Question 1

Definition of soil
In general, soil is defined as a layer of natural materials on the earths surface
containing both organic and inorganic materials and capable of supporting plant
life. The material covers the earths surface in a thin layer. It may be covered by
water, or it may be exposed to the atmosphere.

Soil description

Soil contains four main components: inorganic material, organic matter,

water, and air. Ideal soil should contain about 50% solid material and 50%
pore space. About half of the pore space should contain water and half of
the space should contain air.

Inorganic material consists of rock slowly broken down into small particles.
The organic material is made up of dead plants and animals varying in
stages of decay.

The percentages of the four main soil components varies depending on

the kind of vegetation, amount of mechanical compaction, and the amount
of soil water present.

Soil is formed very slowly.

It results from natural forces acting on the mineral and rock portions of the
earths surface.

The rock is slowly broken down to small particles resulting in soil.

Soil characteristics Properties of soil

TEXTURE
Texture can be measured by the behaviour of a small handful of soil when it is
moistened with water, worked into a ball and then pressed out between thumb
and forefinger. It is used as a guide to the proportions of gravel, coarse sand, fine
sand, silt and clay in the soil. Texture is important, because it affects the
movement and availability of water and nutrients in the soil.
STRUCTURE
Soil structure refers to the arrangement of sand, silt and clay particles and
organic matter, and the spaces between them. Individual soil particles and
organic matter usually stick together to form aggregates (similar to a clod),
leaving air spaces or pores between the aggregates. It is rare for soil particles to
exist as single units in the soil (except in sands). Therefore, the soil generally
consists of many distinct soil aggregates. The size and shape of the aggregates

vary (Figure A33). The arrangement and size of the aggregates, along with the
pores or spaces between the aggregates, is known as structure. A well-structured
soil, as well as having many small aggregates, has ample space within and
between the aggregates to allow good penetration of water, air and plant roots
(transmission pores). It also has adequate small pores to store water for use by
plants (water storage pores). (See Figure A34.)
Individual soil aggregates may have differing shapes. Some aggregate shapes
indicate better soil structure from a plant-growth point of view. Platy structure is
likely to restrict air and water movement and thus reduce plant growth. Crumbtype aggregates allow good plant growth because there is good water and air
movement. Soils with a crumb structure allow good root growth for vegetables,
as the soil is less compact than other structure types. Blocky structure is also
generally favourable to plant growth.
SLAKING
When water is applied to most soils, the aggregates within the soil tend to melt,
or break down. This process results in the original soil clod disintegrating into
very small fragments often referred to as microaggregates. The process of
slaking is common in most soils. It results in problems such as crusting and
hardsetting, particularly in soils with loamy surfaces, such as the red brown
earths.
Soils that are low in organic matter are likely to slake excessively. In cracking
clays, slaking leads to self-mulching, which is desirable.
DISPERSION
Dispersion is the process following slaking in which soil microaggregates further
break down into their component particles (sand, silt and clay) on the application
of water. Clay dispersion is mainly caused by high levels of sodicity, that is, high
amounts of exchangeable sodium in the clay fraction of the soil, and low levels of
soluble salts. Dispersion increases when organic matter levels are low.
Additionally, if soils are worked when they are too wet there will be increased
dispersion.
Gypsum is often applied to sodic clay soils. Gypsum is a type of salt containing
calcium. It acts by increasing the level of soluble salts and replacing sodium with
calcium. The combination of these two factors reduces swelling and prevents
dispersion, therefore helping to maintain soil structure (Figure A35). Organic
matter that helps to bond soil particles together can help reduce dispersion.
INFILTRATION AND PERMEABILITY
Infiltration refers to the entry of water into the soil. A soil with low infiltration is
one into which water does not enter very quickly; a shallow wetted zone may
result.
Permeability is the soil characteristic that governs the rate of air and water
movement. The permeability and the infiltration rate are influenced by the size
and distribution of pores in the soil. The more large pores in the soil, the higher
its permeability and infiltration. Soils with low permeability are not suited to
vegetable growing, since the movement of water through the soil profile is low.

This is because water entry is restricted, resulting in low water storage at each
irrigation. Waterlogging is also likely on these soils, because they have poor
internal drainage. Low permeability is often associated with poorly structured
soils, usually due to slaking and dispersion.
ORGANIC MATTER
Organic matter in soils consists of all living and dead plant and animal matter.
Organic matter includes seeds, leaves, roots, earthworms and manure, as well as
bacteria, fungi and humus.
Soil structure is highly dependent on organic matter content, particularly in
loamy and sandy textured soils. The higher the organic matter, the better the
soil structure tends to be. Organic matter tends to be concentrated in the upper
part of the topsoil, since this is where plant production takes place. Decayed
plant material becomes a dark material called humus. Humus is responsible for
the darker colour of topsoil in many soils.
PH
Soil pH is a measure of how acid or alkaline the soil is (Figure A36). The
standard method of measuring soil pH in the laboratory is with a suspension
made from air-dried soil mixed with five times its weight of dilute solution (0.01
M) of calcium chloride (CaCl2). The result is designated the pH (CaCl2).
Distilled water is sometimes used in place of calcium chloride, in which case
results are reported as pH (water). Values for pH (CaCl2) are about 0.5 to 0.8
lower than for pH (water).

ACIDITY
All soils below pH 7 are acid. However the growth and yield of most plants are
unaffected until the pH (CaCl2) reaches about 5. As the pH level drops below 5
and soil acidity increases, plant growth and yield decline. Yields can be affected
directly by acidity, or indirectly by a change in the availability of some important
nutrients. For example, as the pH decreases below 6, the availability of
phosphorus and sulphur may decrease. At the same time, aluminium and
manganese become more available and may cause yield reductions through
aluminium and manganese toxicity. At pH levels above 7 other elements such as
zinc may become deficient.
Many soils are naturally acid, but agricultural practices have contributed to the
increasing acidification of many neutral to slightly acid soils. These practices
include:
use of some ammonium fertilisers, particularly ammonium sulfate
the production of legumes that fix nitrogen, if that nitrogen is
leached, rather than being taken up by plants
the removal of nutrients in the form of produce.
BULK DENSITY

Bulk density is defined as the mass of oven-dried soil per unit

volume of soil. Soils with high bulk density have a smaller volume of
pore spaces. Very high bulk density is therefore undesirable for plant
growth, since infiltration, aeration (supply of air to roots) and root
development are likely to be below optimum.
Bulk density is measured in megagrams (Mg) per cubic metre. Bulk
density values are typically < 1.0 for topsoils high in organic matter, 1.0
to 1.4 for well-aggregated loamy soils, and 1.2 to 2.0 for sands and
compacted subsoil horizons in clay soils. For example, on the Riverina
soils, bulk densities range from 1.2 to 1.4 in well-structured clay soils,
to 1.4 to 1.8 in the sandy loam soils.
Soil layers with a high bulk density are often very hard when dry.
The pale, bleached layer just under the surface in some sandy loam
soils is an example of a soil horizon with a high bulk density.
Compacted soil layers have a high bulk density