated wind gust values.

The Outstanding Storms of the Month section was edited to show more concise
information on submission and narratives, etc.

/signed/
August 3, 2007
James Hoke
Date
Acting Director, Office of Climate, Water, and Weather Services

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Storm Data Preparation
Table of Contents:
Page
1. Storm Data Disclaimer............................................................................................................. 4
1.1

Local Data Retention Requirements ..............................................................................................................5

2. Storm Data Preparation............................................................................................................ 5

2.1
Permitted Storm Data Events......................................................................................................................5
2.1.1
Storm Data Event Table.........................................................................................................................6
2.2
Aircraft/Marine Incidents ...........................................................................................................................6
2.3
Time............................................................................................................................................................7
2.3.1
Winter Weather Event Times.................................................................................................................7
2.3.2
Events that Span More than One Month................................................................................................7
2.4
Location......................................................................................................................................................8
2.5
Event Source...............................................................................................................................................8
2.6
Fatalities/Injuries ........................................................................................................................................9
2.6.1
Direct Fatalities/Injuries ........................................................................................................................9
[Link] Specifying Direct Fatality Locations...............................................................................................10
[Link] Direct Fatality Location Table ........................................................................................................10
2.6.2
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries ....................................................................................................................11
2.6.3
Delayed Fatalities ................................................................................................................................11
2.7
Damage.....................................................................................................................................................12
2.7.1
Flood-Related Damage ........................................................................................................................12
2.7.2
Crop Damage Data ..............................................................................................................................13
2.7.3
Other Related Costs .............................................................................................................................13
2.7.4
Delayed Damage..................................................................................................................................13
2.8
Character of Storm ...................................................................................................................................13
2.8
Character of Storm ...................................................................................................................................13
2.9
Textual Description of Storm (Narrative).................................................................................................13
2.9.1
Episode Narrative ................................................................................................................................13
2.9.2
Event Narrative....................................................................................................................................14
2.9.3
Cause of Event.....................................................................................................................................15
2.10
Pictures .....................................................................................................................................................15

3. Disposition of Storm Data...................................................................................................... 15

4. Outstanding/Unusual Storms of the Month (OSM) ............................................................... 16
4.1
Requirements for Outstanding/Unusual Storms of the Month..................................................................16
4.1.1
Text Format .........................................................................................................................................16
4.1.2
Disposition Dates.................................................................................................................................16
4.1.3
Copyrights ...........................................................................................................................................16
4.1.4
Final Editing ........................................................................................................................................16
4.1.5
Write-up/Discussion ............................................................................................................................16
4.1.6
Pictures ................................................................................................................................................17
4.1.7
Data Submission ..................................................................................................................................17

5. Tornado and Severe Thunderstorm Confirmation Reports .................................................... 17

5.1

Table of SPC Statistical Messages ...........................................................................................................18

6. Weekly Warning Reports ....................................................................................................... 18

7. Event Types............................................................................................................................ 18
7.1

Astronomical Low Tide (Z)......................................................................................................................18

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

7.2
Avalanche (Z)...........................................................................................................................................19
7.3
Blizzard (Z) ..............................................................................................................................................20
7.4
Coastal Flood (Z)......................................................................................................................................21
7.5
Cold/Wind Chill (Z) .................................................................................................................................22
7.6
Debris Flow (C)........................................................................................................................................23
7.7
Dense Fog (Z)...........................................................................................................................................24
7.8
Dense Smoke (Z)......................................................................................................................................24
7.9
Drought (Z)...............................................................................................................................................25
7.10
Dust Devil (C) ..........................................................................................................................................26
7.11
Dust Storm (Z)..........................................................................................................................................27
7.12
Excessive Heat (Z) ...................................................................................................................................28
7.12.1 Heat Index Table..................................................................................................................................30
7.13
Extreme Cold/Wind Chill (Z)...................................................................................................................30
7.13.1 Wind Chill Table .................................................................................................................................32
7.14
Flash Flood (C).........................................................................................................................................32
7.14.1 General Guidelines for the Determination of a Flash Flood ................................................................32
7.14.2 Suggested Specific Guidelines.............................................................................................................33
7.14.3 Questions to ask observers, Emergency Managers, etc .......................................................................33
7.14.4 Low-impact Flooding vs. Threat to Life or Property...........................................................................34
7.13.5 Examples of a Flash Flood that Evolved into a Flood .........................................................................37
7.15
Flood (C) ..................................................................................................................................................37
7.16
Freezing Fog (Z).......................................................................................................................................39
7.17
Frost/Freeze (Z) ........................................................................................................................................39
7.18
Funnel Cloud (C)......................................................................................................................................40
7.19
Hail (C).....................................................................................................................................................41
7.19.1 Hail Conversion Table .........................................................................................................................42
7.20
Heat (Z) ....................................................................................................................................................43
7.21
Heavy Rain (C).........................................................................................................................................44
7.22
Heavy Snow (Z) .......................................................................................................................................45
7.23
High Surf (Z) ............................................................................................................................................46
7.24
High Wind (Z) ..........................................................................................................................................47
7.25
Hurricane/Typhoon (Z).............................................................................................................................48
7.25.1 Separating the Various Hurricane/Typhoon Hazards ..........................................................................49
7.25.2 Tables for Determining Saffir-Simpson Scale .....................................................................................52
7.26
Ice Storm (Z) ............................................................................................................................................56
7.27
Lakeshore Flood (Z) .................................................................................................................................57
7.28
Lake-Effect Snow (Z)...............................................................................................................................57
7.29
Lightning (C) ............................................................................................................................................59
7.30
Marine Hail (M) .......................................................................................................................................60
7.31
Marine High Wind (M).............................................................................................................................61
7.32
Marine Strong Wind (M)..........................................................................................................................63
7.33
Marine Thunderstorm Wind (M) ..............................................................................................................64
7.34
Rip Current (Z) .........................................................................................................................................65
7.35.
Seiche (Z) .................................................................................................................................................66
7.36
Sleet (Z)....................................................................................................................................................67
7.37
Storm Tide (Z)..........................................................................................................................................68
7.38
Strong Wind (Z) .......................................................................................................................................69
7.39
Thunderstorm Wind (C) ...........................................................................................................................70
7.39.1 Downbursts ..........................................................................................................................................70
7.39.2 Gustnadoes................................................................................................................................................70
7.39.3 Thunderstorm Wind Damage...............................................................................................................70
7.39.4 Table for Estimating Wind Speed from Damage.................................................................................72
7.39.5 Knots-Mile Per Hour Conversion Tables.............................................................................................73
7.39.6 Speed-Distance Conversion Table.......................................................................................................74
7.40
Tornado (C) ..............................................................................................................................................74
7.40.1 Tornado, Funnel Cloud, and Waterspout Events .................................................................................75

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

7.40.2 Criteria for a Waterspout .....................................................................................................................76
7.40.3 Tornadoes Crossing CWFA Boundaries..............................................................................................76
7.40.4 Landspouts and Dust Devils ................................................................................................................76
7.40.5 On-site Inspections (Surveys) ..............................................................................................................76
7.40.6 Objective Criteria for Tornadoes .........................................................................................................77
7.40.7 Determining Path Length and Width ...................................................................................................77
7.40.8 Determining F-Scale Values ................................................................................................................78
7.40.9 Simultaneously Occurring Tornadoes..................................................................................................79
7.40.10
Single-Segment (Non Border-crossing) Tornado Entries ...............................................................80
7.40.11
Segmented and Border-crossing Tornado Entries...........................................................................81
7.40.12
Fujita Tornado Intensity Scale Table ..............................................................................................84
7.41
Tropical Depression (Z)............................................................................................................................85
7.42
Tropical Storm (Z)....................................................................................................................................86
7.43
Tsunami (Z) ..............................................................................................................................................87
7.44
Volcanic Ash (Z) ......................................................................................................................................88
7.45
Waterspout (M) ........................................................................................................................................89
7.45.1 Example of a Tornado That Became a Waterspout. ............................................................................90
7.45.2 Example of a Waterspout That Became a Tornado .............................................................................90
7.46
Wildfire (Z) ..............................................................................................................................................90
7.47
Winter Storm (Z) ......................................................................................................................................91
7.48
Winter Weather (Z) ..................................................................................................................................92

APPENDIX A - Glossary of Terms............................................................................................ A-1

APPENDIX B Property Damage Estimates ............................................................................ B-1

1.
Storm Data Disclaimer. Storm Data is an official publication of the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) which documents:
a.

The occurrence of storms and other significant weather phenomena having

sufficient intensity to cause loss of life, injuries, significant property damage, and/or
disruption to commerce;

b.

Rare, unusual, weather phenomena that generate media attention, such as snow
flurries in South Florida or the San Diego coastal area; and

c.

Other significant meteorological events, such as record maximum or minimum

temperatures or precipitation that occur in connection with another event.

Some information appearing in Storm Data may be provided by or gathered from sources outside
the National Weather Service (NWS), such as the media, law enforcement and/or other
government agencies, private companies, individuals, etc. An effort is made to use the best
available information, but because of time and resource constraints, information from these
sources may be unverified by the NWS. Accordingly, the NWS does not guarantee the accuracy
or validity of the information. Further, when information appearing in Storm Data originated
from a source outside the NWS (frequently credit is provided), Storm Data users requiring
additional information should contact that source directly. In most cases, NWS employees will
not have the knowledge to respond to such requests. In cases of legal proceedings, Federal
4

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

regulations generally prohibit NWS employees from appearing as witnesses in litigation not
involving the United States. The determination of direct versus indirect causes of weatherrelated fatalities or injuries is not a legal determination and should not be considered as such.
The determination is intended for internal NWS statistical review to assist NWS in issuing
forecasts and warnings.
1.1
Local Data Retention Requirements. All documentation used for the production of Storm
Data will be retained locally for two years. Note: The National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) is
the official custodian of NWS weather records and responds to requests for certified records for
litigation purposes.
2.
Storm Data Preparation. The Storm Data preparer should allocate a sufficient amount of
preparation time to ensure that documentation and verification of significant weather phenomena
are as accurate and complete as possible. The preparer will carefully coordinate the time and
location of events that cross county warning areas (CWAs) to prevent inconsistencies in the
Storm Data database. These quality control procedures are important, especially for events used
in the NWS national verification program.
Preparation will be done using the currently authorized on-line Storm Data software program.
Software methodology and hardware requirements are provided on the Office of Climate, Water,
and Weather Services (OCWWS) Performance Branchs Performance Management web site.
Certification of the monthly data will be accomplished electronically on-line. Inclusion of
pictures in the monthly reports should be limited to unusual or highly significant events in order
to keep the Storm Data publication at a reasonable size. If pictures are not the property of
NOAA, proper attribution should be provided.
2.1
Permitted Storm Data Events. The only events permitted in Storm Data are listed in
Table 1 of Section 2.1.1. The chosen event name should be the one that most accurately
describes the meteorological event leading to fatalities, injuries, damage, etc. However,
significant events, such as tornadoes, having no impact or causing no damage, should also be
included in Storm Data. See Section 7 for detailed examples.
All events meeting the criteria for inclusion in Storm Data should be entered, regardless of the
rules used for verification, such as the 10 mile/15 minute rule (see NWSI 10-1601, Verification
Procedures, Section 2.1.1). However, in some cases, it is permissible to document only one
event when the phenomenon was continuous, or nearly continuous, from Point A to Point B,
rather than enter into the Storm Data software each and every single event/report that occurred
between Point A and Point B (e.g., a long-lived thunderstorm wind event, or many similarlysized hail reports in a metropolitan area).
Additional details about record values of temperature, precipitation, etc., may be included in the
narrative of an appropriate Storm Data event. However, only the more significant values should
be summarized, such as monthly, seasonal, or yearly records. For example, a new monthly
single-storm, snowfall record can be included in the event narrative of a Heavy Snow event, or a
new, all-time, 4-hour rainfall record value can appear in the event narrative of a Flash Flood
event.

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

In some cases, such as with Hurricane Katrina, it may be nearly impossible to determine what
event (i.e., Storm Surge/Tide, Hurricane, Flash Flood, or High Surf) resulted in a directly-related
death. For these situations, in order to simplify the Storm Data preparation process, it is
appropriate to assign the death to the Hurricane (Typhoon) event. However, state this fact in the
event narrative.
2.1.1

Storm Data Event Table

Event Name
Astronomical Low Tide
Avalanche
Blizzard
Coastal Flood
Cold/Wind Chill
Debris Flow
Dense Fog
Dense Smoke
Drought
Dust Devil
Dust Storm
Excessive Heat
Extreme Cold/Wind Chill
Flash Flood
Flood
Frost/Freeze
Funnel Cloud
Freezing Fog
Hail
Heat
Heavy Rain
Heavy Snow
High Surf
High Wind

Designator

Event Name
Hurricane (Typhoon)
Ice Storm
Lake-Effect Snow
Lakeshore Flood
Lightning
Marine Hail
Marine High Wind
Marine Strong Wind
Marine Thunderstorm Wind
Rip Current
Seiche
Sleet
Storm Surge/Tide
Strong Wind
Thunderstorm Wind
Tornado
Tropical Depression
Tropical Storm
Tsunami
Volcanic Ash
Waterspout
Wildfire
Winter Storm
Winter Weather

Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
C
Z
Z
Z
C
Z
Z
Z
C
C
Z
C
Z
C
Z
C
Z
Z
Z

Designator
Z
Z
Z
Z
C
M
M
M
M
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
C
C
Z
Z
Z
Z
M
Z
Z
Z

Legend: There are three designators: C - County/Parish; Z - Zone; and M - Marine. (Refer to
Section 2.4 to find instructions on how to designate Alaska Region events.)
___________________________________________________________________________
Table 1. Storm Data Event Table.
2.2
Aircraft/Marine Incidents. It is the responsibility of the National Transportation Safety
Board (NTSB) to investigate and file reports on the probable causes of aviation and marinerelated incidents. A Storm Data preparer, however, can include events that may have resulted in
an incident in Storm Data as long as associated NWS operational performance is not discussed.
See Funnel Cloud, Marine Thunderstorm Wind, and Seiche examples in Section 7.

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

2.3
Time. The beginning and ending time for each event will be entered as accurately as
possible. Use local standard time in 24-hour clock throughout the year, such as 0600 Eastern
Standard Time (EST), 0925 Central Standard Time (CST), 1800 Mountain Standard Time
(MST), etc. Forecast offices having a CWA responsibility in multiple-time zones should enter
data in the appropriate time zone for the event's location.
Establishing the time of an event to the nearest minute will be difficult in certain situations. To
minimize this problem, the Storm Data preparer should carefully compare all storm reports to
available radar data, using unique radar signatures to make adjustments in the event time.
The Storm Data preparer must ensure that event times in the event header-strip are consistent
with event times mentioned in the event narrative. Extra quality control is needed in order to
minimize user confusion and ensure that the national severe weather database is as accurate as
possible.
In general, the time of an event, as it appears in the header-strip, is the time when the event
reached locally, regionally, or nationally established advisory or warning criteria (exceptions
defined in Section 2.3.1). The event time could be the single time that a peak wind gust of 65
knots (75 mph) occurred, or it could be beginning and ending times of a 10-minute shower of
large, damaging hailstones. If the time of the event in the header-strip is a broad guesstimate,
then it should be indicated as such in the event narrative.
2.3.1 Winter Weather Event Times. For the winter-related events of Blizzard, Heavy Snow,
Ice Storm, Lake-Effect Snow, Sleet, and Winter Storm, there will be three times that are
populated in different fields in the Storm Data software:
a. Beginning Time In most cases, the beginning time will be when accumulations
began, since this is usually the approximate time that the event started to have an impact
or became a nuisance. For Blizzard events, the beginning time will be when blizzard conditions
were first experienced (meeting visibility and wind criteria). The Storm Data preparer must use
good judgment, but must also be consistent from one event to the next;
b. Criteria Time this is the time when the event reached locally, regionally, or
nationally-established warning criteria. The criteria time will not appear in the events headerstrip in the Storm Data publication; only the beginning and ending times of the event will appear.
The criteria time must fall between the date/time the event began and the date/time the event
ended;
c. Ending Time this is the ending time of an event. In most cases the ending
time will be when precipitation ended. In Blizzard events, it will be when visibilities or winds
no longer met blizzard criteria.
2.3.2 Events That Span More Than One Month. Events that span more than one month will be
entered for each month they occur. Directly-related fatalities, injuries, and damages will be
given in the appropriate column for the month currently being prepared. Additional summary

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

information on cumulative fatalities, injuries, or damages from previous months can be explained
in the event narrative of the Storm Data entry for the final month of the event. If the event
continued into the month that follows the month currently being prepared, then mention that fact
in the event narrative.
2.4
Location. A hydro-meteorological event will be referenced, minimally, to the nearest
tenth of a mile, to the geographical center (not from the village/city boundaries or limits) of a
particular village/city, airport, or inland lake, providing that the reference point is documented in
the Storm Data software location database. The Storm Data preparer can reference an event to
the nearest hundredth of a mile for greater accuracy (desirable for tornado events). As an
alternative, the Storm Data preparer can enter the latitude/longitude coordinates of the severe
weather event for greatest accuracy.
In some cases, the reference point of a large, irregularly-shaped city may have been redefined to
co-exist with the cultural/economic/political center of that city, commonly referred to as the
downtown location (for example, the geographical centers of New York City, Chicago,
Milwaukee, Houston, and Los Angeles, as indicated in AWIPS, generally dont correspond to
their cultural/economic/political centers). If this is the case, then state this difference in the event
narrative.
The referenced location used in the Storm Data software must be in the same county in which
the event took place. Additional, detailed information on the exact location of an event can be
included in the event narrative. This additional, detailed information, such as highway names or
numbers, intersections of major roads, city parks, and small lakes or other landmarks, would be
useful when the event occurs within the boundaries of a large city. In some cases, if the event is
relatively widespread, the Storm Data preparer may reference two locations on either side of the
impacted area and describe the impacted area in the event narrative.
For marine zones, a hydro-meteorological event will be referenced (azimuth and range) to the
reference points documented in the Storm Data software location database. In general, these
would be coastal harbors or other prominent coastal shoreline features.
The Storm Data preparer can enter the azimuth/range of an event with respect to a reference city
within the Storm Data software, or he/she can enter the latitude/longitude coordinates of the
severe weather event. Given one set of numbers, the software is able to calculate the same data
in the other format.
In the NWSs Alaska Region, all land-based events are reported by zone (Z), since Alaska is not
completely covered by counties.
2.5
Event Source. The source of each Storm Data event will be entered in the software
program. Possible sources of reports include trained spotter, law enforcement, and
emergency management. In those cases where the source of the event report is not obvious,
the preparer should use professional judgment as to what source is appropriate. Even though the
event source does not appear in the final Storm Data publication, this information is used in
related NWS statistical studies.

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

2.6
Fatalities/Injuries. The determination of direct versus indirect causes of weather-related
fatalities or injuries is one of the most difficult aspects of Storm Data preparation. Determining
whether a fatality or injury was direct or indirect has to be examined on a case-by-case basis. It
is impossible to include all possible cases in this Directive. The preparer should include the
word indirect in all references to indirect fatalities or injuries in the event narrative. This will
minimize any potential confusion as to what fatalities and injuries referenced in the event
narrative were direct or indirect. An event narrative example follows.
Powerful thunderstorm winds leveled trees and power lines in and around
Morristown, TN. One of the toppled trees struck and killed two men running for
shelter. During the clean-up operations after the storm, a person on an ATV was
injured (indirect) when the vehicle struck a tree that blocked a road.
Special care must be exercised when dealing with situations in which vehicles leave a road
surface (due to a non-weather reason) not covered with flood waters and go into non-flooded
rivers or canals. Any fatalities, injuries, or damage in these cases will not be entered using the
Storm Data software, since they are not weather-related. However, if a vehicle drives into
waters crossing a roadway and the driver is killed, such a fatality would be entered using the
Storm Data software.
2.6.1 Direct Fatalities/Injuries. A direct fatality or injury is defined as a fatality or injury
directly attributable to the hydro-meteorological event itself, or impact by airborne/falling/
moving debris, i.e., missiles generated by wind, water, ice, lightning, tornado, etc. In these
cases, the weather event was an active agent or generated debris which became an active
agent. Generalized examples of direct fatalities/injuries would include:
a.

Thunderstorm wind gust causes a moving vehicle to roll over;

b.

Blizzard winds topple a tree onto a person; and

c.
Vehicle is parked on a road, adjacent to a dry arroyo. A flash flood comes down the
arroyo and flips over the car. The driver drowns.
Fatalities and injuries directly caused by the weather event will be entered in the Storm Data
software fatality and injury entry fields, respectively. For direct fatalities, enter the specific
data as queried by the software, i.e., number of individuals, age, gender, location, etc. Obtain
information from reliable sources. The alphanumeric fatality code trailing the narrative is
automatically inserted by the software. See Section 7 for detailed examples.
A directly-related weather injury is one that requires treatment by a first-responder or subsequent
treatment at a medical facility. Injured persons who deny medical treatment also may be
included. Persons who are not considered injured but who are affected by the phenomenon may
be discussed in the event narrative.

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

In very rare cases, a pregnant woman may die from the direct effects of an event. In these
situations, only one death (the pregnant woman) will be documented in Storm Data.
If a child less than 1 year of age (for example, 2-months old) dies directly in a weather event, the
childs age is to be rounded up to 1 year of age.
In some cases, such as with Hurricane Katrina, a person in New Orleans, LA, may have been
directly injured by the event, but was subsequently evacuated to another city, such as Houston,
TX. If this person eventually died from his/her initial injuries while in Houston, TX, and if this
information was made available in a timely fashion to the Storm Data preparer at the New
Orleans/Slidell office, this death should be documented as if it occurred in New Orleans. If this
person died from other causes (vehicle accident, homicide, etc.) while in Houston, then his/her
death was not related to Hurricane Katrina, and no Storm Data entry would be made.
[Link] Specifying Direct Fatality Locations. When specifying the location of the direct
Fatality, only the choices found in Table 2 of Section [Link] are to be used. In some cases, it
will be easy to establish the fatality location, and in others it will be difficult, especially with
water situations. For example, a person drives a vehicle into a flash flood; the vehicle is
overturned, and the person drowns. In this situation, you should choose the Vehicle and/or
Towed Trailer location (VE), since the person died as a result of being in the vehicle in
floodwaters. The flash flood was still the cause of the death, but the VE designation indicates
the where they were found portion of the death situation. Another example involving water
would include cases where people were sent overboard and drown in weather-related boating
accidents. In these situations, the fatality should be coded as BO instead of IW.
With respect to the example described in the last paragraph of Section 2.6.1, the preparer should
use the Other/Unknown location (OT) for situations where a person was evacuated to another
site and died from direct injuries suffered at an unknown initial location. However, if available
information is sufficient to determine the location where the direct injuries were initially
sustained, then the Storm Data preparer should choose the appropriate fatality location.
[Link] Direct Fatality Location Table.
BF
Ball Field
MH Mobile/Trailer Home
BO
Boating
OT
Other/Unknown
BU
Business
OU
Outside/Open Areas
CA
Camping
PH
Permanent Home
CH
Church
PS
Permanent Structure
EQ
Heavy Equip/Construction
SC
School
GF
Golfing
TE
Telephone
IW
In Water
UT
Under Tree
LS
Long Span Roof
VE
Vehicle and/or Towed Trailer
______________________________________________________________________________
Table 2. Direct Fatality Location Table.

10

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

2.6.2 Indirect Fatalities/Injuries. Fatalities and injuries, occurring in the vicinity of a hydrometeorological event, or after it has ended, but not directly caused by impact or debris from the
event (weather event was a passive entity), are classified as indirect. The Storm Data preparer
can enter the number of indirect fatalities into a field in the Storm Data software, along with the
age, gender, and location of the fatality. Consequently, this data lends itself to internal NWS
statistical review. However, indirect fatality information will not appear in the header-strip of
the Storm Data publication.
Any available indirect fatalities and injuries should be discussed in the event narrative. Indirect
injuries may be entered into a field within the Storm Data software, but they will not be tallied in
official Storm Data statistics.
Fatalities and injuries due to motor vehicle accidents on slippery, rain, or ice-covered roads are
indirect. Ice, snow, and water on road surfaces are passive agents that do not directly impact a
person or property, even though they induce conditions that trigger another event causing a
fatality or injury.
If the hydro-meteorological event induced conditions that triggered another event resulting in the
fatality/injury, then it is indirect. For example, heart attacks, resulting from overexertion during
or following winter storms, electrocution caused by contact with a downed power line after a
storm has ended, a death occurring during post-storm cleanup operations, or a death in a fire
triggered by lightning are indirect.
Fatalities and injuries resulting from driving in dense fog, a blinding blizzard, a winter storm, a
winter weather event, or a dust/sandstorm are indirect. Generalized examples of indirect
fatalities/injuries (see Section 7 for detailed examples) include:

2.6.3

a.

Dense fog reduces visibilities from zero to 1/8 mile. A 20-vehicle pile-up occurs;

b.

Thunderstorm winds topple trees onto a road. A motorist runs into a tree 30
minutes after the storm occurred;

c.

Heavy snow is in progress and roads become icy/snow-covered. A vehicle slides

across the road into another vehicle;

d.

Lightning starts a fire which destroys a home, killing its occupants; and

e.

People suffer carbon monoxide poisoning due to improper or inadequate venting of

heating systems, portable heaters, generators, etc.

Delayed Fatalities. On occasion, a fatality will occur a few days after the end of a
meteorological event, due to weather-related injuries or the effects of the event.
This is most common with long-duration, excessive heat episodes in which
individuals never recover from the initial effects of the heat wave. The Storm Data
preparer must enter the post-event fatality information as part of the meteorological

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

event that just ended, but enter the actual date of delayed fatality in the fatality entry
field. An explanation can be given in the narrative.
2.7
Damage. Property damage estimates should be entered as actual dollar amounts, if a
reasonably accurate estimate from an insurance company or other qualified individual is
available. If this estimate is not available, then the preparer has two choices: either check the
no information available box, or make an estimate. The exception is for flood events. The
Storm Data preparer must enter monetary damage amounts for flood events, even if it is a
guesstimate. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers requires the NWS to provide monetary
damage amounts (property and/or crop) resulting from any flood event.
The Storm Data preparer is encouraged to make a good faith attempt to obtain or estimate the
damage. Property damage estimates are very important for many users and should be obtained if
at all possible.
Estimates can be obtained from emergency managers, U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers, power utility companies, and newspaper articles. If the values provided are rough
estimates, then this should be stated as such in the narrative. Estimates should be rounded to
three significant digits, followed by an alphabetical character signifying the magnitude of the
number, i.e., 1.55B for $1,550,000,000. Alphabetical characters used to signify magnitude
include K for thousands, M for millions, and B for billions. If additional precision is
available, it may be provided in the narrative part of the entry. When damage is due to more
than one element of the storm, indicate, when possible, the amount of damage caused by each
element. If the dollar amount of damage is unknown, or not available, check the no information
available box.
The Storm Data preparer should use the table in Appendix B entitled Property Damage Estimates
in determining monetary losses. This table would allow the preparer to estimate monetary
amounts for damaged objects when timely communication is not possible with emergency
managers or insurance adjusters just prior to Storm Data submission. It is suggested that the
Storm Data preparer, in conjunction with local emergency managers, insurance adjusters, utility
company representatives, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, enhance the table to more
accurately reflect values typically found in the local CWA.
Typically, damage refers to damage inflicted to private property (structures, objects, vegetation)
as well as public infrastructure and facilities. Specific breakdowns should be stated in the event
narrative (refer to Section 2.9), if possible. The number of structures with minor or moderate
damage should be indicated, as well as the number of buildings destroyed.
In order to determine if the damage is directly related or indirectly related to the hydrometeorological event, the Storm Data preparer will use the same guidelines for fatalities and
injuries provided in Section 2.6.
2.7.1 Flood-Related Damage. Each WFO will report flood damage in their CWA. The Service
Hydrologist should assist in the collection and assessment of flood/flash flood information that
pertains to Storm Data.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

2.7.2 Crop Damage Data. Crop damage information may be obtained from reliable sources,
such as the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the county/parish agricultural extension
agent, the state department of agriculture, crop insurance agencies, or any other reliable
authority. Crop damage amounts may be obtained from the USDA or other similar agencies.
The Storm Data preparer should be very careful when using crop damage to infer that a
Thunderstorm Wind event occurred with wind gusts equal to or greater than 50 knots (58 mph),
or to infer that a Hail event occurred with hail stones 3/4 inch or larger. Lesser wind speeds and
smaller hail stones can result in crop damage. Additional investigation will be needed in these
situations, such as contacting a person who lives in the affected area, and/or comparing what
happened to other severe weather reports in the vicinity.
2.7.3 Other Related Costs. The cost of such items as snow removal, debris clearing/moving,
fire fighting, personnel overtime charges, public housing assistance, etc., will not be tallied as
directly-related parts of the storm/crop damage. If other related cost estimates are available,
they may be included in the narrative as a separate item (for information only), and stated as
such.
2.7.4 Delayed Damage. On occasion, vegetative or structural damage will occur within a few
days, or even a couple of weeks, after a meteorological event. This is most common after a very
heavy snowfall, or very heavy rain due to weight loading on roofs or buildings, tree branches, or
power lines. Windy conditions after a heavy snow or heavy rain event may amplify the damage.
In these cases, the Storm Data preparer must enter the post-event damage information as part of
the hydro-meteorological event that just ended and explain the situation in the event narrative.
2.8
Character of Storm. Select the type of storm or phenomenon from the available options
provided in the software. If known, maximum gusts will be encoded as measured; otherwise,
they will be an estimate (gusts are given in knots). Hail size will be given in hundredths of an
inch (0.50, 0.75, 0.88, 1.00, 1.50, etc., are the most common). Data regarding multiple severe
phenomena (events) within a single episode will be provided as separate entries.
2.9
Textual Description of Storm. There are two kinds of textual descriptions: episode
narrative and event narrative. Minimally, a brief episode narrative is needed for any weather
event entry within the Storm Data software. The event narrative may or may not be needed. If
the event does not cause injury, fatality or property/crop damage, the event does not require an
event narrative, unless otherwise significant. For example, Hail events, as a single phenomenon,
should not necessitate narratives unless they are part of a more complex weather event or cause a
fatality/injury or property/crop damage.
2.9.1 Episode Narrative. An episode narrative must be generated, otherwise individual events
can not be entered into the Storm Data software. An episode narrative describes the entire
episode in a general fashion, and briefly describes the synoptic meteorology associated with the
episode. This narrative doesnt need to be long or elaborate, rather make it brief and informative.
An example would be A strong cold front passed through the Washington, D.C. area, triggering
several instances of damaging thunderstorm winds and large, baseball-size hail. Information in

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

the episode narrative can be very useful for researchers and other users of Storm Data. This
narrative will appear in the Storm Data publication after all events contained within the episode.
The episode narrative does not appear in the examples shown in Section 7, which is reserved for
only event narratives.
2.9.2 Event Narrative. Detailed information pertaining specifically to the event and not the
overall episode, will appear in an event narrative. The event narrative describes the significance
or impact of an event within an episode. An event narrative is required for all tornado events,
and all thunderstorm wind events for which winds gusts are estimated. This narrative will appear
immediately below the header-strip in the publication and should contain descriptive information
about the times, locations, and severity of destruction of property, trees, crops, power lines,
roads, bridges, etc. Additionally, a brief summary of fatalities and injuries should be part of the
event narrative. For Thunderstorm Wind events with estimated gusts, use sentences such as
Several trees were toppled by wind gusts estimated at 70 mph.
The event narrative should be concise and not repeat information provided in the quantitative
data found in the header-strip. When used properly, the event narrative integrates the numerical
data into a cohesive meteorological event.
The event narrative must always appear as a complete description of the event. The event
narrative will never consist of a single, stand-alone phrase such as See the 07/18/06
Thunderstorm Wind event at 1800CST for details. However, it is permissible to include a
similar reference phrase at the end of an event narrative when that event spans two CWAs or
different months.
Should a reference time be used in the event narrative, it is recommended that a blank space not
be inserted between the numerical time and the time zone (e.g, 1200EST is the preferred
method). This practice may end up saving a few lines in the Storm Data publication.
When writing the event narrative, always indicate when and where tornadoes and thunderstorm
wind events cross county, parish, and state lines, and boundaries of WFO CWAs. Storm Data
preparers will coordinate with other affected offices to determine time and location of bordercrossing tornadoes or other events. Storm characteristics, such as the intermittence of tornado
paths, may be included.
For lightning injuries, it is highly desirable to include in the event narrative, the age, gender,
location, and weather conditions at the time of occurrence, if known or determinable. The age,
gender, and location information is used in compiling lightning statistics used in the national
report entitled Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics in the United States.
Additional event narrative remarks (or an electronically inserted picture or graphic) may serve to
locate storms more precisely and may give the areal extent and the directional movement or
speed. Such additional detail should be prepared as support documentation to Outstanding
Storms of the Month (see Section 4, Outstanding/Unusual Storms of the Month [OSM]).

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

In an effort to maintain a consistent look and feel to the Storm Data publication, use the
following guidelines for writing narratives:
a. Type all narratives in sentence format. All sentences begin with a capital letter.
All sentences end with a period;
b. Do not begin a sentence with a number; instead, spell out the number: 17 inches of
snow fell overnight should read Seventeen inches of snow fell overnight;
c. Do not title the narrative with Event Summary for Month, Day: The event
narrative IS the event summary so there is no need to identify it as such;
d. If an event spans two or more consecutive months, then state this fact in the event
narrative;
e. The Storm Data preparer should title episode narratives for tropical cyclones with the
name of the cyclone. Example: Hurricane Katrina;
f. Do not use simple phrases such as trees down. Instead, use complete sentences
such as Several trees were downed by wind gusts estimated at 70 mph;
g. Put the gender, age, location of fatality or injury in the event narrative, not the
episode narrative (M62PH and A 62-year old man was killed while inside a permanent home in
city, state);
h. Do not use the hard return key before or after the narrative. This adds an extra blank
line that takes up valuable space in the publication; and
i. When beginning a new paragraph, use a hard return instead of an indent (tab key). In
other words, each paragraph is left-justified.
2.9.3 Cause of Event. The cause or trigger for Flood and Flash Flood events will be entered
into the Storm Data software, in order for the NWS to generate internal verification and other
statistical calculations. Possible causes to choose from are displayed within the Storm Data
software (e.g. heavy rain).
2.10 Pictures. Inclusion of electronic images (.jpg, gif, or png format) into the monthly reports
should be limited to unusual or highly significant events in order to minimize the size of the
Storm Data publication. Minimally, images should have a 640x480 resolution at 100 dpi.
3.
Disposition of Storm Data. Storm Data must be certified by the Warning Coordination
Meteorologist (WCM) or Meteorologist-in-Charge (MIC), no later than 60 days after the end of
the month for which the data is valid. Certification must take place for all months even if no
events occurred in the given month. The WCM and MIC are the only people who are allowed to
certify data. If the data is not certified, it will not appear in the Storm Data publication; nor will
it be used in the verification process.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

In the event of corrections and/or additions in the data to a previously certified month, the WCM
or MIC must recertify the month in which the modification was made. This can only be
accomplished going back 18 months from the current month being certified.
4.
Outstanding/Unusual Storms of the Month (OSM). A very important feature of the
publication Storm Data is the OSM section. The OSM may be any type of event (tornadoes,
hurricanes, snow, ice, hail, meso-systems, etc.). Events may be selected for this section for their
meteorological significance or uniqueness, even if damage or casualties are minimal. Tornadoes
of EF4 intensity or greater should be submitted for the OSM. Otherwise, providing information
for the OSM is optional but highly desirable. Good OSM material makes Storm Data more
interesting and ultimately a more desirable product for users, thus assuring wider distribution of
the monthly Storm Data input received from WFOs.
Although the WCM or a Storm Data focal-point prepares the OSM, the MIC is ultimately
responsible for OSM contributions from the field office. This includes all forensic discovery
(data gathering, fact finding, development of statistics, etc.), drafting graphics and tables,
supplying photographs, and preparing the narrative.
4.1
Requirements for Outstanding/Unusual Storms of the Month. The OSM material is used
to enhance the cover appearance of the Storm Data publication, as well as provide additional
detail not found in a documented event.
4.1.1 Text Format. The OSM should be prepared using any American Standard Code for
Information Interchange (ASCII)-based software (Microsoft Word, Wordpad or Notepad
preferred).
4.1.2 Disposition Dates. The NCDC should be contacted within 30 days following the end of
the month in which the event occurred, if a WFO wishes to have material considered for the
OSM. All OSM material will be submitted to NCDC within 60 days following the end of the
month in which the event occurred. OSM material submitted beyond 60 days might not be
considered.
4.1.3 Copyrights. Permission or credit for the use of each item must be obtained from the
original source before sending to NCDC. Make sure that the submitted photographs are
accompanied by a caption and the name of photographer.
4.1.4 Final Editing. The NCDC will be responsible for final editing of the narrative and any
necessary assembly of multiple OSM products. In addition, NCDC may produce additional
OSM features.
4.1.5 Write-up/Discussion. The OSM will include a one or two-page write-up which
incorporates the following: synoptic discussion of events leading up to the event, any warnings
and watches in effect at the time of the event, any other notable information about the storm,
storm statistics: (EF-scale, hail size, wind gusts, snow amounts, etc.) and aftermath (fatalities,
injuries, damage).

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

4.1.6 Pictures. Photographs, charts, or maps of the storm or the damage/aftermath should
conform to the following guidelines:
a. Digital Images: Digital camera images may be used if they are taken on a good
quality digital camera. Images submitted should have a 1600x1200 or greater resolution, or 300
or greater dpi. Cover picture photographs should be of the highest quality. Please send the
original (raw) photograph and not a post-production photograph, as the quality may be degraded.
b. Pictures (35 mm photographs or slides), images, maps, or charts may be scanned and
sent to NCDC:
1. Scan at original size;
2. Scan at 300 dpi or greater (dots per inch); and
3. Save as raw, tif , or jpg format;
c. Or you may send material (35 mm photographs, slides, images, maps, or charts) to
NCDC via regular mail, where they will be scanned and returned to sender.
d. Hand drawn or computer-generated maps, charts or drawings may be submitted to
depict damage amounts and/or location.
4.1.7 Data Submission. All OSM material should be submitted to NCDC no later than 60 days
after the end of the month in which the event occurred. The above information may be submitted
using one of two methods:
a.

via regular mail to:

Editor - Storm Data
National Climatic Data Center
151 Patton Avenue
Asheville, NC 28732;

b)

via E-mail to: [Link]@[Link] ;

5.
Tornado and Severe Thunderstorm Confirmation Reports. Four alphanumeric text
products are produced by the Storm Prediction Center (SPC). These text products, referenced
below in Table 3, summarize unofficial (preliminary) tornado and severe thunderstorm reports
that were processed at SPC and originated from each WFO. Each WFO should compare the
appropriate message with its local records. Any change in event information should be noted,
but corrections will be made via Storm Data. Additional severe weather statistics and graphics
can be found on the SPC Web page: [Link]
There will be differences between the STAHRY/STADTS messages and the WFOs LSRs. The
SPC lists delete similar events according to the 10 mile/15 minute rule (see NWSI 10-1601,
Verification Procedures, Section 2.1.1).

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

5.1

Table of SPC Statistical Messages .

AWIPS ID

WMO Comms
Header

Product Description

STADTS

NWUS20 KWNS

Listing of tornado and severe thunderstorm from 6

AM CST the previous day to 6 AM CST on the
current day

STAHRY

NWUS22 KWNS

Listing of tornado and severe thunderstorm reports

from 6 AM CST on the current day, and updated on
an hourly accumulative basis

STAMTS

NWUS21 KWNS

Statistics for tornado totals, tornado-related

fatalities, and number of killer tornadoes on a
monthly and yearly basis (current year and previous
3 years)

SPCSTATIJ

NWUS23 KWNS

Listing of killer tornadoes for current year

Table 3. SPC Tornado and Severe Thunderstorm Statistical Report Table.

6.
Weekly Warning Reports. A weekly listing of all severe weather warnings, categorized
by WFO, is posted on the Performance Management web site. A Storm Data preparer should
note any discrepancies in this report, and E-mail or fax copies of warning/text changes to
W/OS52 as soon as possible. Photocopies will suffice.
7.
Event Types. This section provides guidelines for entering event types in the Storm Data
software.
Note: only event narratives appear in the event examples in Section 7. The episode narrative
does not appear.
7.1
Astronomical Low Tide (Z). Abnormal, or extremely low tide levels, that result in
deaths or injuries, watercraft damage, or significant economic impact due to low water levels.
Astronomical low tides are made more extreme when strong winds produce a considerable
seaward transport of water, resulting in previously submerged, non-hazardous objects become
hazardous or exposed.
Beginning Time - When the low tide began to cause damage.
Ending Time - When tides returned to normal.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
A boat traversing an ocean inlet foundered on the rocks in the unusually low
waters and the boaters were injured when equipment on the boat was suddenly
thrown about.

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Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
A sightseer was killed when he drove off the road while looking at the absence of
water.
Example:
AKZ203-204

Eastern Beaufort Sea Coast - Central Beaufort Sea Coast

24 0100AST
0
0
Astronomical Low Tide
25 2300AST
Over the Arctic coast from the evening of the 23rd through the 25th, east winds
ranging from 25 to 45 kts (28 to 52 mph) persisted. The sea ice edge was 20
miles offshore and the wind produced a considerable seaward transport of
water, causing the water level in Prudhoe Bay to run several feet below normal.
Normal tidal variations are only one foot or less along the Beaufort Sea
coastline. Extensive marine operations were halted at Prudhoe Bay during this
time, including the unloading of barges.

7.2
Avalanche (Z). A mass of snow, sometimes containing rocks, ice, trees, or other debris,
that moves rapidly down a steep slope, resulting in a fatality, injury, or significant damage. If a
search team inadvertently starts another avalanche, it will be entered as a new Avalanche event.
Beginning Time - When the snow mass started to descend.
Ending Time - When the snow mass ceased motion.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
People struck by the snow mass or any debris contained within.
People struck by debris tossed clear of the avalanche.
People buried by the avalanche.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
People who ran into (in a motor vehicle, on skis, etc.) the snow mass or debris
after it stopped moving.
Example:
COZ012

West Elk and Sawatch Mountains/Taylor Park

06 1900MST
5
1
Avalanche
1915MST
Four college students were caught in an avalanche, triggered when one of the
students crossed a slope just below the summit on Cumberland Pass, which is about
25 miles east-northeast of Gunnison in the Sawatch Mountain Range. The entire
slope at the 12,000-foot elevation fractured 6-feet deep and 1500 feet across and ran
400 vertical feet, with the resulting avalanche scouring the slope all the way to the
9,000-foot level. The skier who triggered the avalanche was buried next to a tree
which provided an air space that was crucial to his survival. The other three

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

students, including a snow-mobiler, a snow-boarder, and another skier, perished in
the snow. The avalanche also destroyed a cabin, killing the occupant. Boulders
dislodged by the avalanche, struck a car, killing the driver. M19OU, M20OU,
M22OU, M43PH, F37VE
7.3
Blizzard (Z). A winter storm which produces the following conditions for 3 hours
or longer: (1) sustained winds or frequent gusts 30 knots (35 mph) or greater, and (2) falling
and/or blowing snow reducing visibility frequently to less than 1/4 mile, on a widespread or
localized basis.
Some Winter Storm and Blizzard events may have had sustained or maximum wind gusts that
met or exceeded High Wind criteria. Rather than document an additional High Wind event, the
Storm Data preparer should just mention the time, location, and wind value in the Winter Storm
or Blizzard event narrative
Beginning Time - when public impact from the blizzard began or was inferred to begin
from surrounding reports. Normally, this will be the time of the first observation when
blizzard wind/visibility conditions were first observed. The time that snow started to
accumulate and/or blowing snow was first observed can be mentioned in the event
narrative.
Criteria Time when the 3rd hour of blizzard conditions was observed to occur or
inferred to occur from surrounding reports.
Ending Time - when blizzard wind and visibility conditions are no longer observed or
have been inferred to end from surrounding reports.
In Storm Data, no blizzard should cover a time period of less than 3 hours. If blizzard-like
conditions occur for less than 3 hours, the event should be entered as Winter Storm, Heavy
Snow, or Winter Weather, perhaps noting in the narrative that near-blizzard or blizzard-like
conditions were observed at the height of the storm.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
People who became trapped or disoriented in a blizzard and suffered/died from
hypothermia.
People who were struck by objects borne or toppled in blizzard wind.
People suffered/died from a roof collapse due to the weight of heavy snow.
A vehicle stalled in a blizzard. The occupant suffered from/died of hypothermia.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Vehicle accidents caused by poor visibility and/or slippery roads.

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Example:
MIZ049-055

Huron - Sanilac
02 2200EST
2
0
Blizzard
03 0300EST
An unusually active lake-effect snow event occurred in the Thumb area. Aided
by sustained north winds of 35 to 43 knots (40 to 50 mph), with gusts to 56 knots
(65 mph), the snow and blowing snow reduced visibilities to near zero across
much of Huron and Sanilac Counties. Snow accumulations were very difficult to
measure due to the high winds, but were commonly cited in the 12- to 17-inch
range. Up to 10-foot snow drifts were observed. This blizzard essentially shut
down most of the area for the next 3 days. Two people in Huron County froze to
death after they left their snow-covered vehicle and attempted to walk to a
nearby farm home. M55OU, F60OU

7.4
Coastal Flood (Z). Flooding of coastal areas due to the vertical rise above normal water
level caused by strong, persistent onshore wind, high astronomical tide, and/or low atmospheric
pressure, resulting in damage, erosion, flooding, fatalities, or injuries. Coastal areas are defined
as those portions of coastal land zones (coastal county/parish) adjacent to the waters and bays of
the oceans. Farther inland, the Storm Data preparer must determine when and where to encode a
flood event as Flash Flood or Flood. Terrain (elevation) features will determine how far inland
the coastal flooding extends.
Note: Flooding of lakeshore areas (e.g., Great Lakes, Lake Okeechobee, and Lake Pontchartrain
and Lake Maurepas) should be entered under the Lakeshore Flood event category.
If the astronomical tide height for the flooded area is known, it should be subtracted from the
total water level/storm tide (runup/debris line), and the result specifically labeled in the narrative
as storm surge. The method of measuring surge height should be mentioned in the narrative,
e.g., NWS survey team calculated a surge height of 4 feet by subtracting the astronomical tide
height from the runup/debris line height. For Storm Data, coastal flood events that are
associated with a storm of tropical origin (e.g., hurricane, typhoon, or tropical storm)
should be reported under the Storm Surge/Tide event category, even if the tropical system
is hundreds of miles away. All other coastal flooding events should be reported as a
Coastal Flood.
Beginning Time - When the water level began to cause damage or flooding.
Ending Time - When the water level dropped to a point where damage or flooding ended.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
A coastal dwelling was washed away injuring/killing the occupants.
A person drowned when a vehicle was swept away by the storm surge/tide.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
A person suffered a heart attack while evacuating from a storm tide.

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A person died in a vehicle accident caused by the storm tide washing away a
traffic signal.
A person died in a vehicle accident after losing control in standing water on a
road.
Example:
ORZ022

Curry County Coast

07 0600PST
0
0 100K
Coastal Flood
1000PST
A 4-foot storm tide, as reported by local police, affected a portion of the Oregon
coast. The storm tide washed away part of Port Orfords sewage treatment plant.

7.5
Cold/Wind Chill (Z). Period of low temperatures or wind chill temperatures reaching or
exceeding locally/regionally defined advisory (typical value is -180F or colder) conditions, on a
widespread or localized basis. There can be situations where advisory criteria are not met, but
the combination of seasonably cold temperatures and low wind chill values (roughly 150F below
normal) must result in a fatality. In these situations, a cold/wind chill event may be documented
if the weather conditions were the primary cause of death as determined by a medical examiner
or coroner. Normally, cold/wind chill conditions should cause human and/or economic impact.
Use this event only if a fatality/injury does not occur during a winter precipitation event.
Beginning Time - When cold temperatures or wind chill equivalent temperatures began.
Ending Time - When cold temperatures or wind chill equivalent temperatures ended.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
A fatality where hypothermia was ruled as the primary, or major contributing
factor as determined by a medical examiner or coroner. If other weather factors,
such as freezing/frozen precipitation, disorient the person, trap the person, or
cause the person to collapse, but cause of fatality was exposure or hypothermia,
the fatality may be entered under the event type Winter Storm, Winter Weather,
etc. The Storm Data preparer must use sound judgment and work with the local
medical examiner or coroner.
Elderly person wandered away from a nursing home, became disoriented, and
died outdoors. Medical examiner ruled that the major cause of death was
hypothermia.
Cases in which people receive medical treatment for frostbite or cold-hypothermia
can be considered a direct injury.
A man dies from hypothermia after falling down a flight of stairs in his dark
(became unconscious), unheated home.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Cases where people suffer carbon monoxide poisoning from using an improperly
ventilated fuel burning portable heater due to the cold.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Cases where people are injured or killed in a house fire due to improper use of
portable heaters due to the cold.
Example:
WIZ001>004 Ashland Bayfield Douglas - Iron
05 0600CST
2
0
0
0
Cold/Wind Chill
07 1200CST
Wind chill values dropped to -18 to -30 as northwest winds blew at 20 to 30
mph. Two cross-country skiers died from exposure on a trail west of Hurley in
Iron County. The medical examiner classified the fatalities as being due to coldhypothermia. M32OU, F33OU
INZ001

Lake
11 2000CST
1
0
Cold/Wind Chill
12 1400CST
A homeless man was found dead in Gary, Indiana. The cause of death was
hypothermia. It was raining on this cold October day with winds of 17 to 26
knots (20 to 30 mph) and temperatures in the 30s. M42OU

7.6
Debris Flow (C). A combination of either water, soil, rock and other material that forms
on the sides of hill slopes and moves rapidly downhill. Debris flows are fast moving and highly
destructive due to the amount of material being carried with the flow. Large boulders, trees and
massive amounts of sediment can be carried in a debris flow. In most cases, lahars or mudflows
from volcanic activity are considered a debris flow.
Beginning Time - When the debris flow started to descend.
Ending Time - When the debris flow ceased motion.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
People were struck by the debris flow.
People killed or injured when a vehicle was struck by moving debris flow.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Motorists who ran into the mass of debris flow in the road after the mass stopped
moving.
Example:
Flathead County
6 SE West
15 0700MST
1
1
Debris Flow
Glacier
0710MST
A thunderstorm produced very heavy rain early in the morning along Highway 2
in the West Glacier Region. A debris flow slide of large rocks and earth

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

cascaded onto Highway 2 between West Glacier and Essex. A large rock hit a
moving vehicle and killed one of the occupants instantly. The driver was
seriously injured. M36VE
7.7
Dense Fog (Z). Water droplets suspended in the air at the Earths surface, over a
widespread or localized area, reducing visibility to values equal to or below locally/regionally
established values for dense fog (usually 1/4 mile or less) and impacting transportation or
commerce. Accidents, which resulted in injuries or fatalities, during a dense fog event are
reported using this event category.
Beginning Time When dense fog criteria were first met.
Ending Time When dense fog criteria were no longer met.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries None.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Fatalities and injuries resulting from vehicular accidents caused by dense fog.
During extremely dense fog, a construction worker lifted a metal pipe which
touched a power line, resulting in electrocution.
Example:
NCZ053-065 Buncombe - Henderson
30 0400EST
0
0
Dense Fog
1000EST
Dense fog developed in the early morning hours in the French Broad River
valley. The fog played havoc with the morning commute, and contributed to
several accidents in and south of Asheville. At 0900EST, the fog contributed to
a 25-car pile-up on Interstate 40 on the south side of Asheville. The accident
claimed 4 lives (indirect fatalities) and injured 17 (indirect). Asheville Regional
Airport was closed for most of the morning. The North Carolina State Police
shut down Interstate 26 between the airport and the city as a precautionary
measure.
7.8
Dense Smoke (Z). Widespread or localized dense smoke, reducing visibilities to values
equal to or below locally/regionally established values (usually mile or less), that adversely
affects people and/or impacts transportation or commerce. Dense smoke in various
concentrations suspended in the air at the Earths surface can cause problems for people with
heart or respiratory ailments.
Beginning Time - When dense smoke criteria were first met.
Ending Time - When dense smoke criteria were no longer met.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

People who suffered/died from inhalation of dense smoke.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Fatalities and injuries resulting from vehicular accidents caused by dense
smoke.
Example:
MTZ0005

Missoula/Bitterroot Valleys
31 0400MST
2
0
Dense Smoke
1000MST
Dense smoke developed in the early morning hours in the Missoula and
Bitterroot Valleys from a combination of surrounding forest fires in the
Bitterroot Mountains. The dense smoke played havoc with the morning
commute, and contributed to several long delays from minor accidents on
Highway 93 near Lolo. Two elderly people died after being hospitalized for
smoke inhalation near Florence. Dense smoke also delayed morning flights for
several hours at Missoula International Airport. M88OU, F92OU

7.9
Drought (Z). Drought is a deficiency of moisture that results in adverse impacts on
people, animals, or vegetation over a sizeable area. Conceptually, drought is a protracted period
of deficient precipitation resulting in extensive damage to crops, resulting in loss of yield. There
are different kinds of drought: meteorological, agricultural, hydrological, and social-economic.
Each kind of drought starts and ends at different times. Additional information can be obtained
at this web address: [Link]
A drought event should be included in Storm Data when the intensity of the moisture deficiency
and other factors result in a D2 classification, or higher, as indicated in the Drought Monitor, a
multi-agency effort. Details can be found at this web address:
[Link]
Droughts are rated as D0, D1, D2, D3, or D4. This information should be included in the
narrative.
Beginning Time - When an area first reaches D2 classification (severe drought).
Ending Time - When an area is no longer in at least a D2 classification.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
Extremely rare.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
None.

25

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Example:
MTZ003

Flathead/Mission Valleys
01 0000MST
0
0
55K
Drought
22 1800MST
A drought, which began in early July ended for much of the Flathead and
Mission Valleys on September 22, when 3 to 5 inches of precipitation fell. For
many locations this was the first significant rain exceeding a quarter of an inch
since July 4. The droughts effect was especially felt during the first 3 weeks of
September (D3) after numerous grass fires prompted many communities to ban
any type of outdoor burning. Among the largest fires reported were: 180-200
acres of grassland and timber from Pablo to St. Ignatius. The most costly
reported fire was when smoldering leaves ignited dry grass near Ronan,
eventually spreading into two homes and causing $55,000 worth of damage.
Damage amounts do not include costs to individual fire departments for fire
containment.

Note: This example above should have entries in July and August Storm Data as well. Damage
amounts in the header are for the current month only. Grand totals for the entire drought episode
should be mentioned in the narrative. In some cases the effects and cost of a drought may not be
known for some time.
7.10 Dust Devil (C). A ground-based, rotating column of air, not in contact with a cloud base,
usually of short duration, rendered visible by dust, sand, or other debris picked up from the
ground, resulting in a fatality, injury, or damage. Dust devils usually result from intense,
localized heating interacting with the micro-scale wind field. Dust devils that do not produce a
fatality, injury, or significant damage may be entered as an event if they are unusually large,
noteworthy, or create strong public interest.
Beginning Time - When the rotating column of air first became visible.
Ending Time - When the rotating column of air was no longer visible.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
People who were asphyxiated due to high dust/sand content in the air. (Rare)
People who were hit by flying debris.
Vehicle was tipped over or blown off a road.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Vehicular accidents caused by reduced visibility during a dust devil, or
vehicular accidents caused by debris left on a road after a dust devil passed by.

26

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Example:
Maricopa County
4 W Gila Bend 12 1400MST
0
2
Dust Devil
1420MST
A fairly strong dust devil developed and moved directly along Interstate 8,
according to amateur radio reports. Visibility was severely reduced in the dust
devil. One motorist drove into the dust devil, which pushed and flipped the
vehicle off the road. The driver and one passenger were injured. Winds were
estimated at 56 knots (65 mph).
7.11 Dust Storm (Z). Strong winds over dry ground, with little or no vegetation, that lift
particles of dust or sand, reducing visibility over a localized or widespread area below locally/
regionally established values (usually 1/4 mile or less), and results in a fatality, injury, damage,
or major disruption of transportation.
Some dust storms may be due to winds meeting or exceeding locally/regionally defined high
wind warning criteria. The preparer should enter these events as Dust Storm events, as well as
enter High Wind events for those events which met or exceeded locally/regionally defined
warning criteria. All fatalities, injuries, and/or damage should be entered in association with the
Dust Storm.
Beginning Time - When an area of blowing dust or sand first reduced visibility to locally/
regionally established values or began to cause a major impact.
Ending Time - When an area of blowing dust or sand diminished so that visibility was
above locally/ regionally established values or no longer had a major impact.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
People who were asphyxiated due to high dust/sand content in the air. (Rare)
People who were hit by flying debris.
Vehicle tipped/pushed over or blown off a road by the strong winds, resulting in
an accident and associated fatalities/injuries.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Vehicular accidents caused by reduced visibility during a dust storm or by
debris left on a road after a dust storm passed.
Example:
KSZ061

Hamilton
24 1600MST
0
2
20K
Dust Storm
1645MST
A strong cold front caused wind gusts to around 43 knots (50 mph) across far
western Kansas. An area of dust and dirt was lifted hundreds of feet into the air,
reducing the visibility to near zero across U.S. Highway 50, west of Syracuse.

27

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

A wind gust overturned and damaged an empty semi-trailer, injuring the two
occupants.
7.12 Excessive Heat (Z). Excessive Heat results from a combination of high temperatures
(well above normal) and high humidity. An Excessive Heat event occurs and is reported in
Storm Data whenever heat index values meet or exceed locally/regionally established excessive
heat warning thresholds, on a widespread or localized basis. Fatalities (directly-related) or major
impacts to human health occurring during excessive heat warning conditions are reported using
this event category.
Fatalities or impacts to human health occurring when conditions meet locally/regionally defined
heat advisory criteria are reported within the Heat event category (Refer to section 7.20 Heat,
for more details). If deaths are determined to be a result of the heat, but locally/ regionally
defined heat warning or heat advisory criteria are not met, then the fatalities can only be
mentioned in the narrative of another Storm Data event that occurred near the time of death.
In some heat waves, fatalities occur up to three days following the meteorological end of the
event. The preparer should include these fatalities in the event, but encode the actual date of the
directly-related fatalities in the fatality entry table.
Depending on the part of the country experiencing high temperatures, the heat effects are
modulated by relative humidity, cloud cover, wind speeds, the duration of a hot spell, the time of
the year, and other factors, including mortality rates and types of housing.
Beginning Time - When local/regional thresholds for excessive heat were first met or
when abnormally hot conditions began.
Ending Time - When local/regional thresholds for excessive heat were no longer met or
abnormally hot conditions ended.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
Fatality where heat-related illness or heat stress was the primary, or major
contributing factor as determined by a medical examiner or coroner.
An elderly person suffered heat stroke and died inside a stuffy apartment during
a heat wave.
A toddler was left inside a car while a parent went inside a grocery store on a
hot day where ambient conditions met the local/regional definition of excessive
heat. The windows were left rolled up, and the toddler died. Likewise, any
person or group of persons who die as a result of being trapped inside a vehicle
or other enclosure during excessive heat conditions, would be labeled as direct
fatalities.
Cases in which people receive medical treatment for heat-hyperthermia (severe
dehydration, sunstroke, heatstroke, etc.) and survive are considered injuries, not
illnesses, for Storm Data purposes.

28

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Fatality where excessive heat was the secondary, or contributing factor.
Excessive heat triggered widespread power outages, which in turn caused a
persons respirator to turn off, and that person died.
Examples:
MIZ068>
070-075076-082083

Monroe - Livingston - Oakland - Macomb - Washtenaw - Wayne - Lenawee -

02 1300EST
4
24
Excessive Heat
05 2000EST
Very hot and humid weather occurred over southeast Michigan over the Fourth of
July weekend. High temperatures were in the mid to upper 90s across metro Detroit
all 4 days, with Detroit City Airport reaching 100 degrees on July 4. The high of
97 degrees at Detroit Metropolitan Airport on July 5 set a new record for that date.
Heat indices were in the 105 to 115-degree range all four afternoons. Dozens of
people were treated at area hospitals for heat-related illnesses over the weekend,
and four elderly people died from heat stroke based on medical reports. Two of the
fatalities occurred on July 4, one on July 5, and one person died on July 7 after
being hospitalized for heat stroke for 2 days. The heat wave finally broke when a
cold front moved through Lower Michigan late in the day on July 5. M89PH,
F77PH, M95PH, F72PH
MOZ037

Jackson
10 1800CST
1
0
Excessive Heat
11 2000CST
The high temperature reached 105 degrees with a heat index of 115 on the
afternoon of June 11. During the overnight hour of June 10th, the heat indices
stayed above 85. The medical examiner reported an elderly woman died from heat
stress. She was found dead in her apartment. F84PH

ILZ027>031- Knox Stark Peoria Marshall Woodford Fulton Tazewell 036>038-040> Mclean Schuyler Mason Logan DeWitt Piatt Champaign 057-061>063- Vermilion Cass Menard Scott Morgan Sangamon Christian 066>068-071> Macon Moultrie Douglas Coles Edgar Shelby Cumberland 073
Clark Effingham Jasper Crawford Clay Richland - Lawrence
30 1100CST
0
0
Excessive Heat
31 2359CST
An extended period of excessive heat and humidity occurred across central and
southeast Illinois from July 30th to August 2nd. Afternoon high temperatures
ranged from 99 to 106 degrees most afternoons, with afternoon heat index values
ranging from 110 to 120. Overnight lows only fell into the upper 70s. A 39 year old
male from Mapleton (Peoria County) suffered a heart attack and died in his mobile

29

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

home. The excessive heat was a contributing factor, since the victim was taking a
medication that prevented him from sweating (indirect fatality).
7.12.1 Heat Index Table.

Table 4. Heat Index Values Based on Relative Humidity or Dew Point.

7.13 Extreme Cold/Wind Chill (Z). A period of extremely low temperatures or wind chill
temperatures reaching or exceeding locally/regionally defined warning criteria (typical value
around -350F or colder), on a widespread or localized basis. Normally these conditions should
cause significant human and/or economic impact. However, if fatalities occur with cold
temperatures/wind chills but extreme cold/wind chill criteria are not met, the event should also
be included in Storm Data as a Cold/Wind Chill event and the fatalities are direct.
Use this event only if a fatality/injury does not occur during a winter precipitation event.
Beginning Time - When extreme or abnormally cold temperatures or wind chill
equivalent temperatures began.
Ending Time - When extreme or abnormally cold temperatures or wind chill equivalent
temperatures ended.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
A fatality where hypothermia was ruled as the primary, or major contributing
factor, as determined by a medical examiner or coroner. If other weather factors,
such as freezing/frozen precipitation, disorient the person, trap the person, or
cause the person to collapse, but cause of fatality was exposure or hypothermia,
the fatality may be entered under the event type Winter Storm, Winter Weather,
etc. The Storm Data preparer must use sound judgment and work with the local
medical examiner or coroner.
Elderly person wandered away from a nursing home, became disoriented, and
died outdoors. Medical examiner ruled that the major cause of death was
hypothermia.

30

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Cases in which people receive medical treatment for frostbite or coldhypothermia can be considered an injury.
A man dies from hypothermia after falling down a flight of stairs in his dark
(became unconscious), unheated home.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
After shoveling snow, a man collapsed in the driveway. The medical examiner
determined the primary cause of fatality was heart attack.
Examples:
WYZ054>058 North Campbell - South Campbell Western Crook - Wyoming Black Hills
- Weston
01 1200MST
4
0
500K 50K Extreme Cold/Wind Chill
03 1000MST
Temperatures fell to 35 below to 45 below zero (-45 in Gillette) on the 2nd. Four
fishermen were found frozen at their campsite near Pine Haven at Keyhole State
Park in Crook County. The medical examiner classified the fatalities as being due
to cold-hypothermia. The extreme cold caused water mains and pipes to freeze
and burst in Gillette and Newcastle, resulting in water damage to homes and
businesses. In addition, a couple of ranchers reported losses of livestock.
M44OU, F42OU, F57OU, M59OU
NDZ050

McIntosh
15 1000CST
1
0
Extreme Cold/Wind Chill
15 2200CST
An 84-year-old Lehr man died of hypothermia when he went to visit the grave of
his wife. The man was found 1 mile from his house. Temperatures that day
were around 20 below and wind speeds of 17 to 22 knots (20-25 mph). Wind
chills were estimated to be around 50 below. The man was not wearing a coat or
gloves when he was found. M84OU

31

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

7.13.1 Wind Chill Table.

Table 5. Wind Chill Values Based on Temperature and Wind Speed.

7.14 Flash Flood (C). A rapid and extreme flow of high water into a normally dry area, or a
rapid water level rise in a stream or creek above a predetermined flood level, beginning within
six hours of the causative event (e.g., intense rainfall, dam failure, ice jam-related), on a
widespread or localized basis. Ongoing flooding can intensify to flash flooding in cases where
intense rainfall results in a rapid surge of rising flood waters. The Storm Data preparer must use
good, professional judgment in determining when the event is no longer characteristic of a Flash
Flood and becomes a Flood. Flash floods do not exist for two or three consecutive days.
River flooding which develops as a result of flash flooding may be included in the narrative.
However, such entries should be confined only to the effects of the flooding, such as roads and
bridges washed out, homes and businesses damaged, and the dollar estimates of such damage.
7.14.1 General Guidelines for the Determination of a Flash Flood. The guidelines listed below
can be used by the Storm Data preparer to aid in the determination as to whether or not a flash
flood has occurred. If one or more of the conditions listed below begins within 6 hours or less,
the Storm Data preparer should consider an entry in the Flash Flood section of the Storm Data
software.
It can be difficult to ascertain whether or not a flash flood has occurred without accurate reports.
Questions for observers are provided below that may help with this effort. Basically, if water
rose rapidly in places that are normally dry or normally at a much lower level and pose a threat
to life or property, the situation may be considered a Flash Flood. For example, water moving

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

over a road causing a car to get swept into a swollen creek (above or within banks) may be
considered a Flash Flood. As a guide, a depth of approximately six inches of fast-moving water
should be considered as it will knock a person off his/her feet and begin to cause some cars to
move out of control. There may also be cases where a lesser amount of swiftly moving water
results in impact criteria described below, and could also be considered a Flash Flood.
These Flash Flood guidelines are not meant to be all-inclusive and may vary locally or
regionally. The guidelines are meant to aid the Storm Data preparer by giving him/her a starting
point.
Note: When events such as mudslides or lahars are caused primarily by volcanic activity, or
when rainfall is not the primary cause, then document them as a Debris Flow. Refer to Section
7.6 of this directive for details.
7.14.2 Suggested Specific Guidelines. A Flash Flood begins within 6 hours of a causative event
such as moderate to heavy rain, dam break, or ice jam release:
River or stream flows out of its banks and is a threat to life or property.
Person or vehicle is swept away by flowing water from runoff that inundates
adjacent grounds.
A maintained county or state road is closed by high water.
Approximately six inches or more of water flows over a road or bridge. This
includes low water crossings in a heavy rain event that is more than localized (i.e.,
radar and observer reports indicate flooding in nearby locations) and poses a
threat to life or property.
Dam break or ice jam release causes dangerous out of bank stream flows or
inundates normally dry areas, creating a hazard to life or property.
Any amount of water in contact, flowing into or causing damage of an above
ground residence or public building and is runoff from adjacent grounds.
Three feet or more of ponded water that poses a threat to life or property (A 1988
United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) study indicated 3 feet or more as a
danger to people and vehicles).
Flood waters containing a minimal amount of debris (mud, rock, vegetation)
caused by rainfall. This could possibly occur in a burned area with only light to
moderate rainfall.
The following can be used as signals to search further for evidence of a Flash Flood, but do not
by themselves indicate a Flash Flood has occurred. More supporting information should be
gathered - i.e., actual reports of flooding in the area which meet local Flash Flood criteria.
Damage to any maintained road.
Basement flooding. (This could be due to something other than Flash Flooding.)
Some kind of a debris flow.
7.14.3 Questions to ask observers, Emergency Managers, etc. Questions should be posed in
such a way as to determine whether or not a flooding episode was truly a Flash Flood. Example
questions are given below. These could also be used in real time as the heavy rain event
becomes a flood.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

The following are worded for follow-up verification, but could be re-worded to aid in the
determination of a Flash Flood event:
Was the river/stream flowing out of banks and a danger to life or property? Was
there around 6 inches or more of water flowing over the ground/bridge/road? Do
you know about what time this began?
Were any roads or bridges closed? Do you know about what time they were first
closed?
Was water rapidly flowing over the road or land surface (yard, field, etc)?
Can you estimate the maximum depth of the moving water? (May ask to compare
to car tires. Six inches may verify a warning.)
Can you estimate the depth of ponded or standing water? (Three feet of ponded
water may verify a warning.)
Did water inundate any houses or buildings? If so, was flooding the result of
sewer backup or sump pump failure? (If yes to the second question, this does not
verify a warning.)
Were there any evacuations due to flood waters?
Can you estimate the beginning and ending time of the flood that created impacts?
If you were not present at the time of flooding, can you determine high-water
marks on trees, buildings, or other objects?
7.14.4 Low-impact Flooding vs. Threat to Life or Property. In an effort to maintain the most
reliable data set it is important to separate low-impact flooding from Flash Flooding. Lowimpact flooding should not be considered a Flash Flood. Low-impact flooding does not pose a
significant threat to life or property:
Minor flooding in urban areas and bottom lands of small streams/creeks
(conditions that do not pose a threat to life or property).
Minor ponding of water during or after a heavy rain event or flood (deep ponding
of water may pose a threat to life and property).
High stream levels due to steady or slowly rising/receding creeks/streams that do
not pose a threat to life or property.
There may be times when fatalities or damage occur due to a heavy rain event that does not meet
the Flash Flood criteria above, or the event may be so isolated that it was determined not to be a
danger to life or property. These are entered in Storm Data in the Heavy Rain event (refer to
Section 7.21 for more details), or another suitable event that took place at the same time. An
example would be the weight of heavy rain collapsing a roof on a single building.
There may be times when fatalities occur well after the flood is over. An example would be
someone who drives into a receding stream at high levels but within banks, or drives into a
flooded underpass that has been barricaded due to high water for an extended period of time after
the flood. These would be recorded as indirect Flood or Flash Flood fatalities.
Note: Direct fatalities which are vehicle-related will be coded as VE. In addition, if a person
drives into a flooded area, exits his/her vehicle and drowns, the fatality will be coded as VE
(Vehicle and/or Towed Trailer), not IW (In Water).

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Beginning Time - When flood waters began to threaten life or property. In some cases, a
flash flood may begin when water left the banks of a river; in others it may be when the
water level was 2 to 3 feet above bank-full. It may also be when raging currents of water
only 1-foot deep on urban streets swept people off their feet, resulting in a fatality/injury.
An important distinction between Flash Flood and Flood events is that a Flash Flood
exhibits a rapid rise in water levels, begins within 6 hours of the causative event, and is
usually characterized by rapidly flowing water.
It is possible for a flash flood event to occur during a flood event due to intense rainfall in
a short period of time. The beginning time of the flash flood event should correspond to
the rapid rise in water levels following the causative event (6 hours or less).
A maintained county or state road is first closed by high water.
Approximate time when six inches or more of flowing water is observed over a
road or bridge.
The point at which any amount of water comes in contact, flowing into, or causes
damage to an above ground residence or public building and is the runoff from
adjacent grounds.
The time when three feet or more of water has ponded and poses a threat to life
and property. Professional judgment is needed by the Storm Data preparer to
assess whether this is a climatologically normal event or if it is unusual. For
example, an event would not be considered a Flash Flood if ponding three to four
feet deep typically occurs with only minimal rainfall.
Ending Time - When flood waters receded to a point where there was no longer any
threat to life or property. Alternatively, the ending time of a Flash Flood event can be
defined as the time water levels began to recede. The event may then be continued as a
Flood event. Keep in mind that flash flooding may continue to threaten life or property
many hours after the causative event ends.
Cause of Flash Flood Event Storm Data software requires that an entry be made for the
cause of the Flash Flood event (e.g., heavy rain). This cause will not appear in the Storm
Data publication.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
A person drowned in a flash flood or was struck by an object in flash flood
waters.
A motorist drowned in an overturned car after driving down a hill onto a flooded
stretch of highway that had flood waters 4 feet deep. (It doesnt matter how
irresponsible the driver was.)
A group of people having a party in an apartment located in a floodplain drowned
when flood waters trapped them.
Several campers drowned when a thunderstorm 10 miles away in an adjacent
county/parish sent a flash flood wave down an arroyo where they camped.
Debris or missiles caught in flood waters struck and injured a person walking
along a flooding river.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

A child playing near a stream or storm sewer was swept away by flood waters and
drowned.
Drowning due to the collapse of a levee or retaining wall caused by flood waters.
Drowning or injuries due to flooding caused by a dam break.
Indirect Fatalities/Indirect Injuries
Vehicular accidents and incidents that the flash flood contributed to but did not
directly cause.
Children playing in debris or workers cleaning up debris left by a flood. Debris
shifted and child or worker was struck, pinned, or crushed by debris.
A flash flood loosened rocks on a mountainside. After the water receded, a rock
climber fell to his death after grabbing onto one of the loosened rocks for a
handhold.
A remote mountain pass road was undermined in a flash flood by a nearby creek.
After the water receded, a vehicle drove into the hole in the road, killing the
passenger and injuring the driver.
Examples:
Milwaukee County
Wauwatosa to 06 1000CST
2
0
2.5M
Flash Flood
Milwaukee
07 0000CST
Thunderstorms dumped rainfall amounts of 8 to 12 inches between 0700CST and
1900CST on July 6 in a 7-mile-wide band from the city of Waukesha (Waukesha
Co.) east to downtown Milwaukee (Milwaukee Co.). Flash flooding killed
two people who drowned when their car was swept away by flood waters at the
intersection of I-94 and I-43. Widespread flood damage occurred to 2000 homes
and 500 businesses. The maximum rainfall total in Milwaukee County was
11.25 inches, which was measured at the downtown Public Safety Building.
M25VE, F24VE
Waukesha County
Waukesha to 06 1000CST
4
10
2.0M
Flash Flood
Elm Grove
07 0000CST
Thunderstorms dumped rainfall amounts of 8 to 12 inches between 0700CST and
1900CST on July 6 in a 7-mile-wide band from the city of Waukesha (Waukesha
Co.) east to downtown Milwaukee (Milwaukee Co.). Widespread flood damage
occurred to 500 homes and 150 businesses from the city of Waukesha east
through Brookfield and Elm Grove. Four people in a vehicle drowned when
flash flood waters up to 5 feet deep flipped their car over at the intersection of I94 and Moorland Road. Ten people were injured in the city of Waukesha by
floating tree debris in Fox River. A cooperative observer in the southern part of
Brookfield (Waukesha Co.) measured 11.98 inches of rain between 0700CST
and 1900CST on the 6th. M48VE, F46VE, M14VE, F15VE
Herkimer County

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Dolgeville

28 0930EST
0
0
4K
Flash Flood
1500EST
An ice jam developed during the morning of February 28 along East Canada
Creek at the State Highway 29 bridge in the village of Dolgeville. The water
rapidly backed up, flooding the cellars of nearby buildings. The ice jam broke
up in the late afternoon without any further flooding downstream.

Cannon County
Woodbury
07 0830CST
0
0
100K
Flash Flood
1300CST
A dam broke and the resultant flash flood damaged a dozen homes downstream.
(This example would apply to levees, retaining walls, and other structures.)
7.14.5 Examples of a Flash Flood that Evolved into a Flood.
Kern County
Frazier Park 10 1900PST
0
0
1.0M
Flash Flood
11 0100PST
A powerful storm dropped 3 to 4 inches of rain over portions of Kern County
during the afternoon of the 10th. The heavy rains caused flash flooding on
several creeks. Frazier Mountain Road between I-5 and Shallock Road and
Highway 66 near Maricopa were all washed out by overflowing creeks.
Kern County
Frazier Park 11 0100PST
0
0
Flood
11 1000PST
A powerful storm dropped 3 to 4 inches of rain over portions of Kern County
during the afternoon of the 10th. The heavy rains caused flash flooding on
several creeks. Frazier Mountain Road between I-5 and Shallock Road and
Highway 66 near Maricopa were all washed out by overflowing creeks.
Additional 1 to 2 inches of rain caused creeks to stay in flood and roads to
remain closed through the night. Flood waters subsided by late morning on the
11th.
7.15 Flood (C). Any high flow, overflow, or inundation by water which causes or threatens
damage. In general, this would mean the inundation of a normally dry area caused by an
increased water level in an established watercourse, or ponding of water, generally occurring
more than 6 hours after the causative event, and posing a threat to life or property. This can be
on a widespread or localized basis. Refer to the Flash Flood event (Section 7.14) for guidelines
for differentiating between Floods and Flash Floods.
River flooding may be included in the Flood category. However, such entries should be
confined only to the effects of the river flooding, such as roads and bridges washed out, homes
and businesses damaged, and the dollar estimates of such damage. OCWWS at National
Weather Service Headquarters will maintain the official records of river stages, flood stages, and
crests. Therefore, river stages need not be included in Storm Data.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Note: Direct fatalities which are vehicle-related will be coded as VE. In addition, if a person
drives into a flooded area, exits his/her vehicle and drowns, the fatality will be coded as VE
(Vehicle and/or Towed Trailer), not IW (In Water).
Beginning Time - When flood waters began to threaten life or property. In some cases, a
flood may have been when water left the banks of a river, in others it may not have been
until the water level was 2 to 3 feet above bank-full. Professional judgment should be
used by the Storm Data preparer.
Ending Time - When flood waters receded to a point where there was no longer any
threat to life or property. Keep in mind that flooding may continue to threaten life or
property many days after the rain ends.
Cause of Flood Event Storm Data software requires that an entry be made for the cause
of the Flood event (e.g., heavy rain). This cause will not appear in the Storm Data
publication.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
A fatality occurred as a result of the person drowning in a flood or being struck
by an object in flood waters.
A person walked around a barricade into 3-foot deep flood waters near a river.
The current swept him off his feet and he drowned.
Two people were rafting down a flooded street hanging onto inner tubes. Water
turbulence flipped them over, causing them to hit their heads on a curb, and
both drowned.
Debris or missiles caught in flood waters struck and injured a person walking
along a flooded river.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Vehicular accidents the flood contributed to but did not directly cause.
A person suffered a heart attack while taking part in sandbagging operations.
Example:
Providence County
South Foster 17 0200EST
0
2
3.5M 5.7M
Flood
18 1500EST
Widespread low-land flooding occurred in northwest Providence County,
resulting in considerable flood damage to 1500 homes, 400 businesses, and
200 agricultural farms. Two men near South Foster were injured by floating
debris in the Ponaganset River when they rescued a dog. The flood was
initiated by rainfall amounts of 4 to 5 inches (on top of wet ground) that fell
between 1800EST on the 16th and 1800EST on the 17th.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

7.16 Freezing Fog (Z). Fog which freezes on contact with exposed objects and forms a
coating of rime and/or glaze, on a widespread or localized basis, resulting in an impact on
transportation, commerce, or individuals. Freezing fog can occur with any visibility of 6 miles
or less. Even small accumulations of ice can have an impact.
Beginning Time When freezing fog began.
Ending Time When freezing fog ended.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries None.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Fatalities and injuries resulting from vehicle accidents caused by freezing fog.
Example:
ARZ044

Pulaski
14 0400CST
0
0
Freezing Fog
1100CST
Freezing fog occurred in areas near the Arkansas River, reducing visibility to
below mile. The fog resulted in a number of multiple-vehicle accidents during
the morning rush-hour. The majority of these accidents occurred on elevated
sections of Interstate 440, on the river bridges of Interstates 30 and 430, and on
the Levy Bridge on Interstate 40. Altogether, the accidents caused five injuries
(indirect injuries).

7.17 Frost/Freeze (Z). A surface air temperature of 32 degrees Fahrenheit (F) or lower, or the
formation of ice crystals on the ground or other surfaces, over a widespread or localized area for
a period of time long enough to cause human or economic impact, during the locally defined
growing season.
Beginning Time - When the temperature first fell below freezing or frost began to form.
Ending Time - When the temperature rose above freezing or frost melted.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
None. This Storm Data event type applies to agricultural losses. Any fatality in
which the medical examiner or coroner determined that the primary cause was
hypothermia should be entered under the event type Extreme Cold/Wind Chill,
or the Cold/Wind Chill event.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Any traffic fatalities/injuries due to ice formation on roads or bridges, and any
pedestrian casualties due to icy walkways.
Examples:
FLZ039-042
-048

Levy - Citrus Hernando

18 0500EST
0
0
50K
Frost/Freeze
18 0800EST
Freezing temperatures between 30 and 32 degrees occurred. The average
duration was around 1 hour, with up to 3 hours in isolated locations. Some crop
damage was noted in Levy County.

GAZ028-029 Hart Elbert

06 0500EST
0
0
Frost/Freeze
06 0800EST
Near-record low temperatures in the lower to mid 30s with clear skies and light
winds resulted in widespread frost. No crop damage was reported, but frost
formation on roads and bridges resulted in several traffic accidents, including
one fatality (indirect fatality) on Highway 72, at the Broad River Bridge.
7.18 Funnel Cloud (C). A rotating, visible, extension of a cloud pendant from a convective
cloud with circulation not reaching the ground. This would include cold-air funnels which
typically form in a shallow, cool air mass behind a cold front. The funnel cloud should be large,
noteworthy, or create strong public interest to be entered.
Beginning Time - When the funnel cloud was first observed.
Ending Time - When the funnel cloud was no longer visible.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
A fatality or injury directly caused by the circulating winds of a funnel cloud.
Note that by definition, a funnel cloud fatality can not occur on the ground, so
fatalities or injuries can only be associated with aviation mishaps. (Rare)
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
All fatalities/injuries that resulted from distress brought on by the sight of the
funnel cloud or by any telecommunication to those individuals of the possibility
of funnel clouds.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Examples:
Tolland County
Gilead
10 1800EST
0
0
Funnel Cloud
1805EST
A funnel cloud was observed by local law enforcement officials, and Amateur
Radio operators. It extended about halfway from the cloud base to the ground
as it passed over town.
Power County
13 E American 30 1300MST
0
1 150K
Funnel Cloud
Falls
1302MST
A small airplane flew into a funnel cloud west of Pocatello; and based on
reports from highway motorists, the pilot lost control. The pilot crash-landed at
the Pocatello Municipal Airport, and was injured. The plane was a total loss,
based on the insurance claim.
Deuel County
3 S Chappell 21 1612MST
1620MST

Funnel Cloud

A cold air funnel was observed 3 miles south of Chappell, and persisted for 8
minutes. The funnel was observed by numerous citizens in Chappell and
motorists, who stopped along Interstate 80.
7.19 Hail (C). Frozen precipitation in the form of balls or irregular lumps of ice. Hail 3/4 of
an inch or larger in diameter will be entered. Hail accumulations of smaller size which cause
property and/or crop damage, or casualties, should be entered. Maximum hail size will be
encoded for all hail reports entered.
Storm Data software permits only one event name for encoding severe and non-severe hail
events, and allows the preparer to enter any hail size in hundredths of an inch. Therefore, the
preparer is not restricted to only those sizes that appear in Table 6 of Section 7.19.1. If hail
diameters are equal to, or greater than, 3/4 of an inch, a hail event always will be encoded. If
hailstones with diameters less than 3/4 of an inch result in fatalities, injuries, or significant
damage, encoding a hail event is recommended. Encoded values of estimated or measured hail
diameters below 3/4 of an inch (non-severe), regardless of extent and/or severity of fatalities,
injuries, and damage, will not initiate the verification process.
Beginning Time - When hail first occurred.
Ending Time - When hail ended.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
Baseball-size hail struck a person in the head, causing a fatality/injury.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

A fatality/injury directly caused by wind-driven hail, where both the hail size
and winds were below severe criteria. This would be an extremely rare event.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Hail covered the road. A vehicle lost control on the slippery road and crashed
into a tree, killing or injuring the driver.
Hail falls with sufficient intensity to restrict visibility causing a driver to lose
control of a vehicle. The vehicle rolls over or hits an object, resulting in a
fatality/injury.
Examples:
Medina County
Brunswick
20

1730EST
1735EST

1.3M 50K

Hail (4.00)

A prolific hailstorm sat over Brunswick, Ohio, for 5 minutes, resulting in a

fatality, injuries, and considerable property damage. A 10-year old boy died on
a ball field due to head injuries sustained in a barrage of 4-inch diameter hail.
Three other boys suffered head injuries. The large hail damaged at least
500 vehicles, and 700 homes reported broken windows or awnings. The ground
was covered white, and the hail didnt melt until the following afternoon.
M10BF
King County
Guthrie

02

2240CST
2245CST

500K Hail (0.50)

Hail up to inch in diameter accumulated to several inches. The hail

completely flattened and shredded young corn crops at several farms near
Guthrie. Insurance company officials declared the corn crop a total loss.
7.19.1 Hail Conversion Table. To assist in the task of converting spotter hail reports to actual
hail diameter, a recommended guideline follows in Table 6. The comparisons may not be
accurate, but may used for estimates. Care must be exercised since apples, softballs, and
grapefruit come in different sizes. For example, softballs range in size from 3.50 inches to 5.09
inches. Additionally, dime-size hail was the coin type associated with 0.75-inch diameter
hailstones for many years. However, the diameter of a dime is 11/16 inch, slightly smaller than a
penny, which is 12/16 inch (0.75 inch). Also, for many years, marble-size hail was associated
with hailstones inch in diameter. However, marbles come in different sizes. Therefore, use of
the term marble-size or dime-size hail is not recommended.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Pea

0.25 - .375 inch

Lime

2.00 inches

Small marble

0.50 inch

Tennis Ball

2.50 inches

Penny

0.75 inch

Baseball

2.75 inches

Nickel

0.88 inch

Large Apple

3.00 inches

Quarter

1.00 inch (15/16")

Softball

4.00 inches

Half dollar

1.25 inch

Grapefruit

4.50 inches

Walnut/Ping Pong

1.50 inch

Computer CD/DVD

4.75 - 5.00 inches

Golf ball

1.75 inch

Table 6. Hail Conversion Table.

7.20
Heat (Z). A period of heat resulting from the combination of high temperatures
(above normal) and relative humidity. A Heat event occurs and is reported in Storm Data
whenever heat index values meet or exceed locally/regionally established advisory thresholds.
Fatalities or major impacts on human health occurring when ambient weather conditions meet
heat advisory criteria are reported using the Heat category. If the ambient weather conditions are
below heat advisory criteria, a Heat event entry is permissible only if a directly-related fatality
occurred due to unseasonably warm weather, and not man-made environments.
Depending on the part of the country experiencing high temperatures, the heat effects are
modulated by relative humidity, cloud cover, wind speeds, the duration of a hot spell, the time of
the year, and other factors, including mortality rates and types of housing.
In some heat waves, fatalities occur in the few days following the meteorological end of the
event. The preparer should include these fatalities in the Heat event, but encode the actual date
of the directly-related fatalities in the fatality entry table.
Beginning Time - When local/regional thresholds for heat were first met or when
unseasonably or abnormally hot conditions began.
Ending Time - When local/regional thresholds for heat were no longer met or
unseasonably or abnormally hot conditions ended.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
Fatality where heat-related illness or heat stress was the primary or major
contributing factor as determined by a medical examiner or coroner.
An elderly person suffered heat stroke and died inside a stuffy apartment during a
heat wave.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Cases in which people receive medical treatment for heat-hyperthermia (severe
dehydration, sunstroke, heatstroke, etc.) are considered injuries, not illnesses, for
Storm Data purposes.
Situations in which a person dies (primary cause was heat) in an unseasonably
warm period in April in the Great Lakes region with maximum temperatures
around 90 and surface dew-points in the upper 60s.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Fatality where heat stress was the secondary, or contributing factor, but the heat
was man-made and ambient conditions were not abnormally hot or extreme. The
heat fatality was not weather-related.
A toddler was left inside a car while a parent went inside a grocery store on a
sunny day, where ambient conditions did not meet the local/regional criteria for a
heat advisory (heat index only in the 80s.) The windows were left rolled up, and
the toddler died. In this case the toddler likely would have survived in the
ambient conditions if the windows were down.
A medical examiner reported a man working inside a steel mill died primarily of
heat stress. The outside temperature was only 72 degrees on May 1st in Chicago
(weather conditions didnt meet ambient heat advisory criteria).
Example:
MOZ064

St. Louis
02 1300CST
1
0
Heat
05 2000CST
Unseasonably hot and humid weather settled over Missouri during the first five
days of March. On March 4th, record-setting maximum air temperatures of 90
degrees combined with dew points of 70-75 resulted in heat index values of 95
to 100. As a result, 1 person in St. Louis died from the effects of this heat.
F90PH.

7.21 Heavy Rain (C). Unusually large amount of rain which does not cause a flash flood or
flood, but causes damage, e.g., roof collapse or other human/economic impact. Heavy rain
situations, resulting in urban and/or small stream flooding, should be classified as a Heavy Rain
event, or another suitable event that occurred at the same time.
Beginning Time - When heavy rain that led to damage began.
Ending Time - When heavy rain diminished to the degree that it no longer posed a threat
to life or property.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
A fatality or injury caused by debris from a structural collapse resulting from
water loading.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
All fatalities/injuries that resulted from vehicle accidents due to hydroplaning, or
from sliding on slippery road surfaces, or from poor visibility.
Example:
Minnehaha County
Sioux Falls
03 1100CST
2
7
300K
Heavy Rain
1200CST
A short-lived but intense thunderstorm dumped 2 inches of rain between
0930CST and 1130CST, resulting in the collapse of a roof of an old school
building at noon. Two students were crushed by roof debris, and 7 others were
injured. Apparently, the rain came down so hard that water loading on the roof
led to the roof collapse. Minor street flooding occurred elsewhere in Sioux
Falls, but in general the citys drainage system was up to the task. M8SC,
M9SC
7.22 Heavy Snow (Z). Snow accumulation meeting or exceeding locally/regionally defined
12 and/or 24 hour warning criteria, on a widespread or localized basis. This could mean such
values as 4, 6, or 8 inches or more in 12 hours or less; or 6, 8, or 10 inches in 24 hours or less. In
some heavy snow events, structural damage, due to the excessive weight of snow accumulations,
may occur in the few days following the meteorological end of the event. The preparer should
include this damage as part of the original event and give details in the narrative.
The Storm Data preparer should include in the narrative the times that heavy snow began to
accumulate, met criteria, and accumulation ended.
Beginning Time When snow was first observed to accumulate or inferred to accumulate
from surrounding reports.
Criteria Time - When snow accumulations reach locally/regionally established warning
threshold values, or as inferred by damage reports.
Ending Time - When snow was observed to stop accumulating or inferred to stop
accumulating from surrounding reports.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
A fatality/injury from a mass of snow sliding off a roof or falling through a
structure.
A tree toppled from heavy snow and landed on someone, killing him/her.
A person walking through deep snow, fell down, and died of exposure.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Any fatality from a vehicle accident related to deep snow on the roads or slippery
roads.
Any fatality related to shoveling or moving snow.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Examples:
IA013-014 Fayette Clayton
25 0800CST
0
0
Heavy Snow
25 1800CST
Snow began to accumulate at 0800CST, and tapered off to flurries by 1800CST.
A total of 6 to 8 inches of snow fell from Oelwein to Strawberry Point.
VTZ013-014 Bennington - Windham
11 1500EST
12 1800EST

500K

Heavy Snow

Record-breaking heavy snow pounded the southern part of Vermont.

Accumulations of 30 to 40 inches paralyzed the region. Travel and commerce
came to a halt, and there were numerous reports of downed power lines and
structural damage due to the weight of snow on roofs. Some roofs of businesses
collapsed during the two days following the end of the heavy snow, since cleanup crews were unable to reach those buildings. One person died from exposure
after he left his snow-covered vehicle and attempted to walk to a nearby
residence during the height of the storm. Accumulating snow and lower
visibilities began at 1500EST on the 11th and accumulation rates increased to 2 to
3 inches per hour through the overnight and morning hours. M70OU
7.23 High Surf (Z). Large waves breaking on or near shore, resulting from swell spawned by
a distant storm or from strong onshore winds, causing a fatality, injury or damage. In addition, if
accompanied by anomalous astronomical high tides, high surf may produce beach erosion and
possible damage to beachfront structures. High surf conditions are usually accompanied by rip
currents and near-shore breaks.
Beginning Time - When near-shore wave heights met locally developed criteria (usually
7 to 10 feet).
Ending Time - When near-shore waves subsided below locally developed criteria.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
A surfer ventured out into severe wave conditions and was injured or drowned.
A man fishing off a pier was swept into the sea.
A boat traversing an ocean inlet foundered on the rocks and the boaters drowned.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
A swimmer, struggling to get out of the high surf, suffered a heart attack.

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Examples:
CAZ042-043 Orange County Coast - San Diego County Coast
09 2000PST
0
2
2M
High Surf
10 0600PST
A high surf and swells battered beachfront buildings. Waves which occasionally
reached 15 to 20 feet damaged 32 homes in San Clemente. A Solana Beach
lifeguard was injured while rescuing a drowning teen who also suffered minor
injuries.
VAZ098>100 Virginia Beach - Northampton - Accomack
15 1500EST
0
0
10M
High Surf
16 1200EST
A strong northeast wind caused significant beach and property damage along the
Atlantic coast from Virginia Beach, VA, to Ocean City, MD. At least
100 vacation homes reported damage.
7.24 High Wind (Z). Sustained non-convective winds of 35 knots (40 mph) or greater
lasting for 1 hour or longer or winds (sustained or gusts) of 50 knots (58 mph) for any duration
(or otherwise locally/regionally defined), on a widespread or localized basis. In some
mountainous areas, the above numerical values are 43 knots (50 mph) and 65 knots (75 mph),
respectively.
The High Wind event name will not be used for severe local storms, tropical cyclones, or winter
storm events. Inland offices which experience high winds/damage associated with tropical
cyclones will document such winds under the Tropical Storm or Hurricane/ Typhoon category,
as appropriate, not under the High Wind category.
When high wind conditions are satisfied, a Storm Data event entry is required, and the preparer
will indicate in the entry field whether the wind value represents a maximum sustained wind, or
maximum wind gust. Depending on the choice, the software will place an S or G in front of the
wind value that appears in the Storm Data publication. Additionally, the on-line Storm Data
software program requires the preparer to indicate whether the wind gust value, or sustained
wind value, is measured or estimated. Refer to Table 9 in Section 7.39.4 for wind speed and
damage factors.
Events with winds less than the High Wind event threshold numbers, resulting in fatalities,
injuries, or significant property damage, will be encoded as a Strong Wind event.
Events over large inland lakes (with no specific, assigned Marine Forecast Zone number) that
meet High Wind criteria will be entered as a High Wind event, rather than a Marine High Wind
event.
Beginning Time - When sustained winds or wind gusts first equaled or exceeded
locally/regionally established criteria for high wind. Wind speed values can be inferred
from damage reports.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Ending Time - When sustained wind or wind gusts dropped below high wind criteria.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
Fatalities or injuries caused by being struck by falling debris associated with
structural failure (including falling trees, utility poles, and power lines).
Fatalities or injuries associated with vehicles that were blown over, or vehicles
that were blown into a structure or other vehicle.
Fatalities or injuries caused by people or vehicles that were struck by airborne
objects.
Drowning due to boat capsized by wind.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Fatalities or injuries when vehicles collided with stationary obstructions/debris
placed in roadways by high wind.
Any fatalities or injuries incurred during the clean-up process.
Fatalities or injuries associated with contact with power lines after they fell.
Any fatalities or injuries that loss of electrical power contributed to, including
lack of heat, cooling, or light, or failure of medical equipment.
Examples:
MNZ088-095 Fillmore - Winona
30 0100CST
0
0
2.5K
High Wind (EG56)
0900CST
Southwest winds gusting to an estimated 56 knots (65 mph) for about 8 hours
blew down numerous trees and toppled dozens of signs in Spring Valley and
Lewiston. A young girl in Spring Valley was killed when she touched a downed
power-line (indirect fatality).
SDZ001-002- Butte - Harding Nrn Meade Co Plains - Perkins
012-013
06 0900MST
0
0
High Wind (ES39)
1300MST
Sustained west winds reached 39 knots (40 to 45 mph) for several hours across
northwest South Dakota behind a fast-moving cold front. No gusts of 50 knots
(58 mph) or higher were reported.
7.25 Hurricane/Typhoon (Z). A tropical cyclone in which the maximum 1-minute sustained
surface wind is 64 knots (74 mph) or greater. In the Atlantic Ocean or the North Pacific Ocean
east of the International Date Line this event would be labeled a Hurricane, and in the North
Pacific Ocean west of the International Dateline this event would be classified as a Typhoon.
The hurricane/typhoon will usually include many individual hazards, such as storm tide,
freshwater flooding, tornadoes, rip currents, etc. The Hurricane/Typhoon data header-strip will
only include fatalities, injuries, and damage amounts associated with wind damage (the other

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

hazards will already be reported in their respective Storm Data entries). Include the other hazard
information in the Hurricane/Typhoon narrative to ensure a complete synopsis for the event.
Note: Tropical cyclone entries in Storm Data are based upon the wind speeds observed in the
WFOs coastal, inland, and marine zones. If a hurricane produces only tropical storm force
winds in a particular CWA, the entry should be made under Tropical Storm. However, such
entries must include a reference to the hurricane in the narrative section, e.g., Hurricane Dennis
produced tropical storm force winds in ....
Inland offices which experience high winds/damage associated with tropical cyclones will
document such winds under the Tropical Storm or Hurricane/ Typhoon category, as appropriate,
not under the High Wind category
7.25.1 Separating the Various Hurricane/Typhoon Hazards. After a tropical cyclone event,
offices will: (a) have an entry for the tropical cyclone, summarizing the total impact, and (b)
separately list the impacts attributed to individual hazards events (storm surge/tide, freshwater
flooding, tornadoes, debris flow, rip currents, etc.). These separate event entries (i.e., their
associated fatalities, injuries, and damage amounts) are not included/encoded as part of the
hurricane/typhoon header-strip. Flooding along the coast, even if it is from distant swells, will
be entered as Storm Surge/Tide, not Coastal Flood. Rip Currents and High Surf can be entered
in addition to Storm Surge/Tide, if applicable. The name of the tropical cyclone will be included
in the narrative of all associated individual hazards/events.
Wind damage is the only individual hazard to be encoded in Hurricane/Typhoon, Tropical
Storm, and Tropical Depression. This restriction prevents a double-count from occurring in
the national report entitled A Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics for [Year] in the United
States, which is based upon the header strips of Storm Data events. In other words, the
fatalities, injuries, and damage amounts appearing in the header-strip of a tropical cyclone are
attributed only to wind damage experienced in the counties/parishes listed in the header-strip.
The effects from the other individual hazards associated with a tropical cyclone can be found in
other cyclone-related events.
In order to provide complete documentation of the tropical cyclone effects, the Storm Data
preparer will do two additional things:
a.
Insert into the tropical cyclone narrative the total fatalities, injuries, and damage
amounts attributed to all tropical cyclone hazards, for affected coastal and inland
counties/parishes within a CWA (e.g., The collective effects of Hurricane Alpha during
the period of August 1-3, resulted in 10 fatalities, 50 injuries, $800M in property damage,
and $200M in crop damage in the counties of S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, and Z). This will
ensure that all tropical cyclone effects are summarized in one sentence; and
b.
Provide in the tropical cyclone narrative, a general breakdown of fatalities,
injuries, and damage amounts attributed to individual hazards/events, for both coastal and
inland counties/parishes (e.g., During the passage of Hurricane Alpha in the counties of
S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, and Z, five tornadoes killed 3 people and resulted in $1.0M in

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

property damage, flash floods injured 20 people and resulted in $175M in crop damage,
rip currents resulted in 5 fatalities, etc.).
In addition, the following information will be included in the narrative for tropical cyclones at
coastal locations:

Tropical cyclone name;

The point of landfall, even if not in the WFOs CWA;
Storm surge/tide;
Minimum surface pressure; and
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale or Saffir-Simpson Tropical Cyclone Scale, upon
landfall, as appropriate.

The following information will be included for both coastal and inland locations:

Maximum sustained wind speed/peak gusts;

Rainfall totals; and
Record-breaking data.

In some situations (e.g. delayed fatalities and delayed damage), there may be tropical cyclonerelated hazards, as mentioned above, occurring prior to or after the beginning/ending time of the
tropical cyclone event. Professional judgment must be exercised in determining if these related
hazards are part of the cyclone. Refer to Sections 2.6.3 and 2.7.4 for the decision process.
Damage listed in the header-strip of the individual hazards, or the tropical cyclone, should not
include such things as business losses from reduced tourism, etc.
Tables 7 and 8 in Section 7.25.2 depict the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale and Saffir-Simpson
Tropical Cyclone Scale.
Beginning Time - When the direct effects of the hurricane/typhoon were first
experienced.
Ending Time - When the direct effects of the hurricane/typhoon were no longer
experienced.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
Casualties caused by storm tide, high surf, freshwater flooding, debris flow,
wind-driven debris, or structural collapse.
The wind caused a house to collapse or blew a tree onto someone.
A person drowned while surfing in rough waters.
The storm tide drowned people in a beach house.
Someone drowned when flood-waters swept a vehicle into a river.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Someone suffered a heart attack while removing debris.
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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Someone was electrocuted by touching downed power lines.
Someone drowned when a vehicle was driven into a canal.
Someone was killed in a vehicle accident caused by a hurricane-related missing
traffic signal.
Examples:
FLZ018-021 Broward - Collier - Dade - Monroe
>023
24 0325EST
4
50 13B 750M Hurricane/Typhoon
0900EST
The eye of Hurricane Andrew moved ashore in south Dade County near
Homestead with a minimum central pressure of 922 mb and maximum storm
surge of 16.9 feet. Maximum sustained winds were estimated at 145 knots (165
mph) with gusts to at least 152 knots (175 mph). Andrew was a Category 5 storm
on landfall and was the third strongest in U.S. history. In southeast Florida, the
maximum rainfall was 7.79 inches in Broward County. The height of the storm
tide (the sum of the storm surge and astronomical tide, referenced to mean sea
level) ranged from 4 to 6 ft in northern Biscayne Bay increasing to a maximum
value of 16.9 ft at the Burger King International Headquarters, located on the
western shoreline in the center of the bay, and decreasing to 4 to 5 ft in southern
Biscayne Bay. The observed storm tide values on the Florida southwest coast
ranged from 4 to 5 ft near Flamingo to 6 to 7 ft near Goodland. In Broward,
Collier, Dade, and Monroe Counties, the winds killed 4 people (trees falling on
moving vehicles). All of the associated effects of Andrew in southeast Florida
resulted in 15 fatalities, 250 injuries, $25.0B in property damage, and around
$1.0B in crop damage. Specifically in southeast Florida, Andrews inland flood
waters resulted in 5 fatalities, 100 injuries, $5B in property damage, and $250M
in crop damage. The eight associated tornadoes resulted in 2 fatalities, 25
injuries, and $1B in property damage. The powerful winds resulted in 4 fatalities,
50 injuries, $13B in property damage, and $750M in crop damage. The storm
tide along the coast resulted in 4 fatalities, 75 injuries, and $6M in property
damage. Besides the 15 direct fatalities, at least 26 indirect fatalities occurred,
during clean-up activities. M67VE, F12VE, M45VE, F46VE
GUZ001

Guam
15 1700ChST
16 1200ChST

254M

Hurricane/Typhoon

Typhoon Paka entered the Marshall Islands as a tropical storm on December 10

became a typhoon on December 11 and crossed through the Marshall Islands until
December 14, damaging structures and crops. Paka became a super typhoon on
December 15 and passed 5 miles north of Guam. The lowest pressure observed
on Guam was 948 mb and the highest sustained wind was measured at 100 knots
(115 mph) with a gust to 152 knots (175 mph). On the Saffir-Simpson Tropical
Cyclone Scale, this corresponds to a Category 3 typhoon based on the sustainedwind value but more accurately to a Category 4 typhoon based on the gust value.

51

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Maximum storm tide on Guam was about 30 feet (run-up/debris line) at Arunao
Beach on the northwest coast, 16 feet (run-up/debris line) at the Commercial Port,
13 feet (run-up/debris line) on the north side of Tumon Bay (standing water
measurement), and 8 feet (run-up/debris line) on Agana Bay. Maximum rainfall
at WFO Guam was 20.75 inches from 16 December at 1600ChST to 17 December
at 1600ChST. While Paka was on Guam, the typhoon winds resulted in 1 injury
(debris hit a person on the head), and damaged numerous businesses and homes.
Collectively, all of the effects of Typhoon Paka resulted in no fatalities, 2 people
injured, and over $504M in property damage. Specifically, Pakas flood waters
resulted in 1 injury, and $200M in property damage; associated winds resulted in
1 injury and over $254M in property damage. The storm tide resulted in $50M in
property damage.
7.25.2 Tables for Determining Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale and Saffir-Simpson Tropical
Cyclone Scale.
CATEGORY
(SCALE
NUMBER)

WIND SPEED

STORM TIDE
(FT)

DAMAGE

64-82 kts (74-95 mph)

4-5

Minor

83-95 kts (96-110 mph)

6-8

Moderate

96-113 kts (111-130 mph)

9-12

Major

114-135 kts (131-155 mph)

13-18

Severe

Greater than 18

Catastrophic

Greater than 135 kts

(Greater than 155 mph)
Table 7. Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale.
5

Note: A scale ranging from 1 to 5 based on a hurricane's intensity. This can be used to give an
estimate of the potential property damage and flooding expected. In practice, wind speed is the
parameter that determines the category since storm tide is highly dependent on the slope of the
continental shelf. Storm tide (run-up/debris line) equals sum of storm surge and astronomical
tide.

52

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Tropical
Storm
Categories
A
Weak

Sustained
Winds

Wind
Gusts

Tide
WR

Tide
NR

Damage
Level

Description of Damages and

Storm Tide/Inundation

26-43 kts
(30-49 mph)

33-56 kts
(40-64
mph)

<1 ft

1 ft

Tiny

B
Severe

44-63 kts
(50-73 mph)

57-81 kts
(65-94
mph)

<1 ft

1-2 ft

Small

Typhoon
Categories

Sustained
Winds

Wind
Gusts

Surge
WR

Surge
NR

Damage
Level

Damage only to the flimsiest lean-to

type structures and tents. Minor
damage to huts made of thatch or
loosely attached corrugated sheet
metal or plywood. Salt spray causes
majority of damage to vegetation.
Rough surf at reef front with
moderately strong rip currents inside
reef.
Major damage to huts made of thatch
or loosely attached corrugated sheet
metal or plywood; sheet metal and
plywood may become airborne.
Minor damage to buildings of light
materials. Moderate damage to
banana and papaya trees, and most
fleshy crops. Very rough surf at reef
front with strong rip currents inside
reefs.
Description of Damages and
Storm Tide/Inundation

1
Minimal

64-82 kts
(74-95 mph)

82-105 kts
(95-120
mph)

1-2 ft

2-4 ft

Minimal

53

Corrugated sheet metal and plywood

stripped from poorly constructed or
termite-infested structures and may
become airborne. A few wooden,
non-reinforced power poles tilted and
some rotten power poles broken.
Some secondary power lines
downed. Major damage to exposed
banana and papaya trees, and fleshy
crops. Some palm fronds crimped
and bent back through the crown of
coconut palms. Less than 10%
defoliation of trees and shrubs. Minor
pier damage. Some small boats in
exposed anchorages break moorings.

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Typhoon
Categories
2
Moderate

Sustained
Winds
83-95 kts
(96-110
mph)

Wind
Gusts
106-121 kts
(121-139
mph)

Surge
WR
2-4 ft

Surge
NR
4-6 ft

Damage
Level
Moderate

3
Strong

96-113 kts
(111-130
mph)

121-144 kts
(140-165
mph)

5-8 ft

6-10
ft

Extensive

54

Description of Damages and

Storm Tide/Inundation
Damage to wooden and tin roofs and
door and windows of termite-infested
or rotted structures, but no major
damage to well-constructed wooden,
sheet metal, or concrete structures.
Considerable damage to structures
made of light materials. Several rotten
power poles snapped and many nonreinforced poles tilted. Many
secondary power lines down. Exposed
banana and papaya trees totally
destroyed; 10-20% defoliation of trees
and shrubs. Some erosion of beaches,
some moderate pier damage and some
exposed large boats torn from
moorings.
Some roof, window and door damage
to well-built wooden and metal
residences and industrial buildings.
Extensive damage to structures
weakened by termites, wood rot and
corroded roof/hurricane straps. Nonreinforced cinderblock walls blown
down. Many mobile homes and
buildings of light materials destroyed.
Some glass failure due to flying debris
but minimal glass failure due to
pressure forces associated with extreme
gusts. A few non-reinforced hollowspun concrete power poles broken or
tilted and many non-reinforced wooden
poles broken or blown down. Chainlink fences begin to blow down. Some
light and high-paneled vehicles
overturned. Some unsecured
construction cranes blown down. Air is
full of light projectiles and debris.
Coconut palms begin to lose crowns.
Considerable beach erosion. Many
large boats and some large ships torn
from moorings.

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Typhoon
Categories
4
Very
Strong

Sustained
Winds
114-135
kts (131155 mph)

Wind
Gusts
145-171
kts (166197 mph)

Surge
WR
8-12
ft

Surge
NR
10-15
ft

Damage
Level
Extreme

5
Devastating

136-170
kts
(156-194
mph)

171-216
kts
(198-246
mph)

12-20
ft

1528+
ft

Catastrophic

Description of Damages and

Storm Tide/Inundation
Complete failure of many non-concrete
roof structures and unprotected window
frames and doors; many well-built wood
and sheet metal structures severely
damaged or destroyed. Considerable
glass failure due to flying debris and
explosive pressure forces from extreme
wind gusts. Weakly reinforced
cinderblock walls blown down. Some
reinforced hollow-spun concrete power
poles and numerous reinforced wooden
power poles blown down; numerous
secondary and a few primary power lines
downed. Support poles of chain-link
fences bent 90 degrees. Some secured
construction cranes blown down. Some
fuel storage tanks damaged.
Considerable damage to airport jet-ways.
Air is full of large projectiles and debris.
Shrubs and trees 50-90% defoliated.
Severe beach erosion. Severe damage to
port facilities including some loading
derricks and gantry cranes. Most ships
torn from moorings.
Total failure of non-concrete reinforced
roofs; extensive damage to total
destruction of non-concrete residences
and industrial buildings. Some structural
damage to concrete structures from large
debris such as cars and large appliances.
Extensive glass failure due to impact of
flying debris and explosive pressure
forces during extreme wind gusts; many
well-constructed typhoon shutters ripped
from structures. Some fuel storage tanks
ruptured. Most cranes blown down. Air
is full of very large and heavy projectiles
and debris. Shrubs and trees up to 100%
defoliated. Numerous crowns and
virtually all green coconuts blown from
palm trees. Most bark stripped from trees
and wood is severely sandblasted. Most
standing trees are devoid of all but largest
branches, which are stubby in appearance.
Numerous very large boulders carried
inland with waves. Extensive to complete
beach erosion. Extensive damage to total
destruction of port facilities including
derricks and cranes. Virtually all ships,
regardless of size, torn from moorings.

Table 8. Saffir-Simpson Tropical Cyclone Scale Table (Guard and Lander 1999) for the Pacific
Ocean. Sustained winds and wind gusts are in miles per hour (mph). Tide refers to the
55

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

vertical height of run-up (storm tide) or inundation. Storm tide (run-up/debris line) equals sum
of storm surge and astronomical tide. Tide heights are in feet. WR refers to wide coral reefs
with the reef front greater than 250 feet from shore; NR refers to narrow reefs with the reef
front less than or equal to 250 feet from shore. TS refers to tropical storm.
7.26 Ice Storm (Z). Ice accretion meeting or exceeding locally/regionally defined warning
criteria (typical value is 1/4 or 1/2 inch or more), on a widespread or localized basis. The Storm
Data preparer should include the times that ice accretion began, met criteria, and accretion
ended.
Use this event for a fatality/injury that results from hypothermia in a power loss situation due to
an ice storm. Do not use the Cold/Wind Chill or Extreme Cold/Wind Chill events. Refer to
Section 2 for related details.
Beginning Time - When ice accretion first began or was inferred to begin, from
surrounding reports.
Criteria Time When ice accretion equals locally/regionally established warning
threshold values, or as inferred by damage reports.
Ending Time - When accretion ends or was inferred to have ended from surrounding
reports.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
A large chunk of ice falls off a structure and strikes and kills someone.
Large tree or other structure falls or collapses (due to ice load) and kills someone.
Power is lost and people die from extreme cold.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
All vehicle-related fatalities due to ice-covered roads and hazardous driving
conditions.
Someone suffers a heart attack or dies while removing or cleaning up downed
trees or other structural debris.
Any fatality/injury suffered by workers involved in post-storm recovery.
Example:
MEZ007>009-012 Northern Oxford - Northern Franklin - Central Somerset - Southern
Oxford
06 0300EST
1
0 304M
Ice Storm
08 1100EST
A severe ice storm hit sections of central and southern Maine where 1 to 3 inches
of ice accreted on trees, power lines, and other exposed surfaces. Nearly
everyone in the region experienced power loss. Due to the added weight of ice,
an ice-covered tree limb broke and fell on a man who was walking underneath a
tree. The man died from head injuries. M36OU

56

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

7.27 Lakeshore Flood (Z). Flooding of lakeshore areas due to the vertical rise of water above
normal level caused by strong, persistent onshore wind and/or low atmospheric pressure,
resulting in damage, erosion, flooding, fatalities, or injuries. Lakeshore areas are defined as
those portions of land zones (coastal county/parish) adjacent to the waters of the Great Lakes,
Lake Okeechobee, Lake Pontchartrain and Lake Maurepas. Farther inland, the Storm Data
preparer must determine when and where to encode a flood event as Flash Flood or Flood.
Terrain (elevation) features will determine how far inland the lakeshore flooding extends.
For Storm Data, coastal flood events that are associated with a storm of tropical origin (e.g.,
hurricane, typhoon, or tropical storm) should be reported under the Storm Surge/Tide event
category; all other lakeshore flooding events should be documented as a Lakeshore Flood.
Note: Direct fatalities which are vehicle-related will be coded as VE. Thus, if a person drives
into a flooded area, exits his/her vehicle and drowns, the fatality will be coded as VE (Vehicle
and/or Towed Trailer), not IW (In Water).
Beginning Time - When the water level began to cause damage or flooding.
Ending Time - When the water level dropped to a point where damage or flooding ended.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
A lakeshore dwelling was washed away injuring/killing the occupants.
A person drowned when a vehicle was swept away by the storm surge.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
A person suffered a heart attack while evacuating from a storm surge.
A person died in a vehicle accident caused by the storm surge washing away a
traffic signal.
A person died in a vehicle accident after losing control in standing water on a
road.
Example:
ILZ014

Cook
27 0600CST
0
0 250K
Lakeshore Flood
1200CST
North to northeast winds of 26 to 39 knots (30 to 45 mph) affected southern Lake
Michigan. The Department of Transportation estimated a storm tide of 2 feet
and 10- to 15-foot waves along the Chicago lakefront. Lake Shore Drive was
closed due to water and sand on the pavement. Damage occurred to a dozen
piers.

7.28 Lake-Effect Snow (Z). Localized, convective snow bands that occur in the lee of large
bodies of water, e.g. the Great Lakes or the Great Salt Lake, when relatively cold air flows over
warm water. In extreme cases, snowfall rates of several inches per hour and thunder and

57

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

lightning may occur. Lake-effect snow accumulations must meet or exceed locally defined 12
and/or 24 hour warning criteria (typical values of 6 to 8 inches within 12 hours or 8 to 10 inches
within 24 hours). In some lake-effect snow events, structural damage, due to the excessive
weight of snow accumulations, may occur in the few days following the meteorological end of
the event. The preparer should include this damage as part of the original event and give details
in the narrative.
The Storm Data preparer should include in the narrative the times that snow began to
accumulate, met criteria, and stopped accumulating.
Beginning Time When snow was first observed to begin to accumulate or inferred to
begin to accumulate from surrounding reports.
Criteria Time - When lake-effect snow accumulation reached locally/regionally
established warning threshold values, or as inferred by damage reports.
Ending Time - When snow accumulations ended.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
A fatality/injury from a mass of snow sliding off a roof or falling through a
structure.
A tree toppled from heavy snow and landed on someone, killing him.
A person walking through deep snow, fell down, and died of exposure.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Any fatality from a vehicle accident related to deep snow on the roads or slippery
roads.
Any fatality related to shoveling or moving snow.
Examples:
OHZ003013-014

Cuyahoga Geauga - Ashtabula

16 0600EST
0
0
Lake-Effect Snow
17 1500EST
Lake-effect snow showers affected Northeast Ohio. This activity began during
the predawn hours of the 16th with accumulations starting around 0600EST, and
continued through midday on the 17th. The heaviest snow fell during the late
afternoon and evening hours of the 16th when visibilities at times were near zero.
Accumulations ranged from 6 to 8 inches in Geauga, southern Ashtabula and
eastern Cuyahoga Counties. Dozens of accidents were reported.

PAZ002-003 Southern Erie - Crawford

19 0100EST
0
0
Lake-Effect Snow
20 2000EST
Lake-effect snow showers developed early on the 19th. This activity persisted into
the evening hours and then dissipated. Accumulations through late evening on

58

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

the 19th ranged from 6 to 10 inches. Just after midnight on the 20th, an intense
band of snow redeveloped over southern Erie and northern Crawford Counties.
Thunder and lightning were observed with this band and snowfall rates exceeded
three inches per hour at times. The band moved slowly west during the predawn
hours. Accumulations from shortly after midnight to daybreak on the 20th ranged
from 8 to 14 inches over much of southern Erie and northern Crawford Counties.
The snow finally tapered off during the afternoon hours after several more inches
of accumulation. Some locations saw over two feet of snow during this two day
event. Travel was severely hampered by this storm and hundreds of accidents
were reported.
7.29 Lightning (C). A sudden electrical discharge from a thunderstorm, resulting in a fatality,
injury, and/or damage.
Fatalities and injuries directly related to lightning strikes will be included in Storm Data. Report
the specific location (see Table 2 in Section [Link]), gender and age of fatalities. If reliable
estimates of lightning-related damages (such as costs associated with structural fires, equipment
loss, and electrical power and/or communications outages) are available or can be made, they
should be entered. Because of the difficulty in obtaining lightning-related information, extra
effort, such as fostering contacts with the media, fire departments or other first responders,
hospitals and medical examiner offices, is recommended to help obtain such information.
The extent of lightning-related injuries is often difficult to determine. In many cases the extent
of an injury may not be known until days or weeks after the incident. As a general guideline, as
with other injuries for Storm Data, anyone seeking or receiving medical attention following a
lightning incident should be counted as a lightning injury. Also, anyone reporting numbness, a
tingling sensation, a headache, or other pain following a lightning incident, whether or not they
receive treatment, should be counted as an injury.
For lightning injuries, it is highly desirable to include in the event narrative, the age, gender,
location, and weather conditions at the time of occurrence, if known or determinable. The age,
gender, and location information is used in compiling lightning statistics used in the national
report entitled Summary of Natural Hazard Statistics for [Year] in the United States.
Over the western states, lightning may start hundreds of wildfires in a single CWA. In these
cases, the preparer may have to limit the number of incidents appearing in Storm Data by setting
a threshold value based on minimum burned acreage, or some other parameter. In other
situations, lightning may cause a fire that ultimately leads to fatalities and/or injuries. In these
cases, the fatalities and/or injuries will be classified as indirectly-related. Refer to Section 2.6 for
additional information.
Beginning Time - Exact time of lightning strike(s).
Ending Time - Same as beginning time.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

A person was killed/injured by the electrical current that was generated when
lightning struck the person directly.
A person was killed/injured by an electrical current that was generated when
lightning struck nearby.
A person was killed/injured when lightning struck a tree and knocked it over
onto a person.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
A person was killed/injured in a traffic accident when lightning caused traffic
signals to malfunction
A person was killed/injured while removing or cleaning up debris caused by a
lightning strike.
A person was killed/injured in a fire that was initiated by lightning.
Example:
Tioga County
3 SW Tioga 06 1900EST
1
5
Lightning
A 26 year old male died when he was struck by lightning while boating on the
Hammond Reservoir during a fishing contest. In addition, 5 other people
received medical treatment for lightning-related injuries. M26BO

7.30 Marine Hail (M). Hail 3/4 of an inch in diameter or larger, occurring over the waters
and bays of the ocean, Great Lakes, Lake Okeechobee, Lake Pontchartrain and Lake Maurepas
(those assigned specific Marine Forecast Zones), will be entered. Hail 3/4 of an inch in diameter
or larger, occurring immediately along the shorelines (to a maximum distance of 1 mile inland)
of the waters and bays of the ocean, Great Lakes, Lake Okeechobee, or Lake Pontchartrain and
Lake Maurepas (those assigned specific Marine Forecast Zones), should be entered as a Marine
Hail event, especially if the storm moved out over the near-shore waters (reasonable to assume it
maintained its strength). Hail of smaller size, causing damage to watercraft or fixed platforms,
should be entered. A maximum hail size will be entered.
The use of WSR-88D Doppler radar intensities (dBZ values) cannot be used to infer that a
thunderstorm was sufficiently strong enough to produce hailstones meeting or exceeding the
criteria listed in the previous paragraph.
Storm Data software permits only one event name for encoding severe and non-severe Marine
Hail events. If hail diameters over water surfaces with an assigned marine zone number are
equal to, or greater than, 3/4 of an inch, a Marine Hail event always will be encoded. It is
recognized that a number of Marine Hail events will never be documented. Hail sizes equal to or
greater than 3/4 of an inch will initiate the verification process for Marine Hail events.
If hailstones with diameters less than 3/4 of an inch result in fatalities, injuries, or damage,
encoding a Marine Hail event is recommended. Encoded values of estimated or measured

60

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

marine hail diameters below 3/4 of an inch (non-severe), regardless of extent and/or severity of
fatalities, injuries, and property damage, will not initiate the verification process.
Refer to Table 6 in Section 7.19.1 in order to convert estimated hail sizes to measured values.
Beginning Time - When hail began.
Ending Time - When hail ended.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
Hail injured a boater.
Wind-driven hail shredded the sail of a sailboat, causing the boat to overturn,
drowning the boater.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
A boater panicked in a hailstorm and ran into a breakwater.
Examples:
ANZ230

LEZ149

Boston Harbor MA
10 1530EST
0
0
1532EST
A boater reported quarter-size hail.

Marine Hail (1.00)

Conneaut OH to Ripley NY
18 1604EST
0
0 5K
Marine Hail (0.50)
1608EST
One-half-inch diameter hail driven by 30 knot (35 mph) winds damaged two
sailboats near Erie, PA.

7.31 Marine High Wind (M). Non-convective, sustained winds or frequent gusts of 48 knots
(55 mph) or more, resulting in a fatality, injury, or damage, over the waters and bays of the
ocean, Great Lakes, Lake Okeechobee, Lake Pontchartrain and Lake Maurepas (those assigned
specific Marine Forecast Zones). These conditions would correspond to a storm situation (48
to 63 knots/55 to 73 mph), or a hurricane-force wind situation (64 knots or higher/74 mph or
higher). A peak wind gust (estimated or measured) or maximum sustained wind value will be
entered.
When these wind conditions are satisfied, a Storm Data event entry is required, and the preparer
will indicate in the entry field whether the wind value represents a maximum sustained wind, or
maximum wind gust, entered in knots. Depending on the choice, the software will place an S or
G in front of the wind value that appears in the Storm Data publication. Additionally, the Storm
Data software program requires the preparer to indicate whether the wind gust value, or
sustained wind value, is measured or estimated. Refer to Sections 7.24 and 7.39 for related
information.

61

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Events with winds less than the above threshold numbers, resulting in fatalities, injuries, or
property damage, will be encoded as a Marine Strong Wind event. Refer to Section 7.32,
Marine Strong Wind, for more details.
The preparer can use high wind events occurring immediately along the shorelines (to a
maximum distance of 1 mile inland) of the waters and bays of the ocean, Great Lakes, Lake
Okeechobee, Lake Pontchartrain and Lake Maurepas (those assigned specific Marine Forecast
Zones), to infer that a Marine High Wind event occurred over the near-shore waters (reasonable
to assume its strength was maintained over water).
Note: Direct fatalities which are related to a marine vessel will be coded as BO (Boating), not
IW (In Water).
Beginning Time - When Marine High Wind conditions were first met, which resulted in
a fatality, injury, or damage.
Ending Time - When Marine High Wind conditions were no longer met, which had
resulted in a fatality, injury, or damage.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
Fatalities or injuries caused by falling or airborne debris associated with structural
failure of a marine vessel due to wind.
Fatalities resulting from drowning due to an overturned, damaged, or destroyed
marine vessel.
Any fatalities or injuries from loss of electrical power, including lack of heat or
cooling.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Fatalities or injuries when a marine vessel collided with debris on the water
surface left over from a previous wind or storm event.
Any fatalities or injuries incurred during the clean-up process.
Fatalities or injuries associated with making contact with power lines after they
fell.

Example:
LMZ643
9 E Oostburg

Sheboygan to Pt Washington
04 1200CST
4
0 300K Marine High Wind (MG61)
2100CST
Powerful southwest winds persisted for about 9 hours over central Lake
Michigan. The winds capsized a luxury cruise boat east of Oostburg in the
open waters. Four people drowned inside the boat as it flipped over due to
estimated waves of 8 to 12 feet. The boat sustained major structural damage.
M57BO F50BO M65BO F66BO

62

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

7.32 Marine Strong Wind (M). Non-convective, sustained winds or frequent gusts up to 47
knots (54 mph), resulting in a fatality, injury, or damage. Wind speed values of 34 to 47 knots
(39 to 54 mph) would correspond to a gale situation. A peak wind gust (estimated or
measured) or maximum sustained wind value will be entered, in knots. Refer to Sections 7.38
and 7.39 for related information.
The preparer can use strong wind events occurring immediately along the shorelines (to a
maximum distance of 1 mile inland) of the waters and bays of the ocean, Great Lakes, Lake
Okeechobee, Lake Pontchartrain and Lake Maurepas (those assigned specific Marine Forecast
Zones), to infer that a Marine Strong Wind event occurred over the near-shore waters
(reasonable to assume its strength was maintained over water).
Note: Direct fatalities which are related to a marine vessel will be coded as BO (Boating), not
IW (In Water).
Beginning Time - When Marine Strong Wind conditions were first met, which resulted in
a fatality, injury, or damage.
Ending Time - When Marine Strong Wind conditions were no longer met, which had
resulted in a fatality, injury, or damage.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
Fatalities or injuries caused by falling or airborne debris associated with structural
failure of a marine vessel due to wind.
Fatalities resulting from drowning due to an overturned, damaged, or destroyed
marine vessel.
Any fatalities or injuries from loss of electrical power, including lack of heat or
cooling.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Fatalities or injuries when a marine vessel collided with debris on the water
surface left over from a previous wind or storm event.
Any fatalities or injuries incurred during the clean-up process.
Fatalities or injuries associated with making contact with power lines after they
fell.
Example:
LMZ665
3 E Oostburg

Sheboygan to Pt Washington
31 0600CST
1
1 10K Marine Strong Wind (EG40)
1800CST
Strong, gusty southwest winds persisted for about 12 hours over central Lake
Michigan. The winds capsized a small boat east of Oostburg in the near-shore
waters. One person drowned after he was thrown into the water, and one person
was injured as the boat flipped over due to estimated waves of 5 to 8 feet. The
boat sustained minor structural damage. M27BO

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

7.33 Marine Thunderstorm Wind (M). Winds, associated with thunderstorms, occurring
over the waters and bays of the ocean, Great Lakes, Lake Okeechobee, Lake Pontchartrain and
Lake Maurepas (those assigned specific Marine Forecast Zones), with speeds of at least 34 knots
(39 mph) for 2 hours or less, or winds of any speed that result in a fatality, injury, or damage to
watercraft or fixed platforms. Similar thunderstorm winds occurring immediately along the
shorelines (to a maximum distance of 1 mile inland) of the waters and bays of the ocean, Great
Lakes, Lake Okeechobee, Lake Pontchartrain and Lake Maurepas (those assigned specific
Marine Forecast Zones), should be entered as a Marine Thunderstorm Wind, especially if the
storm then moved out over the near-shore waters (reasonable to assume it maintained its
strength). Marine thunderstorm winds must occur within 45 minutes before or after lightning is
observed or detected.
The use of WSR-88D Doppler radar intensities (dBZ values) cannot be used to infer that a
thunderstorm was sufficiently strong enough to produce wind gusts meeting, or exceeding, the
criteria listed in the previous paragraph.
Storm Data software permits only one event name for encoding severe and non-severe Marine
Thunderstorm Winds. Maximum wind gusts (measured or estimated) equal to or greater than
34 knots (39 mph) always will be entered. Values less than 34 knots (39 mph) should be entered
only if they result in fatalities, injuries, or property damage.
Note that damage alone does not automatically imply wind speeds of 34 knots (39 mph) or
greater. When estimating a wind speed value, the preparer should take into account the amount
and degree of severity, and condition of the damaged property. The resultant damage must
support such a value. Refer to Table 9 in Section 7.39.4 for guidelines on estimating wind
speeds. Estimated or measured wind gusts below 34 knots (39 mph), regardless of extent and/or
severity of fatalities, injuries, and property damage, will not initiate the verification process.
Wind values of 34 knots (39 mph) or more will initiate the verification process for Marine
Thunderstorm Wind events.
Note: Direct fatalities which are related to a marine vessel will be coded as BO (Boating), not
IW (In Water).
Beginning Time - When winds of 34 knots or greater first occurred or when a fatality,
injury, or damage began.
Ending Time - When winds diminished to less than 34 knots or when reports of fatalities,
injuries, or damage were no longer received.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
A wind gust, associated with a thunderstorm, overturned a canoe and the canoeist
drowned.
A jet-skier, jumping large waves created by thunderstorm winds, was killed when
the craft flipped over.

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A thunderstorm-generated wave hit a boat broadside, and a boater lost his
balance, fell overboard and drowned.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Thunderstorm winds uprooted a tree that fell in the water. An hour later, a water
skier ran into the tree and was killed.
Examples:
ANZ531

Chesapeake Bay from Pooles Island to Sandy Point MD

10 1530EST
1
0
Marine Tstm Wind (EG25)
1532EST
A one-person catamaran sailing in Chesapeake Bay just offshore Sandy Point
State Park capsized when an estimated wind gust of 25 knots (30 mph),
generated by a thunderstorm, caught it broadside. The sailor drowned after
hitting his head on the mast and being thrown into the water. M20BO

LMZ741

Wilmette Harbor to Meigs Field IL

18 1604CST
0
0
Marine Tstm Wind (MG42)
1606CST
A squall line moved through the Chicago area and off the lakefront. A peak gust
to 42 knots (48 mph) was recorded at the Harrison Street Crib.

7.34 Rip Current (Z). A narrow channel of water that flows away from the beach, through
the surf zone and dissipates beyond the breaking waves. Rip currents can develop along the
waters and bays of the ocean, Great Lakes, Lake Okeechobee, Lake Pontchartrain and Lake
Maurepas (those assigned specific Marine Forecast Zones), or any location that experiences
breaking waves. They often form when the gradient wind is strong and directly onshore or when
swells from a distant extra-tropical or tropical cyclone impinge on the coast. Rip currents will
be listed in Storm Data only when they cause a drowning(s), near-drowning(s), result in
numerous rescues (i.e., 5 or more at one beach community), or damage watercraft. Events
associated with other surf-related currents, such as long-shore or tidal currents, will not be
included in Storm Data as Rip Current events.
Also remember that rip currents are mistakenly blamed for other surf-related drownings.
Follow-up information often proves that many of these drownings can be attributed to situations
such as heart attacks, rough surf, lack of swimming ability, etc. As a result, every attempt should
be made to confirm the cause of the drowning, or near-drowning. The best way to confirm what
caused the event is to contact the local lifeguards, beach services or the law enforcement agency
responsible for interviewing witnesses and filing the report.
Beginning Time - The time when a rip current drowning, near-drowning, or rescue
incident began, or damage began.
Ending Time - The time that the rip current drowning, near-drowning, or rescue incident
ended, or damage ended.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Direct Fatalities/Injuries
A fatality due to a drowning from a rip current that was caused by wind or wave
activity.
A near-drowning due to a rip current that required medical treatment (either onsite or at a hospital) is considered an injury.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
None
Examples:
FLZ072

Coastal Waters from Deerfield Beach to Ocean Reef FL

25 1400EST
1
1
Rip Current
1630EST
A 78-year old tourist swimming in the Atlantic behind his hotel near Fort
Lauderdale drowned in a rip current. The beach patrol rescued four others, one
of whom was transported to the hospital for medical treatment. M78IW

CAZ042

Inner Waters from Pt. Mugu to San Mateo Pt CA

05 0900PST
2
2
Rip Current
1600PST
A 25-year-old male and a 24-year-old female drowned in a rip current near a
pier at Huntington Beach. Lifeguards made over two dozen rescues with two
near-drowning as 10-foot swells from Hurricane Angelo swept north. M25IW,
F24IW

7.35. Seiche (Z). A standing-wave oscillation in any enclosed lake which continues after a
forcing mechanism has ceased and results in shoreline flooding and/or damage. In the Great
Lakes and large inland lakes, large pressure differences, high winds, or fast-moving squall lines
may act as the forcing mechanism. In addition, earthquakes or debris flows can initiate a seiche.
When the forcing mechanism ends, the water sloshes back and forth from one end of the lake to
the other, causing water level fluctuations of up to several feet before damping out.
Beginning Time - When water levels rose to initiate shoreline flooding, resulting in a
fatality, injury or damage.
Ending Time - When water returned to pre-seiche levels.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
Persons near shore were swept away by the large wave and drowned.
A boat was overturned by the large wave, drowning or injuring those on board.
A structure was damaged or flooded by the wave, killing or injuring those inside.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Person died when cleaning up seiche-generated debris after the seiche ended.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Person died from a building that collapsed from beach erosion after a seiche
ended.
Example:
MIZ071

Van Buren
28
0300EST
0
0
500K
Seiche
0315EST
An early-morning seiche of 3 feet, caused by a thunderstorm squall line that crossed
Lake Michigan, caused damage in western Lower Michigan. The rising water
damaged boats and docks at South Haven. At least $500,000 in damage occurred
to piers and boats along the shoreline.

7.36 Sleet (Z). Sleet accumulations meeting or exceeding locally/regionally defined warning
criteria (typical value is inch or more). The Storm Data preparer should include in the
narrative the times that sleet accumulation began, met criteria, and ended.
Beginning Time When sleet was first observed to accumulate, or inferred to start
accumulating from surrounding reports.
Criteria Time - When sleet accumulations equaled locally/regionally established warning
threshold values, or as inferred by damage reports.
Ending Time - When sleet accumulation was observed to end, or inferred to end
from surrounding reports.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
The weight of sleet on a roof or other structure causes it to collapse, killing
someone. (Rare)
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Any automobile-related accident due to sleet accumulation or poor driving
conditions.
Any fatality or injury related to someone falling or slipping on sleet.
Example:
WYZ015-062 Natrona - North Carbon
03 1200MST
0
0
65K
Sleet
04 0200MST
Sleet began to accumulate around 1200MST on the 3rd . Accumulations
eventually reached as much as 8 inches in the central foothills of Wyoming,
causing extensive ice conditions and drifts of sleet, before ending around
0200MST on the 4th. Driving was hazardous at best with numerous accidents
along Highway 54. The slippery road surface resulted in one accident involving

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two trucks in which four people were injured (indirectly). The roof a Natrona
business collapsed due to the weight of the sleet.
7.37 Storm Surge/Tide (Z). For coastal and lakeshore areas, the vertical rise above normal
water level associated with a storm of tropical origin (e.g., hurricane, typhoon, or tropical storm)
caused by any combination of strong, persistent onshore wind, high astronomical tide and low
atmospheric pressure, resulting in damage, erosion, flooding, fatalities, or injuries. Coastal
flooding not associated with a typhoon, hurricane, or tropical storm should be reported under the
Coastal Flood category.
For coastal areas, normal water level is defined as mean sea level. Basically, storm tide is the
sum of storm surge and astronomical tide. If the astronomical tide height for the flooded area is
known, it should be subtracted from the total water level/storm tide (run-up/debris line), and the
result specifically labeled in the event narrative as storm surge. The method of measuring
surge height should be mentioned in the narrative, e.g., NWS survey team calculated a surge
height of 4 feet by subtracting the astronomical tide height from the run-up/debris line height.
Coastal and lakeshore areas are defined as those portions of coastal land zones (coastal
county/parish) adjacent to the waters and bays of the oceans, Great Lakes, Lake Okeechobee,
and Lake Pontchartrain and Lake Maurepas. Farther inland, the Storm Data preparer must
determine when and where to encode a flood event as Flash Flood or Flood. Terrain (elevation)
features will determine how far inland the coastal/lakeshore flooding extends.
Beginning Time - When the water level began to cause damage or flooding.
Ending Time - When the water level dropped to a point where damage or flooding ended.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
A coastal dwelling was washed away injuring/killing the occupants.
A person drowned when a vehicle was swept away by the storm tide.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
A person suffered a heart attack while evacuating from a storm tide.
A person died in a vehicle accident caused by the storm tide washing away a
traffic signal.
A person died in a vehicle accident after losing control in standing water on a
road.
Example:
FLZ041-047- Volusia - Brevard - Indian River - St. Lucie - Martin
054-059-064 25
2200EST
0
0
8M
Storm Surge/Tide
26
1600EST
The greatest storm tides occurred between Brevard and St. Lucie Counties, to the
right of the land-falling eye-wall of Hurricane Jeanne. Initial estimates of storm
tide ranged from 7 feet in Volusia County to around 11 feet in St Lucie County.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Storm surge heights for those areas ranged respectively from 6 to 10 feet, as
determined by NWS survey teams that subtracted a 1 foot astronomical tide
height from debris line heights. Damage would have been greater except that
Jeanne came ashore during low tide. Hardest hit was the town of New Smyrna
Beach where much of the sand east of the town's seawall was removed. About
100 ocean-front homes were damaged, as well as about 75 piers.
7.38 Strong Wind (Z). Non-convective winds gusting less than 50 knots (58 mph), or
sustained winds less than 35 knots (40 mph), resulting in a fatality, injury, or damage.
Consistent with regional guidelines, mountain states may have higher criteria. A peak wind gust
(estimated or measured) or maximum sustained wind will be entered.
Inland counties/parishes which experience strong winds/damage associated with tropical
cyclones will be documented under the Tropical Depression or Tropical Storm category, as
appropriate, not as a Strong Wind event.
Events over large inland lakes (with no specific, assigned Marine Forecast Zone number) that
meet Strong Wind criteria will be entered as a Strong Wind event, rather than a Marine Strong
Wind event.
Beginning Time - When the wind started to cause a fatality, injury, or significant damage.
Ending Time - When the wind no longer caused a fatality, injury, or significant damage.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
Fatalities or injuries caused by falling debris associated with structural failure
(includes falling trees, utility poles, and power lines).
Fatalities or injuries associated with vehicles that were blown over, or with
vehicles that were blown into a structure or other vehicles.
Fatalities or injuries caused by airborne objects striking people or vehicles.
Drowning due to boats capsizing from wind on inland lakes without an assigned
Marine Forecast Zone.
Any fatalities or injuries from loss of electrical power, including lack of heat or
cooling.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Fatalities or injuries when a vehicle collided with debris scattered on a roadway.
Any fatalities or injuries incurred during the clean-up process.
Fatalities or injuries associated with making contact with power lines after they
fell.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Example:
TXZ252-253- Starr - Hidalgo - Cameron
255
22 1000CST
1
0 25K Strong Wind (MG45)
2100CST
Gusty winds to 45 knots (52 mph) occurred in the Rio Grande Valley of Deep
South Texas. Power lines and store signs were downed in Rio Grande City,
Mercedes, and Brownsville. The wind pushed a large store sign onto a passing
car on US 281 in Brownsville, killing the driver. M27VE
7.39 Thunderstorm Wind (C). Winds, arising from convection (occurring within 30 minutes
of lightning being observed or detected), with speeds of at least 50 knots (58 mph), or winds of
any speed (non-severe thunderstorm winds below 50 knots) producing a fatality, injury, or
damage. Maximum sustained winds or wind gusts (measured or estimated) equal to or greater
than 50 knots (58 mph) will always be entered. Events with maximum sustained winds or wind
gusts less than 50 knots (58 mph) should be entered as a Storm Data event only if they result in
fatalities, injuries, or serious property damage. Storm Data software permits only one event
name for encoding severe and non-severe thunderstorm winds. The Storm Data software
program requires the preparer to indicate whether the sustained wind or wind gust value was
measured or estimated.
Note: Extreme damage, produced by thunderstorm winds greater than 64 knots (74 mph), is
equivalent to estimated winds in the EF0 category of the Enhanced Fujita damage scale.
Therefore, partial roofs removed, windows broken, light trailer homes pushed over/overturned,
automobiles pushed off the road would be considered extreme wind damage. Refer to Table 9 in
Section 7.39.4 for guidance and to the EF-Scale information available at
[Link]
7.39.1 Downbursts. Downbursts, including dry, or wet, microbursts or macrobursts, will be
classified as Thunderstorm Wind events. In some cases, the downburst may travel several miles
away from the parent thunderstorm, or the parent thunderstorm may have dissipated. However,
since the initiation of the downburst event was related to a thunderstorm, Thunderstorm Wind is
the appropriate event to use.
7.39.2 Gustnadoes. A gustnado is a small, and usually weak whirlwind which forms as an eddy
in thunderstorm outflows. They do not connect with any cloud-base rotation and are not
tornadoes. Since their origin is associated with cumuliform clouds, gustnadoes will be classified
as Thunderstorm Wind events.
7.39.3 Thunderstorm Wind Damage. Note that damage alone does not automatically imply wind
speeds of 50 knots (58 mph) or greater. When estimating a wind speed value, the preparer
should take into account the amount and degree of severity, and condition of the damaged
property (age, type of construction technique used, exposure, topography, soil moisture/
composition, and local wind funneling effects due to orientation/closeness of other objects). The
resultant damage must support such a value. Refer to Table 9 in Section 7.39.4 for guidelines on
estimating wind speeds as well as the EF-Scale information available at

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

[Link] Estimated or measured winds (sustained or gusts) below 50
knots (58 mph), regardless of extent and/or severity of fatalities, injuries, and property damage,
will not initiate the verification process. Encoded wind values of 50 knots (58 mph) or more will
initiate the verification process for Thunderstorm Wind events.
The Storm Data preparer must use professional judgment to determine the estimated maximum
wind value based on observed structural or tree damage. For example, a rotted tree that is
toppled by thunderstorm winds would not support an estimated wind gust of 50 knots (58 mph).
On the other hand, numerous large trees, power lines, and road signs toppled by high winds
would support an estimated gust value over 50 knots (58 mph).
The preparer should note in the Storm Data software program whether the thunderstorm wind
(gust) was measured (MG), estimated (EG), measured sustained (MS), estimated sustained (ES),
or unknown.
Beginning Time - When damage first occurred or winds 50 knots (58 mph) or greater
were first reported.
Ending Time - When damage ended or winds of 50 knots (58 mph) were last reported.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
A thunderstorm wind gust snapped a large tree limb. The limb fell on a passing
car, killing or injuring the driver.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
A wind gust snapped a large tree limb which fell on the road. A few minutes
later, a car drove into the tree limb and the driver was killed or injured.
A wind gust downed numerous trees and limbs. The next morning, a person
cleaning up the debris in his yard died or was injured from a chainsaw accident.
A thunderstorm gust toppled a tree on a homes gas meter, causing an explosion.
The resultant fire subsequently killed two people who were in the home.
Examples:
El Paso County
Colorado Spgs 23 1730MST
0
0
Thunderstorm Wind (MG70)
A small, dry-microburst struck the 5100 block of North Nevada Avenue in
Colorado Springs. The downburst winds tore down power lines (but left the
poles standing), ripped 40 square feet of roofing off a building, blew a pontoon
boat 30 feet off its trailer, damaged billboards, and brought down tree limbs 6 to
8 inches in diameter.
DeKalb County
Malta
12 1505CST
0 0
15K 10K Thunderstorm Wind (EG65)
Thunderstorm winds estimated at 65 knots (75 mph) downed numerous large
trees, ripped off several barn roofs, and blew over a fuel storage tank. Two

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people were injured (indirectly related) when their vehicle struck a large tree on a
road about 1 hour after the storm ended.
Langlade County
Antigo
10 1309CST
0
0
3K
Thunderstorm Wind (MG45)
A wind gust from a thunderstorm blew a home-built aircraft onto its side,
resulting in damage to the airplane.
Waukesha County
Genesee
15 1915CST
0
0
50K
Thunderstorm Wind (EG50)
A gustnado along the leading edge of a downburst produced wind gusts
estimated at nearly 60 mph, damaging a barn and farm house along Highway 59
near Genesee. Interaction between the downburst and outflow from another
thunderstorm just south of the city of Waukesha generated the gustnado.
7.39.4 Table for Estimating Wind Speed from Damage.
Wind Speed

Observations

26-38 kts
(30-44 mph)

Trees in motion. Light-weight loose objects (e.g., lawn furniture) tossed or

toppled.

39-49 kts
(45-57 mph)

Large trees bend; twigs, small limbs break, and a few larger dead or weak
branches may break. Old/weak structures (e.g., sheds, barns) may sustain
minor damage (roof, doors). Building partially under construction may be
damaged. A few loose shingles removed from houses. Carports may be
uplifted; minor cosmetic damage to mobile homes and pool lanai cages.

50-64 kts
(58-74 mph)

Large limbs break; shallow rooted trees pushed over. Semi-trucks

overturned. More significant damage to old/weak structures. Shingles,
awnings removed from houses; damage to chimneys and antennas; mobile
homes, carports incur minor structural damage; large billboard signs may be
toppled.
Widespread damage to trees with trees broken/uprooted. Mobile homes may
incur more significant structural damage; be pushed off foundations or
overturned. Roof may be partially peeled off industrial/commercial/
warehouse buildings. Some minor roof damage to homes. Weak structures
(e.g., farm buildings, airplane hangars) may be severely damaged.

65-77 kts
(75-89 mph)

78+ kts
(90+ mph)

Many large trees broken and uprooted. Mobile homes severely damaged;
moderate roof damage to homes. Roofs partially peeled off homes and
buildings. Moving automobiles pushed off dry roads. Barns, sheds
demolished.

Table 9. Estimating Wind Speed from Damage.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Note: All references to trees are for trees with foliage. Appreciably higher winds may be
required to cause similar damage to trees without foliage. In addition, very wet soil conditions
may allow weaker winds of 26 to 49 knots (30 to 57 mph) to uproot trees. For additional
information, please refer to Damage Indicators 27 and 28 in the EF-Scale information located at
[Link]
7.39.5 Knots-Mile Per Hour Conversion Tables. Tables 10 and 11 will assist in conversion of
wind speed values between knots and miles per hour.
KTS

10

10

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

20

21

22

20

23

24

25

26

28

29

30

31

32

33

30

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

43

44

45

40

46

47

48

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

50

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

66

67

68

60

69

70

71

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

70

81

82

83

84

85

86

88

89

90

91

80

92

93

94

96

97

98

99

100

101

102

90

104

105

106

107

108

109

111

112

113

114

Table 10. Knots to miles per hour. (Example: 45 knots equals 52 mph)

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

MPH

10

10

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

16

20

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

23

24

25

30

26

27

28

29

30

30

31

32

33

34

40

35

36

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

50

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

49

50

51

60

52

53

54

55

56

56

57

58

59

60

70

61

62

63

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

80

70

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

76

77

90

78

79

80

81

82

82

83

84

85

86

Table 11. Miles per hour to knots. (Example...45 mph equals 39 knots)
7.39.6
Speed-Distance Conversion Table. On occasion, the Storm Data preparer may need
to calculate beginning and ending times, time of arrival, or validity of storm report times, based
on a known thunderstorm speed from radar. To assist in this task, use Table 12.
KTS/MPH

1 Mile in X Minutes

KTS/MPH

1 Mile in X Minutes

52/60

1 mile in 1.0 min

26/30

1 mile in 2.0 min

48/55

1 mile in 1.1 min

22/25

1 mile in 2.4 min

43/50

1 mile in 1.2 min

17/20

1 mile in 3.0 min

39/45

1 mile in 1.3 min

13/15

1 mile in 4.0 min

35/40

1 mile in 1.5 min

9/10

1 mile in 6.0 min

30/35

1 mile in 1.7 min

4/5

1 mile in 12.0 min

Table 12. Speed to Distance Conversion.

7.40 Tornado (C). A violently rotating column of air, extending to or from a cumuliform
cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, to the ground, and often (but not always) visible as a
condensation funnel. Literally, in order for a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in
contact with the ground and extend to/from the cloud base, and there should be some semblance
of ground-based visual effects such as dust/dirt rotational markings/swirls, or structural or
vegetative damage or disturbance.
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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

The tornado path length will be entered in miles and tenths of a mile. The maximum tornado
path width will be entered in yards. See Section 7.40.7 for details in determining path length
(including beginning and ending points) and path width. Professional judgment must be
exercised in determining the existence of separate tornadoes. Each and every case is a different
situation.
An Enhanced Fujita Damage Scale value will be entered. Although it is not required, it is
desirable to include the Damage Indicator (DI) and Degree of Damage (DOD) information in the
event narrative that led to the EF Damage Scale value assigned to the tornado.
If possible to determine, it is very desirable to include in the event narrative the type of
thunderstorm that was associated with the tornado, such as high-precipitation supercell, low
precipitation supercell, non-supercell thunderstorm, line thunderstorm, bookend vortex, etc.
When discernable, wind damage from the rear-flank downdraft should not be considered part of
the tornado path but should be entered as a Thunderstorm Wind event.
Gustnadoes will be reported as Thunderstorm Wind events. Refer to Section 7.39.2 for details.
Landspouts and cold-air funnels, ultimately meeting the objective tornado criteria listed in
Section 7.40.6, will be classified as Tornado events.
7.40.1 Tornado, Funnel Cloud, and Waterspout Events. The terms Tornado, Funnel Cloud, and
Waterspout are defined below:
a.

Tornado. A violently rotating column of air extending from a cumuliform cloud or

underneath a cumuliform cloud, to the ground, and often (but not always) visible as
a condensation funnel. Literally, in order for a vortex to be classified as a tornado,
it must be in contact with the ground and extend to/from the cloud base. On a local
scale, it is the most destructive of all atmospheric phenomena;

b.

Waterspout. A violently rotating column of air usually pendant to a cumulus/

cumulonimbus, over a body of water, with its circulation reaching the water; and

c.

Funnel Cloud. A rotating visible extension of cloud pendant to a cumulus/

cumulonimbus with circulation not reaching the ground or water.

In some situations, many public and spotter reports of funnel clouds are passed on to a WFO. In
these cases, the preparer should document only the most significant funnel clouds, especially
those that generate public or media attention.
WFOs are responsible for identifying, investigating, and confirming storms occurring in their
warning areas. To accomplish this, the Storm Data preparer should use all available severe
weather reports, including information from newspapers, letters and photographs, airborne
surveys and pilot reports, state/local emergency management, and personal inspections.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

When available information includes a reliable report that a tornado vortex was distinctly visible
(condensation funnel pendant from a cloud - usually a cumulonimbus), and in contact with the
ground, or a rotating dust/dirt/debris column at the ground is overlaid with a condensation funnel
pendant above, identification of a tornado is a simple matter. This is particularly true when
reports have been investigated by the responsible NWS official and found to be reliable.
However, tornadoes, funnel clouds, and waterspouts can be hidden by precipitation, low clouds,
or dust. Darkness or lack of observers also may result in a tornado or waterspout not being
observed. The WFO must exercise professional judgment to identify a tornado or waterspout
from its effects.
7.40.2
Criteria for a Waterspout. A vortex in contact with the water surface that develops
on, or moves over, the waters and bays of the oceans, Great Lakes, Lake Okeechobee, Lake
Pontchartrain and Lake Maurepas (assigned Marine Forecast Zones) will be characterized as a
Waterspout for that portion of its path over those water surfaces. The vortex will be classified as
a Tornado for that portion of its path over land or inland bodies of water that are not assigned
Marine Forecast Zones. Refer to Section 7.45 for additional waterspout details.
7.40.3
Tornadoes Crossing CWA Boundaries. Tornadoes crossing state lines or
boundaries of WFO CWA responsibility will be coordinated between WFOs. The preparer will
ensure that the exact location, where a tornado crosses a county, parish, or state line, is
incorporated into the event narrative. Sharp-turning tornadoes may need to be segmented into
individual pieces in order to adequately describe the path of that event. However, segmenting a
tornado within the same county/parish is not allowed since this practice may lead to confusion
and over-counting of tornadoes by the Storm Prediction Center, NCDC and Storm Data users. It
is recommended that the preparer encode only one beginning and ending point for the tornado
path within each county/parish affected, and provide detailed information in the event narrative
about the intermediate locations where the tornado turned sharply. Additional instructional
information regarding these border-crossing tornadoes can be found in the Tornado event
examples in this Section.
7.40.4
Landspouts and Dust Devils. A landspout (slang-term for non-supercell tornado)
will be classified as a Tornado, assuming the preparer has reliable reports meeting the criteria
outlined in Section 7.40.6. Similarly, cold-air funnels, meeting the criteria outlined in Section
7.40.6, will be classified as a Tornado event.
On the other hand, dust devils will not be classified as tornadoes since they are ground-based
whirlwinds that do not meet the tornado criteria outlined in Section 7.40.6. A Dust Devil is an
allowable Storm Data event name as indicated in Section 7.10.
7.40.5 On-site Inspections (Surveys). WFO tornado/waterspout and extreme downburst damage
surveys are desirable in those cases when the MIC or WCM believes additional information is
needed for Storm Data preparation. A survey should be done as soon as possible before clean-up
operations remove too much damage evidence.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

If an event occurs where the damage is estimated to be greater than EF3, it is recommended
through Directive 10-1606, section 3.1 that a Post-Data Acquisition (PSDA) Quick Response
Team (QRT) be formed in addition to surveys and service assessment activities. Please refer to
[Link] for further details.
7.40.6 Objective Criteria for Tornadoes. An event will be characterized as a tornado if the type
or intensity of the structural and vegetative damage and/or scarring of the ground could only
have been tornadic, or if any two of the following guidelines are satisfied:
a.

Fairly well-defined lateral boundaries of the damage path;

b.

Evidence of cross-path wind component, e.g., trees lying 30 degrees or more to the
left/right of the path axis (suggesting the presence of a circulation);

c.

Evidence of suction vortices, ground striations, and extreme missiles; or

d.

Evidence of surface wind convergence as suggested by debris-fall pattern and

distribution. In fast-moving storms, the convergence pattern may not be present
and debris pattern may appear to fall in the same direction.

Additionally, an event will be characterized as a tornado if:

a.

Eyewitness reports from credible sources, even with little or no structural or

vegetative damage, and/or little or no scarring of the ground, indicate that a violent
circulation extended from the convective cloud base to the ground; or

b.

Videotapes or photographs from credible sources, even with little or no structural or

vegetative damage, and/or little or no scarring of the ground, indicate that a violent
circulation extended from the convective cloud base to the ground.

There may be situations, especially in the central or western parts of the United States, where
verification of tornadoes will be difficult. However, if available evidence establishes that it was
highly likely a Tornado event occurred, the preparer will enter the event in Storm Data.
7.40.7 Determining Path Length and Width. Path length (in miles and tenths of miles) and
maximum path width (in yards) will be indicated for all tornadoes, including each member of
families of tornadoes, or for all segments of multi-segmented tornadoes. The length in the
header-strip is the length of that particular segment in that particular county/parish. The Storm
Prediction Center, NCDC or a Storm Data user can determine the entire length of a multisegmented tornado by adding the lengths from each segment as well as using the latitude and
longitude of that segment. Note that latitude and longitude are not available in the Storm Data
publication, but are available on the internet in National Climatic Data Center and the Storm
Prediction Center databases.
The tornado path length generally excludes sections without surface damage/disturbance, unless
other evidence of the touchdown (e.g., a trained spotter report, videotape of the tornado over a

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

plowed field, etc.) is available. The excluded section will generally not exceed 2 continuous
miles or 4 consecutive minutes of travel time; otherwise, the path will be categorized as separate
Tornado events. The beginning and ending locations of the excluded sections should be
described as accurately as possible in the event narrative. In some cases, careful analysis and
eyewitness descriptions will determine if separate tornadoes actually occurred within 2 miles or
4 minutes. Refer to Section 7.40.9 for related information. Use the event narrative to describe
whether a tornado skipped or was continuous in these types of cases.
The width in the header-strip is the maximum observed through the entire length of a tornado, or
of each segment in a multi-segment tornado. Generally, in the absence of structural damage,
broken small tree branches of at least 3 inches in diameter can be considered as a marker for
tornado width (assuming this damage isnt related to the rear flank downdraft). In arid regions
where there is a lack of trees, other vegetation or landscape material will have to be used as a
marker. To determine the tornado's maximum width, the Storm Prediction Center or Storm Data
user must check each segment which is entered as a separate event.
The preparer is encouraged to include in the event narrative the average path width (in yards) of
all tornadoes, especially for strong or violent tornadoes (EF2 damage or worse). Availability of
average path width information in Storm Data benefits the scientific research community and
other users.
7.40.8 Using the Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale. Use of the EF-Scale is listed at
[Link] and [Link] EF-Scale values will be assigned to every documented tornado. The Storm
Data preparer may refer to either internet documents and exercise professional judgment to
determine the EF-Scale rating. These documents provide more examples and descriptions
through the use of Damage Indicators and Degrees of Damage to evaluate tornado damage.
Eyewitness verbal accounts, newspaper or personal photographs, and videotapes of the
tornado(s) may be relied upon when an inspection/survey is not possible. In cases where there is
damage to numerous structures, damage to a single structure should not be used as the deciding
factor for the appropriate EF-Scale rating. The surveyor should take into account the overall
damage, evaluating tornado damage versus debris-caused damage and other extenuating
circumstances. Experience has shown that the F-Scale of a tornado cannot be determined,
consistently and reliably, solely on appearance, and this is assumed with the EF-Scale as well.
Although there exist more documented examples of tornado damage, the assigned value may
vary by +/- 1 in EF-Scale value.
When composing the event narrative of a tornado event, the description should be written
remembering that it is a damage scale and the winds listed are estimated. Thus, a tornado does
not necessarily strengthen as it moves into a city, housing development, subdivision or
industrial area. If the tornado increases in speed or widens, then it may be assumed that the
tornado physically is strengthening. Because the tornado moves into an area encountering more
structures, creating more debris, does not necessarily indicate a strengthening of the tornado.

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To assist the WFO, please refer to [Link] and
[Link] These tables and damage pictures
correlate observed structural damage with types of construction and the resultant EF-Scale value.
7.40.9 Simultaneously Occurring Tornadoes. On occasions, especially over the Plains States, a
single cumulonimbus may have several, separate, tornadoes occurring simultaneously. They
may be separated by a distance as little as to 1 mile; and each may have a distinct, separate
trajectory. In these cases, the Storm Data preparer should classify the tornadoes as separate
events, each with a unique start/end location/time combination. The preparer will have to rely on
credible evidence such as eyewitness reports, videotapes, and damage along the path in order to
determine how many tornadoes actually existed. Existing Storm Data indicates that landspout
tornadic situations have resulted in several simultaneously occurring tornadoes.
If evidence suggests that a multiple-vortex tornado occurred, the Storm Data preparer will
document this situation as a single tornado event, even though each vortex created a distinct
damage path. The multiple vortices rotate around a common centerthe tornado center.
Conversely, separate tornadoes, even if they are closely spaced, will not rotate around a common
center.
A brief, detailed explanation of simultaneously occurring tornadoes can be included in the
narrative associated with each tornado event.
Beginning Time - When the sub-cloud vortex first contacted the ground.
Ending Time - When the sub-cloud vortex lost contact with the ground.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
Structures or trees were blown over and landed on someone, resulting in a
fatality/injury.
People became airborne and struck the ground or objects, resulting in a
fatality/injury.
High voltage power lines were blown onto a car, killing or injuring those inside.
A high-profile vehicle was blown over, resulting in a fatality/injury.
A vehicle was blown into a structure or oncoming traffic, resulting in a
fatality/injury.
Objects became airborne (debris, missiles), resulting in a fatality/injury.
A boat on an inland lake or river was blown over or capsized, resulting in a
drowning.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
A person was killed or injured after running into a tree downed by the tornado.
Someone was electrocuted by touching downed power lines.
Someone suffered a heart attack and died as a result of removing debris.

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7.40.10

Single-Segment (Non Border-crossing) Tornado Entries.

[Link]

Example of a Tornado Within One County/Parish.

Page County
Bingham to 22 1905CST 6
75 0
0 5K
5K
Tornado (EF0)
2 NE Norwich
1917CST
At 1905CST, a tornado spun up near Bingham, and moved east to Norwich
before lifting off the ground 2 miles northeast of Norwich. Two homes in
Bingham and one in Norwich sustained minor damage (DI 2, DOD 2). The
tornado track was not continuous; there were two areas (both about one-half-mile
long) east of Bingham where damage was not discernable. Average path width
was 30 yards.
[Link]
Example of a Tornado that Changed Direction Within One County/Parish. A
tornado that affects only one county/parish should be entered as only one segment, even if the
tornado changed direction within a county/parish. The end points should be entered in the
header-strip and the complete description of the tornados path, including any variation from a
straight line, should be described in the event narrative.
Jackson County
5 W Vernon to 14 2308CST
10 150 0 0
150K Tornado (EF1)
5 NNE Vernon
2326CST
A tornado spun up 5 miles west of Vernon. The tornado moved east through the
city of Vernon, and then veered left at the center of the city. It finally dissipated
about 5 miles north-northeast of town. Trees and power lines were blown down
and several barns were damaged. A business (DI 12, DOD 3) and a home were
partially unroofed in Vernon. Based on damage, the tornado winds were around
83 knots (95 mph). Average path width was 75 yards.
[Link]
Example of a Tornado over an Inland Body of Water (Without an Assigned Marine
Forecast Zone).
Davis County
7SW Layton

01 1738MST
1
30 0 0
Tornado (EF0)
1741MST
State Police spotted a tornado over Great Salt Lake. It dissipated before reaching
shore.

[Link]
Examples of a Tornado that Became a Waterspout (Body of Water with Assigned
Marine Forecast Zone).
St. Louis County
2E Arnold to
28 1651CST
French River
1655CST

4.4

60

80

Tornado (EF1)

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

A tornado spun up 2 miles east of Arnold. A barn and an outbuilding were
destroyed (DI 1, DOD 8) and trees were damaged. The tornado traveled until it
reached the shore of Lake Superior at French River where it continued as a
waterspout.
LSZ144
Two Harbors to 28 1655CST
0 0
Waterspout
Duluth MN
1657CST
The St. Louis County tornado event reached the shores of Lake Superior. This
waterspout lasted another 2 minutes before dissipating.
[Link]
Examples of a Waterspout (Body of Water with Assigned Marine Forecast Zone)
That Became a Tornado.
LMZ645
5NE Wind Pt
15 1700CST
0 1
100K Waterspout
to Wind Pt WI
1705CST
A waterspout developed northeast of Wind Point and moved slowly southwest.
Three sailboats about 2 miles offshore were destroyed and one person was
injured. The waterspout moved onshore at Wind Point and continued as a
tornado in Racine County.
Racine County
Wind Pt to 15 1705CST 1
25 0
0 1M
Tornado (EF1)
3SW Wind Pt
1707CST
The waterspout that spun up 5 miles northeast of Wind Point moved onshore as a
tornado at Wind Point, and dissipated about 3 miles inland. The tornado
weakened but still managed to cause significant damage to two piers, a yacht
club building, two small boats, and a dozen homes (DI 2, DOD 4). Estimated
wind speeds of the tornado were about 87 knots (100 mph).
7.40.11

Segmented and Border-crossing Tornado Entries.

[Link]
Examples of a County/Parish Line-crossing Tornado Within a CWA. Tornadoes
that cross county/parish lines must be entered as segments with one segment per county/parish.
Storm Data preparers must coordinate entries for tornadoes that cross state lines or CWAs.
Consistency between Storm Data entries of border crossing tornadoes is needed to assure an
accurate tornado path. Otherwise a single tornado may be misinterpreted as being two separate
tornadoes. This can easily occur when external users, not familiar with Storm Data practices,
use the National Climatic Data Centers (NCDC) Web site query feature. It is critical that all
counties/parishes affected by a single tornado, and the exact location that a tornado exits or
enters a county/parish, be mentioned in the event narrative that discusses that tornado. Do not
segment a tornado within a county/parish (an entry for each portion of a tornado that appreciably
changes directions). In the example below, the first line of the event narrative makes it clear that
the tornado moved across a county/parish line, and indicates exactly where the tornado exited the
first county/parish.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Coal County
4 SE Coalgate 11 0425CST 8
200 1
1
75K
Tornado (EF2)
2.5 ENE Cairo
0434CST
This tornado formed 4 miles southeast of Coalgate and tracked northeastward
for 8 miles before exiting Coal County about 2.5 miles east-northeast of Cairo at
0434CST. The tornado continued in Atoka County for another 5 miles, before
dissipating at 0440CST. In Coal County, 1 fatality and injuries to another
person occurred when a mobile home was thrown approximately 200 yards and
disintegrated 4 miles east of Coalgate. In addition, a well-constructed frame
home suffered severe roof damage and exterior wall damage in extreme eastern
Coal County (DI 2, DOD 6). While in Coal County it was rated as EF2, but in
Atoka County it was rated as EF0. Average path width in Coal County was 100
yards, while the maximum width was 200 yards. F62MH
Atoka County
1.5 NW Wardville 11
0434CST 5
100 0
0
6K Tornado (EF0)
to 5.5 SE Wardville
0440CST
This tornado formed 4 miles southeast of Coalgate in Coal County and entered
Atoka County about 1.5 miles northwest of Wardville at 0434CST. The tornado
then continued for another 5 miles before dissipating 5.5 miles southeast of
Wardville at 0440CST. In Atoka County, minor roof damage was inflicted on a
mobile home (DI 3, DOD 2), and numerous trees were damaged. While in Coal
County, it was rated as EF2, but in Atoka County it was rated as EF0. Average
path width in Coal County was 50 yards.
[Link]
Example of a Triple-segmented, Two-County Tornado. In some cases, a tornado
may spin up in County A, cut across the corner of County B, and re-enter and dissipate in County
A. In these situations, three tornado events will be entered into the Storm Data software: the first
event covers the first County A segment, the second event covers the County B segment, and the
third event covers the second County A segment.
Columbia County
3 E Wis Dells to 06 1754CST
6.1 200 0
0
400K
Tornado (EF1)
2 SE Lewiston
1813CST
The first segment of a multi-segmented tornado spun up near the intersection of
Broadway Rd. and CTH Q east of Wisconsin Dells. It damaged 9 homes (DI 2,
DOD 4) before it exited Columbia County on the Wisconsin River at 1813CST.
This tornado then clipped the northeast corner of Sauk County (southeast of Lake
Delton) and re-entered Columbia County at 1817CST. Average path width was
75 yards.

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Sauk County
9 SE Lk Delton to
06 1813CST 1.6 100 0
0
1K
Tornado (EF0)
10 SE Lk Delton
1817CST
This tornado segment is a continuation of a tornado that initially started 3 E of
Wisconsin Dells at 1754CST on June 6th. It lightly damaged a homes siding (DI
2, DOD 2), and ripped up some trees. It entered Sauk County at the intersection
of N Hein Rd and Levee Rd., and exited Sauk County into Columbia County
where Levee Rd. enters Columbia County. Average path width was 50 yards.
Columbia County
7 W Portage to 06 1817CST
9.2 200 0
0
600K Tornado (EF1)
1 SW Dekorra
1840CST
This is the 3rd segment of a single tornado that initially started east of Wisconsin
Dells at 1754CST, crossed into Sauk County at 1813CST, and re-entered Columbia
County at 1817CST where Levee Rd. enters Columbia County from the west. Ten
homes (DI 2, DOD 4) and a campground sustained damage. Five vehicles were
lightly damaged by tree debris. This tornado segment ended southwest of Dekorra,
just after crossing the Wisconsin River for the second time. Average path width
was 100 yards.
[Link]
Example of CWA Boundary-crossing Tornado. WFOs must coordinate the
beginning and ending locations of tornadoes that move from one CWA into another. This will
assure that all affected counties/parishes are mentioned. In the following example, both
segments mention that the tornado crossed from one county into another one.
TEXAS, North
Cooke County
4 NW Gainesville 11 0255CST
2.6 150 0
0
30K
Tornado (EF1)
to 6 N Gainesville
0258CST
A tornado touched down 4 miles northwest of Gainesville. It then moved into Love
County, Oklahoma, 6 miles north of Gainesville (see Storm Data for Oklahoma,
Western, Central and Southeast). In Cooke County, a mobile home (DI 3, DOD 5)
and a storage pole barn were heavily damaged northwest of Gainesville. Average
path width for the Texas portion was 75 yards.
OKLAHOMA, Western, Central, and Southeast
Love County
5 S Thackerville to 11 0258CST
5
100 0
0
100K 100K Tornado (EF1)
3 ESE Thackerville
0304CST
This tornado developed in Cooke County, Texas, about 4 miles northwest of
Gainesville, and tracked northeastward before crossing the Red River into
Love County in Oklahoma (see Storm Data for Texas, North, for more
information on the beginning portion of this tornado in Texas) at 0258CST at
a point 5 miles south of Thackerville. In Oklahoma, the most significant
damage, rated EF1, occurred 3 miles southeast of Thackerville where a barn
was destroyed (DI 1, DOD 8), and some soy bean crop was uprooted.

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Nearby, a mobile home was severely damaged. Average path width for the
Oklahoma portion was 50 yards.
7.40.12

The Enhanced Fujita Tornado Intensity Scale.

[Link]

EF-Scale and Fujita Scale Wind Speed Table.

EF Scale Wind Speed Ranges Derived from F-Scale Wind Speed Ranges

Table 13. EF-Scale and Fujita Scale Wind Speed Table

The EF-Scale conversion from the F-Scale was derived using the following equation,
y = 0.6246x + 3.693
where y is the EF-Scale wind speed and x is the F-scale wind speed (in 3-sec gusts in mph). The
correlation when plotted on a graph look like:

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

The above graph shows a close relationship between the EF-Scale (3-sec gust) and the F-Scale
(1/4-mile gust).
[Link]

Enhanced Fujita Tornado Intensity Scale Table.

Table 14. Enhanced Fujita Tornado Intensity Scale

7.41 Tropical Depression (Z). A tropical cyclone in which the 1-minute sustained wind
speed is 33 knots (38 mph), or less. The tropical depression number will be included in the
narrative section. The Tropical Depression should be included as an entry if its effects, such as
gradient wind, freshwater flooding, and along the coast, storm tide, are experienced within the
WFOs CWA, including its coastal waters. The center of the tropical depression may not
actually move ashore. Terrain (elevation) features, in addition to the storm tide/run-up height,
will determine how far inland the coastal flooding extends.
The tropical depression will usually include many individual hazards, such as storm surge,
freshwater flooding, tornadoes, debris flows, rip currents, etc. Refer to Section 7.25 for
additional information that may be applicable for tropical depressions, as well as their associated
individual hazards. Wind damage that occurred inland as well as in coastal counties/parishes and
islands affected by tropical depression winds will be entered as a Tropical Depression event.
Beginning Time - When the direct effects of the tropical depression were first
experienced.
Ending Time - When the direct effects of the tropical depression were no longer
experienced.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
Casualties caused by storm tide, high surf, freshwater flooding, or wind-driven
debris.
Wind caused a tree to blow onto someone.
A person drowned while surfing in rough waters.
Someone drowned when flood waters swept a vehicle into a river.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Someone suffered a heart attack while removing debris.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Someone was electrocuted by touching downed power lines.
Someone drowned when a vehicle was driven into a canal.
Example:
TXZ183

Val Verde
23 2200CST
0
0
Tropical Depression
1000CST
The remnants of Tropical Depression Two stalled over the Big Bend area and
produced up to 18 inches of rain in Del Rio. Winds gusts of 35 knots (40 mph) and
minimum sea-level pressure of 1015 mb were reported at Del Rio. The main effect
of T.D. #2, flash flooding on San Felipe Creek, resulted in 9 fatalities (drowning),
and 150 injuries. For a complete description of the flash flooding damage, refer to
the Flash Flood event for September 23, 2006.

7.42 Tropical Storm (Z). A tropical cyclone in which the 1-minute sustained surface wind
ranges from 34 to 63 knots (39 to 73 mph) inclusive. The tropical storm should be included as
an entry when its effects, such as wind, storm tide, freshwater flooding, and tornadoes, are
experienced in the WFOs CWA, including the coastal waters. Terrain (elevation) features, in
addition to the storm tide/run-up height, will determine how far inland the coastal flooding
extends.
The tropical storm will usually include many individual hazards, such as storm tide, freshwater
flooding, tornadoes, debris flows, rip currents, etc. Refer to Section 7.25 for additional
information that may be applicable for tropical storms, as well as their associated individual
hazards. In the western North Pacific and American Samoa, the appropriate Tropical Storm
Category (A or B) on the Saffir-Simpson Tropical Cyclone Scale will be annotated (refer to
Section 7.25.2 for the Scale).
Note: Tropical Storm force winds can carry well inland and are not restricted to coastal counties
and marine zones. Inland fatalities, injuries, and/or damage that were related to tropical storm
winds will be entered into a Tropical Storm event, not in a Strong Wind or High Wind event.
If a hurricane produces only tropical storm force winds in a particular CWA, or in a portion of
that CWA, the entry should be made under Tropical Storm. However, such entries must include
a reference to the hurricane in the narrative section, e.g., Hurricane Dennis produced tropical
storm force winds in ....
Beginning Time - When the direct effects of the tropical storm were first experienced.
Ending Time - When the direct effects of the tropical storm were no longer experienced.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
Casualties caused by storm surge, high surf, freshwater flooding, or wind-driven
debris or structural collapse.
Wind caused a tree to blow onto someone.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Someone drowned while surfing in rough waters.
Someone drowned when flood waters swept a vehicle into a river.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Someone suffered a heart attack while removing debris.
Someone was electrocuted by touching downed power lines.
Someone drowned when a vehicle was driven into a canal.
Someone was killed in a vehicle accident caused by a tropical storm-related
missing traffic signal.
Example:
FLZ007>019- Inland Walton - Coastal Walton - Holmes - Washington - Jackson - Bay 026>028
Calhoun - Gulf - Franklin - Gadsden - Leon - Jefferson - Madison Liberty - Taylor - Wakulla
21 1800EST
0
0
1M
100K
Tropical Storm
23 0000EST
Tropical Storm Helene made landfall near Fort Walton Beach during the late
morning hours of September 22. Storm total rainfall ranged from a half inch at
Perry to 9.56 inches at Apalachicola. The highest sustained wind of 39 knots
(45 mph) with a peak gust of 56 knots (65 mph) was recorded at Cape San Blas.
The lowest sea-level pressure was 1011 mb at Panama City. Coastal storm tides
of 2 feet or less above astronomical tide levels were common, with only minor
beach erosion reported. Near the coast, as well as inland, many properties,
homes, and businesses sustained wind damage. No fatalities or injuries were
attributed to the winds. All of the associated effects of Helene resulted in
4 fatalities, 13 injuries, $3.0M in property damage, and around $1.0M in crop
damage. Specifically, Helenes flood waters in the Florida Panhandle resulted in
2 fatalities, 3 injuries, $1.0M in property damage, and $750K in crop damage.
The nine associated tornadoes resulted in 2 fatalities, 10 injuries, $1M in property
damage, and $150K in crop damage. The powerful winds caused $1M in
property damage and $100K in crop damage. The storm surge along the coast
resulted in $500K in property damage.
7.43 Tsunami (Z). A series of very long waves generated by any rapid, large-scale
disturbance of the sea (e.g., an underwater earthquake, landslide, or volcanic eruption) resulting
in a fatality, injury or damage. When the wave reaches the coast, a tsunami may appear as a
rapidly rising or falling tide, a series of breaking waves, or even a bore. The event narrative
should include the source of the tsunami (e.g., 8.5 magnitude earthquake near the western coast
of Chile), the height and time of the maximum wave, and the inland distance of inundation. Any
other characteristics, such as the observation of water draining from bays should be included.
Beginning Time - When the water level first began to change rapidly.
Ending Time - When the water level returned to near normal.

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NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Direct Fatalities/Injuries
A coastal dwelling was washed away injuring or killing the occupants.
A person drowned when a vehicle was swept away.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
A person suffered a heart attack while evacuating.
After the tsunami, a person died when the house he returned to collapsed.
Example:
HIZ008

South Hawaii including Kauna Point

07 0600HST
0
0 5M
Tsunami
1000HST
A tsunami wave affected coastal sections of the south and east shores of the Big
Island of Hawaii from Hilo Harbor to Kauna Point. The tsunami resulted from
an 8.3 earthquake that occurred off the coast of Chile. Tide gauges located on
buoys 150 miles SE of the Big Island of Hawaii reported a 2-inch rise as the
tsunami passed. A 20-foot wave at Punaluu Harbor was the highest of three
waves that occurred over a 2-hour and 20-minute period. The wave went inland
as far as mile. The height of the waves ranged from 5 feet at Hilo Harbor on
the east coast to 20 feet at Punaluu Harbor on the southeast coast to 3 feet near
Kauna Point on the southwest coast. There were no deaths or injuries, but
several marinas were heavily damaged and coastal roads were flooded. These
damages amounted to $5.0 million.

7.44 Volcanic Ash (Z). Fine particles of mineral matter from a volcanic eruption which can
be dispersed long distances by winds aloft, resulting in fatalities, injuries, damage, or a
disruption of transportation and/or commerce.
Beginning Time - When volcanic ash began to cause disruption to transportation,
commerce, fatality, injury, or damage.
Ending Time - When volcanic ash stopped falling.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
People who were asphyxiated due to high ash content in the air. (Rare)
People who were involved in aircraft accidents due to ash being ingested into the
engines.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Vehicular accidents caused by reduced visibility and slippery roads due to
volcanic ash fall, or due to falls while walking through volcanic ash.

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Example:
WAZ040

Southern Cascade Foothills

10 1800PST
0
0
Volcanic Ash
2100PST
A minor eruption of Mt. St. Helens caused ash to rise about 10,000 feet into the
atmosphere. The ash drifted to the southwest and fell in the southern Cascade
foothills. State Highway 503 became slippery when it was covered with ash,
which caused a head-on collision of two vehicles. One person was killed
(indirect fatality) and the other seriously injured (indirect injury).

7.45 Waterspout (M). A rotating column of air, pendant from a convective cloud, with its
circulation extending from cloud base to the water surface of an area assigned as a Marine
Forecast Zone, including bays, the Great Lakes, Lake Okeechobee, Lake Pontchartrain and Lake
Maurepas. A condensation funnel may or may not be visible in the vortex.
A vortex that moves over both water and land will be characterized as a Waterspout for that
portion of its path over the water surface of an assigned Marine Forecast Zone, and a Tornado for
its path over the land. A vortex over any water surface not designated as an official marine zone
will be entered as a Tornado.
Note: Direct fatalities which are related to a marine vessel will be coded as BO (Boating), not
IW (In Water).
Beginning Time - When a waterspout was first reported to exist.
Ending Time - When a waterspout was last reported to exist.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
A waterspout capsized a small boat, drowning the occupant.
A waterspout blew a vehicle off a bridge and the driver drowned.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
A boater fleeing a waterspout crashed into a breakwater.
A boater suffered a heart attack after sighting a waterspout.
Examples:
LMZ654
2 E Port Washington 18

1835CST

Waterspout

A brief waterspout was spotted over Lake Michigan a couple miles offshore
of Port Washington. The distance was estimated.

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GMZ053
Craig Key to
West end of 7
Mile Bridge FL

10 1200EST
1206EST

50K

Waterspout

A large waterspout from the Florida Straits moved across a marina at

Marathon damaging three sailboats and injuring two people.
7.45.1 Example of a Tornado That Became a Waterspout (Body of Water with Assigned Marine
Forecast Zone).
St. Louis County
2 E Arnold to
28 1651CST
4.4 60 0 0
100K
Tornado (EF1)
1 S French River
1655CST
A tornado touched down north of Duluth. A barn and an outbuilding were
destroyed (DI 1, DOD 8) and trees were damaged. The tornado reached the
shore of Lake Superior just south of French River, and then curved northeast
as a waterspout moving toward Two Harbors.
LSZ144
1 S French River 28 1655CST
0 0
Waterspout
to Two Harbors
1705CST
This waterspout initially began as a tornado in St. Louis County near
Arnold. It crossed over the Lake Superior shoreline just south of the
village of French River, and then curved northeast toward Two
Harbors. No marine-related damage was noted.
7.45.2 Example of a Waterspout (Body of Water with Assigned Marine Forecast Zone) That
Became a Tornado.
Lake County
.5 S Two Harbors
28
1705CST 2.5 25 0
0 250K Tornado (EF1)
to 2N Two Harbors
1707CST
A waterspout on Lake Superior moved onshore as a tornado just south of
Two Harbors. The tornado continued on the ground for about 2.5 miles
before dissipating. A small building was destroyed (DI 1, DOD 8) and a
cottage damaged near where the tornado came onshore. The tornado
damaged four more homes and downed around three dozen trees before
finally dissipating. The damage path was no more than 25 yards in width.
7.46 Wildfire (Z). Any significant forest fire, grassland fire, rangeland fire, or wildland-urban
interface fire which consumes the natural fuels and spreads in response to its environment.
Significant here is defined as a wildfire that causes one or more fatalities, one or more injuries,
and/or property damage (including equipment damaged in fighting the fire). Professional
judgment is used in deciding to include a Wildfire in Storm Data. In general, forest fires smaller
than 100 acres, grassland or rangeland fires smaller than 300 acres, and wildland use fires not

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actively managed as wildfires should not be included. This is consistent with the definitions for
significant and/or large fires utilized by most land use agencies.
Beginning Time - When a forest fire, grassland fire, rangeland fire, or wildland-urban
interface fire became out of control.
Ending Time - When a wildfire became under control.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
A wildfire swept through a campground. Two campers died when their RV was
consumed by fire.
A man drove into an evacuated area to try to save belongings from a cabin that
was threatened by a wildfire. The man died when fire burned the cabin to the
ground.
People who were asphyxiated due to smoke inhalation.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
All vehicular accidents caused by reduced visibility due to smoke.
Example:
MTZ005-006 Missoula/Bitterroot Valleys-Bitterroot
06 1500MST
0
0 8M
Wildfire
31 1500MST
Dry lightning and strong winds started fires which spread into urban areas of the
southern part of the county. Structural damage from fires occurred from
August 6-8, but fires raged to the end of the month with a total of 335,356 acres
burned. Sixty-four residences and cabins were destroyed, and five were partially
destroyed. A total of 164 outbuildings and 87 vehicles were destroyed.
7.47 Winter Storm (Z). A winter weather event which has more than one significant hazard
(i.e., heavy snow and blowing snow; snow and ice; snow and sleet; sleet and ice; or snow, sleet
and ice) and meets or exceeds locally/regionally defined 12 and/or 24 hour warning criteria for at
least one of the precipitation elements, on a widespread or localized basis. Normally, a winter
storm would pose a threat to life or property.
In cases of winter storms, the preparer should be careful to classify the event properly in Storm
Data. In general, the event should be classified as a Winter Storm event (rather than an Ice
Storm event or a Heavy Snow event) only if more than one winter precipitation type presented a
significant hazard.
Some Winter Storm and Blizzard events may have had sustained or maximum wind gusts that
met or exceeded High Wind criteria. Rather than document an additional High Wind event, the
Storm Data preparer should just mention the time, location, and wind value in the Winter Storm
or Blizzard event narrative. This is permissible even if only light snow and minor blowing snow
(no serious reduction in visibility below 3 miles) occurred with the high winds, as long as the

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High Wind report is deemed reliable, and was generated by the same synoptic storm system that
resulted in the Winter Storm or Blizzard event. Normally, this scenario would be most likely in
the mountains in the western United States.
Beginning Time The time when accumulating precipitation (measurable) began.
Criteria Time - The time when the winter storm first met or exceeded locally or
regionally defined warning criteria.
Ending Time - The time when precipitation stopped accumulating.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
The weight of snow and ice caused a machine shed roof to collapse, killing a
farmer.
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
All vehicle-related fatalities or injuries due to poor visibility and/or slippery
roads.
Example:
WVZ033>035- McDowell - Mercer - Monroe - Raleigh - Summers Wyoming Winter Storm
042>044
01 1500MST
0
0
02 1800MST
The New Year started off with a major winter storm. A combination of snow,
sleet, and freezing rain began around 1400MST, started to accumulate about
1500MST, and eventually left about 10 inches of frozen precipitation on the
ground across the area. Transportation came to a stop for much of the holiday
weekend.
7.48 Winter Weather (Z). A winter precipitation event that causes a death, injury, or a
significant impact to commerce or transportation but does not meet locally/regionally defined
warning criteria. A Winter Weather event could result from one or more winter precipitation
types (snow, or blowing/drifting snow, or freezing rain/drizzle), on a widespread or localized
basis
Note that, in Storm Data, Blizzard events should cover a time period of 3 hours or more.
Therefore, if blizzard-like conditions occur for less than 3 hours, the event should be entered as a
Winter Storm, Heavy Snow, or Winter Weather, noting in the event narrative that near-blizzard
or blizzard-like conditions were observed at the height of the event.
The Storm Data preparer must use judgment in determining whether the impact of a winter
weather event is significant enough to enter into Storm Data.
Beginning Time Time when winter weather precipitation started to accumulate or
phenomena, such as blowing snow, began.

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Ending Time Time when the winter weather precipitation stopped accumulating or
phenomena ended.
Direct Fatalities/Injuries
A vehicle accident where the driver suddenly encountered an intense snow
squall, heavy freezing rain or sleet that was unavoidable. (Rare)
Indirect Fatalities/Injuries
Almost all vehicle-related fatalities/injuries due to snow or ice covered roads,
hazardous driving conditions, and visibility restrictions.
Any vehicle accident involving a snow plow.
Examples:
MAZ001>004 Berkshire - Western Franklin - Eastern Franklin - Northern Worcester Winter Weather
06 0500EST
0
0
1900EST
A period of freezing drizzle and freezing rain led to a thin layer of ice or glaze
over northwest Massachusetts. There were numerous car accidents with minor
injuries (indirect) due to the icy conditions, especially along Highways 2 and
202.
SCZ047>049 Jasper - Beaufort - Southern Colleton
Winter Weather
01 1800EST
0
0
2200EST
A mixture of freezing rain, sleet, and snow brought hazardous travel conditions
to sections of southern South Carolina. Although the accumulation of ice was
small, (less than 1/8 inch), the combination of elements led to accidents,
especially along Interstate 95.
NDZ014-015 Benson Ramsey
Winter Weather
12 2200CST
0
0
13 0300CST
Strong winds and fresh snow caused blowing snow to lower visibilities to 1/4 to
mile at times overnight. Several cars were stranded along County Road 5 in
Benson County.
KYZ004-005 Ballard - McCracken
Winter Weather
16 1300CST
0
0
2200CST
Slippery driving conditions caused by an extended period of sleet led to
numerous car accidents across extreme western Kentucky. The worst conditions
were around Paducah where slick streets led to multi-car accidents and the
closing of some highways around town.

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PAZ001-002

Northern Erie - Southern Erie

25 1400EST
0
0
Winter Weather
2000EST
Slippery roads caused by 4 to 5 inches of snow led to numerous accidents and
minor injuries (indirect) across Erie County in northwest Pennsylvania. Two
school buses collided on a snow-covered hill just east of Fairfield, but no one
was seriously injured.

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APPENDIX A - Glossary of Terms

County Warning Area (CWA) - The geographical area of responsibility assigned to a WFO for
providing warnings, forecasts, and other weather information.
Enhanced Fujita-Scale - A 0 to 5 rating based on a tornados intensity, directly related to
observed damage. Since structural design determines damage, probable wind speeds are
associated with each EF-Scale number. There are 28 Damage Indicators (DI), each with varying
numbers of Degree of Damage (DOD) that are utilized in determining each EF-rating.
Header-strip - Bold-faced lines of text and numbers at the beginning of each Storm Data entry,
providing specific information on the time and character of the weather event. This includes
location, beginning and ending times, deaths, injuries, property damage, and type of event. In
some cases, it also includes the Universal Generic Code and the magnitude of the event, i.e., hail
size and tornado EF-Scale.
Saffir/Simpson Hurricane Scale - A 1 to 5 rating based on a hurricanes intensity. This scale
designates sustained wind speeds and estimates potential property damage. It sometimes
provides estimated associated storm surge.
Saffir/Simpson Tropical Cyclone Scale - A rating scale based on the intensity of a tropical
cyclone. This scale has two tropical storm categories and 5 typhoon/cyclone categories, and is
used in the western Pacific and other tropical areas. The scale designates sustained wind speeds
and corresponding wind gusts, estimated storm surge, and potential property damage.
Storm Data - NOAAs official publication which documents the occurrence of storms and other
significant natural hazards having sufficient intensity to cause loss of life, injuries, significant
property damage, and/or disruption to commerce.
Storm Data software - The on-line software program that documents specifics and narratives of
significant or unusual weather events. Data is transferred from WFOs to the Performance
Branch in OCWWS for use in the NWS verification program and to the NCDC for publication of
Storm Data.

A-1

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

APPENDIX B Property Damage Estimates

Trees
Large tree limbs downed
Tree destroyed
Tree on house .. no house damage
Tree on house .. house damage

0.20K 0.80K
0.50K 1.50K
1.50K 3.50K
3.00K - 7.50K

Power Lines/Poles
Power lines downed
Small transformer
Regular size power pole cost
Large power pole cost
Labor cost for pole replacement
Large transmission pole destroyed

0.75K 2.00K
1.00K 3.00K
0.30K 1.00K
0.75K 1.50K
5-10 times cost of pole
40.0K 80.0K

Roofs
Minor roof damage repair
Major roof damage (truss/roof replace)
Damaged gutters/downspouts
Replace brick chimney

2.00K 5.00K
15.0K 30.0K
0.10K 0.30K
0.20K per foot

Buildings
Awning damaged
Window broken
Covered porch destroyed
Replace siding, one side average house
One-car garage destroyed
Two-car garage destroyed
House destroyed
Mobile home destroyed
Small shed destroyed
Small pole barn destroyed
Large pole barn destroyed
House basement flooded (minor)
House basement flooded (major)
Electrical damage from lightning

0.25K 1.00K
0.20K 1.00K
5.00K 15.0K
2.00K 5.00K
6.00K 15.0K
15.0K 30.0K
Value of house, belongings
25.0K 50.0K
0.50K 1.50K
10.0K 30.0K
25.0K 75.0K
1.00K 10.0K
10.0K 25.0K
2.50K 7.50K

B-1

NWSI 10-1605 AUGUST 17, 2007

Vehicles
Vehicle windshield replace
Hail damage to vehicle
Minor car damage, hail-debris
Major car damage, hail-debris
Car destroyed (flooding or otherwise)
Semi-trailer overturned

0.25K 1.00K
1.00K 15.0K
1.00K 3.00K
2.50K 15.0K
Car value
7.50K 15.0K

Agriculture
Crop damage
Small grain bin destroyed
Large grain bin destroyed
Cow killed
Center pivot irrigation system destroyed

[Crop value/acre]x [#acres]

7.50K 30.0K
20.0K 50.0K
1.50K 3.00K
25.0K 50.0K

Miscellaneous
County road culvert washed out
County bridge washed out
State-federal bridge washed out

2.50K 50.0K
25.0K 75.0K
250K 750K

B-2