THE BUILDING
BLOCKS
(biological
molecules)
Biological molecules have some things in common:
most are Polymers large strings of molecules (macromolecules)
of repeating subunits monomers
monomer
polymer
Simplest carbon molecule
they are based on carbon atoms
Methane
CH4
formaldehyde
ethanol
ethane
heptane
More complex molecules when carbons bind to each other; other molecules can be added
More complex ring structures
Simplified structure carbons implied
Even more complex -branching
Biological molecules are joined by condensation
reactions e.g. dehydration ie. loss of water and formation
of a covalent bond
OH
- H2O
HO
Biological molecules are broken down into monomers
e.g. by hydrolysis ie. cleavage of bonds by the addition of
water
+ H2O
NUCLEIC ACIDS
phosphates
Nucleotide
sugar
Nucleoside
Nucleoside monophosphate
Nucleoside diphosphate
Nucleoside triphosphate
Base
Base name
nucleoside
nucleotide
deoxynucleotide
Adenine
(purine)
Adenonsine
Adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)
Deoxyadenonsine
triphosphate (dATP)
Guanine
(purine)
Guanosine
Guanosine
Deoxyguanosine
triphosphate (GTP) triphosphate
(dGTP)
Cytosine
pyrimidine)
Cytidine
Cytosine
Deoxycytosine
triphosphate (CTP) triphosphate (dCTP)
Uracil
(pyrimidine)
Uridine
Uridine
triphosphate (UTP)
Thymine
(pyrimidine)
thymidine
deoxythymidine
triphosphate (dTTP)
Phosphodiester bond formation
Phosphodiester bond
Condensation reaction between 3
hydroxyl group & 5phosphate
Sugar-phosphate
backbone
Phosphodiester
bonds
Glycosidic bonds
Hydrogen bonds
Phosphate groups are negatively charged
[Link]
Bases
Proteins
Amino acids subunit of proteins
the central carbon is called the
H
N
H
Amino group
C
R
carbon
O
C
O
Carboxylic Acid Group
Side chain
- each amino acid has a different side chain
- gives different biochemical properties
- it determines if the amino acid will be polar, nonpolar
or electrically charged
Amino acids are joined to each other by formation of a
peptide bond
Proteins (polypeptides) are formed by
addition of more amino acids
Silk protein (fibroin)
Amino or N terminus
Carboxyl or C terminus
5
3
Chains of amino acids fold into patterns i.e.
secondary structure
- coiled structures : - helices
- folded structures: pleated sheets
- formed by H bonds formation between the
amino and carboxyl groups of the
backbone
Protein tertiary structure
GFP
Protein quaternary structure
- Association of multiple polypeptide chains to form a
functional protein
Haemoglobin
Catalase enzyme
Carbohydrates
(=saccharides)
- simple sugars
- building blocks of carbohydrates
- chemical formula (CH2O)n n=3-7
Monosaccharides
e.g. glucose n=6 C6H1206
Carbonyl
group
Hydroxyl
groups
C1
H-C2-OH
HO-C3-H
H- C-OH
4
H- C5-OH
H- C6-OH
H
In nature usually in ring form
H
H- C6-OH
O H
H C5
C4 H
OH H C1
HO
C2 OH
C3
OH
H
H
H- C6-OH
O OH
H C5
C4 H
OH H C1
HO
C2 H
C3
OH
H
- glucose
- glucose
anomers
Monosaccharides are named based on:
1. Length of carbon backbone
triose (3), tetrose (4), pentose (5), hexose (6), heptose (7)
2. Position of carbonyl group
Aldose has carbonyl group
at end of carbon backbone
O
C
H- C-OH
C
H- C -OH
ribose
H- C -OH
H- C -OH
H- C -OH
H- C -OH
C
Ketose - has one carbonyl
group within carbon backbone
H- C-OH
H- C -OH
C O
H- C-OH
H- C -OH
H- C -OH
H
ribulose
3. Chirality (handedness) i.e. arrangement of the hydroxyl
groups
H
C
H-C -OH
HO-C -H
H- C -OH
H- C -OH
H- C -OH
H
C
H-C -OH
HO-C -H
HO-C -H
H- C -OH
H- C -OH
H
glucose
isomers
galactose
C
H-C -OH
HO-C -H
H-C -OH
H- C -OH
C -H2OH
D-glucose
C
HO-C -H
H- C -OH
HO- C -H
HO-C -H
C -H2OH
L-glucose
These isomers are mirror images (enantiomers)
D-Allose
D-Gulose
D-Altrose
D-Idose
D-Glucose
D-Galactose
D-Mannose
D-Talose
Different D-glucose isomers vary in position of the hydroxyl group
Monosaccarides are joined together by glycosidic linkage
-this is a dehydration reaction
- D-glucose
- D-glucose
H2O
This bond has formed
between carbon #1 on one
molecule and carbon #4 on
the other
This is a 1,4 glycosidic
linkage
maltose
This is a disaccharide
linkages depend on the carbon molecule and the anomer ( / )
-1,4 linkage
POLYSACCARIDES are made up of different
combinations of monomer and linkages
e.g. Glycogen a carbon storage molecule,
is highly branched
Lipids
Lipids
- diverse range of biomolecules e.g. steroids, phospholipids , fats
- characteristically dont mix well with water they are nonpolar
& hydrophobic
- built from fatty acids
Fatty acids
-Long hydrocarbon chain ending in carboxyl group
- mostly even number of carbons
- mainly differ by length of chain and presence/absence of double
bonds between carbons saturated or unsaturated
Saturated fatty acids all positions on backbone occupied by H atoms
Unsaturated fatty acids one or more double bonds between
carbons in backbone
Acid Name
Structure
Melting
Point
Saturated Fatty Acids
Lauric
CH3(CH2)10COOH
+44
Palmitic
CH3(CH2)14COOH
+63
Stearic
CH3(CH2)16COOH
+70
solid at
room temp
(25oC)
Higher melting
temp
Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Oleic
CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH
+16
Linoleic
CH3(CH2)4(CH=CHCH2)2(CH2)6COOH
-5
Linolenic
CH3CH2(CH=CHCH2)3(CH2)6COOH
-11
Arachidonic
CH3(CH2)4(CH=CHCH2)4(CH2)2COOH
-50
liquid at
room temp
(25oC)
lower melting
temp
Why?
Saturated fats are straighter stack together tightly -> stronger
intermolecular forces > higher melting temp
Unsaturated fats have bends > interact more loosely > weaker
intermolecular forces > lower melting temperatures
Fats - Triglycerides
- neutral fat
- most abundant storage form of fat in plants & animals
- most important dietary lipid
- a molecule of glycerol in which each of the three carbons is
linked through an ester bond to a fatty acid
Properties of the triglyceride e.g.
melting temp depend on the type of
fatty acids (saturated/unsaturated) etc
Solid at RT due to % saturated FA
Liquid at RT due to higher %
unsaturated FA
Phospholipids
-have a hydrophilic (likes water) head and a hydrophobic
(doesnt like water) tail
Glycerol & phosphate - hydrophilic
choline
2 fatty acid chains
- hydrophobic
- vary in length
phosphate
glycerol
Fatty acid chains
phosphatidylcholine
- form structures that allow the hydrophobic tails to stay together
and present the polar head to the aqueous environment
e.g. mycelles
bilayers
e.g. lipid vesicles
e.g. lipid membranes
The fluidity of membranes at particular temperatures is
affected by the amount of unsaturated fatty acid
Less fluid
More fluid
Steroids
- class of lipid
- the ring structure: three cyclohexanes; one cyclopentane
- a range of different functional groups can be attached
- examples include cholesterol, sex hormones, cortisone