Slope Stability Analysis
and Stabilization
New Methods and lnsight
Second Edition
Contents
Preface
1 Introduction
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
2.2
Overview 1
Background 2
Closed-form solutions 3
Engineering judgement 4
Ground mode/ 5
Status quo 5
Ground investigation 8
Design parameters 9
Groundwatet tegime 9
Design methodology 9
Case histories 10
2 Basic slope stability analysis methods
2.1
Xl
17
Introduction 17
2.1.1
Types of stability analyses 17
2.1.2 Defnition of the factor of safety 17
Slope stability analysis: limit equilibrium method 20
2.2.1
Limit equilibrium formulation of
slope stability analysis methods 23
[Link]
Force equilibrium 25
[Link] Moment equilibrium equation 27
2.2.2 Interslice force function 28
2.2.3 Reduction to various methods and discussion 30
2.2.4 Solution of non-linear factor of safety equation 35
2.2.5 Examples of slope stability analysis 38
v
vi
Conre nts
2.3
M iscellaneous considerations o n slope stability analysis 41
Acceptability of the failure surfaces
and resufts of the analysis 41
2.3.2 Tension crack 42
2.3.3 Earthqualw 42
2.3.4 Water 43
2.3.5 Saturated density of soil 45
2.3.6 Mom ent point 45
2.3.7 Use of soilnail/reinforcement 4 6
Advantages o( soilnailing 46
[Link]
2.3.8 Failure to converge 50
2.3.9 Location o( the criticai (aih1re surface 51
2.3.10 Three-dimensional analysis 51
Limit analysis method 52
Lower bound approach 53
2.4.1
2.4.2 Upper bound approach 54
Rigid element m ethod 58
2.5.1 Displacements o( the rigid elements 59
2.5.2 Contact stresses between rigid elem ents 61
2.5.3 Principle o( virtual work 62
2.5.4 Governing equations 64
2.5.5 Genera/ procedure of REM computation 65
Relation between the R EM and the slice-based approach 65
Uses o( design fgures and tables (or simple problems 70
Finite element method 72
Distinct element method 78
2.9.1 Force displacement law and the law of motion 82
2.9.2 Limitations o( the distinct element method 83
2.9.3 Case studies (or slope stability analysis using PFC 84
2.9.4 Three-dimensional mode/ and distinct
element studies of a slope under a patch load 89
[Link]
Laboratory test on a mode/ slope 90
2.9.4. 2 Three-dimen sional distin ct numerica/
modelling of slope under /oca/ surcharge 93
2.3. 1
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3 Location of criticai failure surface, convergence and
advanced formu lations
3.1
3.2
Difficulties in locating the criticai (ailure sur(ace 99
Generation o( trial failure sur(ace 103
99
C ontents
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
Global OfJtimization methods 108
3.3.1 Simulated annealing algorithm 108
3.3 .2 Genetic algorithms 109
3.3.3 Particle swarm optimization algorithm 11 2
3.3.4 Simple harmony search algorithm 114
3.3.5 Modified harmony search algorithm 118
3.3.6 Tabu search algorithm 120
3.3.7 Ant colony algorithm 121
3.3.8 Hybrid optimization algorithm 124
Verification of the global minimization algorithms 128
Presence of Dirac function 131
Numerica! studies of the efficiency and
effectiveness of various optimization algorithms 132
Sensitivity of global optimization parameters in the
performance of the global optimization methods 140
Convexity of critica! failure surface 145
Latera! earth pressure determination
(rom slope stability analysis 146
Convergence problem due to iterative solution of FOS 148
3.10.1 Parametric study of convergence 153
3.10.2 Combined impact of optimization
and double QR analysis 158
3.10.3 Reasons (or failure to converge 159
Importance o( the methods of analysis 162
Solution o( the inter-slice force function
and fundamental investigation into
the problem o( convergence .163
3.12.1 Determination o( bounds on FOS and ({x) 165
3.12.2 Numerica! studies and comparisons
with classica/ methods of analysis 168
3.12.3 Study of convergence by varying {(x) 171
3.12.4 Validation of maximum extremum principle 175
Variable FOS formulation in LEM 177
3.13.1 Basic formulation for variable FOS formulation 178
3.13.2 Analysis of variable FOS approach 184
3.13.3 Discussion on variable FOS approach 185
Use of internallexternal variables in slope
stability analysis and relation of slope stability
problem to other geotechnical problems 187
vii
viii
Concencs
3.14.1 Basic methods in (o rmulation 187
3.14.2 lnter-slice force function ((x) and thrust
line (or horizontal slope problem 190
3 ..14.3 Boundary forces in LEA1 202
3 ..14.4 Lower bound solution and the maximum
extremum {rom limit equilibrium analysis 203
4 Finite-element methods for slope stability analysis and
comparisons with limit equilibrium analysis
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
Comparisons between SRM and LEM 209
Stability analysis (or a simple and homogeneous
soil slope using LEM and SRM 210
Stability analysis of a slope with a soft band 217
Local minimum in LEM 224
Effect of water on slope stability analysis 227
Soil nailed slopes by SRM and LEM 229
4.6.1 Distribution of the nail tension force
and the critica! slip surface by SRM 235
Stabilization o( slope with piles using SRM 239
Discussion and conclusion 251
5 Three-dimensional slope stability analysis
5.1
5.2
209
255
Limitations o( the classica! threedimensionallimit equilibrium methods 255
New formulation for 3D slope stability
analysis in Bishop> ]anbu and MorgensternPrice methods by Cheng and Yip 259
5.2.1
Basic formulation with consideration of
sliding direction 259
5.2.2
Reduction to 3D Bishop and ]anbu
simplified methods 267
5.2.3 Numerica! implementation o(
Bishop, ]anbu and MP methods 269
5.2.4 Numerica! examples and verification 270
5.2.5 Comparison between Huang's method and the
present methods (or transverse earthquake load 274
5.2.6 Relation o( proposed 3D slope stability
method with classica/3D methods 278
5.2. 7 Problem of cross-section forcelmoment
equilibrium for MP method 278
Contents
ix
5.2.8
5.2.9
5.3
Discussion 011 -'">' (or M P a11alysis 284
Discussion 011 3D limit equilibrium
stahility (onnulatio11 284
Three-dimensionallimit analysis 286
5.3.1
Three -dimensional hearing capacity
problem with an inclined slope 290
5.3.1 .1 Failure mechanism o( the
patched load acting on the top
su-rface o( a slope (D= O m) 291
5.3 .1.2
Work dane rate produced
along load length L 291
5.3 .1.3
Work done rate produced at the two
end-failure zones of the footing 295
[Link] Determining the value
of the safety factor 299
[Link]
Failure mechanism of the patched load
acting at an embedded depth {rom
the top surface of slope (D> O m) 300
[Link]
Work done rate produced
along footing length L 300
[Link]
Work done rate produced at two
end failures of the bured load 302
Comparson of Cheng's method
with other analytical solutions 304
Location of generai criticai
non-spherical 3D failure surface 309
5.4.1 Three-dimensional NVRBS surfaces 310
5.4.2 Spherical and ellipsoidal surface 313
5.4.3 Selection of sliding surfaces 314
5.4.4 Optimization analysis ofNVRBS surface 316
Case studies in 3D limit equlibrium
global optimization analysis 316
Effect of curvature on FOS 323
Three-dimensional SRM analysis 325
[Link]
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
6 Implementation
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
lntroduction 333
FRP nail 335
Dminage 339
Construction difficulties 340
333
Contents
7 Routine assessment of feature and design of landslip
preventive measures
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7..1O
7.1 1
7.12
7.13
7.14
7.15
7.16
7.17
7.18
7.19
lntroduction 341
Geotechnical assessment 342
Desk study 342
Aerial photograph interpretation and ground-truthing 343
Gl and feld testing 344
Laboratory testing 345
Man-made features 345
Rainfall records 345
Groundwater regime 346
Stability assessment o( the existing feature 34 7
Design o( landslip preventive works 348
7.11 .1 Design options (or masonry retaining walls 348
7.11.2 Design options (or fll slopes 349
7.11.3 Design options (or cut slopes 351
Soil nailing 351
Soil nailing in loose fll 354
Surfaceand sub-soil drainage 355
Surface erosion contro/ and landscaping 356
Site supervision during implementation 357
Corrosiveness assessment 357
Precautionary measures and other considerations 358
Long-term maintenance 358
8 Numerical implementation of slope stability
analysis methods
8.1
8.2
8.3
341
359
Numerica/ procedures (or simplifed
limit equilibrium methods 359
Numerica! procedures for "rigorous"
limit equilibrium methods 368
8.2.1
Spence1 and Morgenstern-Price method 368
8.2.2 ]anbu rigorous method 372
8.2.3
Sarma method 375
Three-dimensional analysis 381
Appendix
References
lndex
387
399
415