2.
1 Special Surfaces for Exchange
All animals need to maintain a supply of the materials they need, such as nutrients and oxygen, and for the removal of waste
products. These needs can be satisfied by simple diffusion for a unicellular organism. However, for a multicellular organism,
diffusion cannot be relied upon. This is because the diffusion path for larger organisms is too great. Therefore, specialist
surfaces for exchange and transport systems are needed
As the size of an animal increases, its surface-area-tovolume ratio (SA:Vol) decreases: this is because surface
area increases more slowly than volume with size
A good surface for exchange should have a large surface
area to provide more space for molecules to pass
through (this is often achieved from folding walls and
membranes). It should also have a thin barrier to reduce
the diffusion path; a fresh supply of molecules on one
side of the barrier to keep the concentration gradient;
and a removal system on the other side
1cm
2cm
2
SA: 6cm
3
Vol: 1cm
SA:Vol = 6
3cm
2
SA: 24cm
3
Vol: 8cm
SA:Vol = 3
SA: 54cm
3
Vol: 27cm
SA:Vol = 2
2.2 Exchange in the Lungs
The mammalian respiratory system consists of the airways and the lungs. Air is breathed in through the nose, and travels along
the breathing tubes: the trachea, the bronchi and bronchioles, ending up in the alveoli (air sacs). These air sacs are
vascularised (rich blood supply) and plentiful, and are made of squamous epithelia
The lungs are covered by pleural membranes which secrete a lubricating fluid, allowing the lungs to inflate and deflate without
rubbing against the walls of the ribs protecting them. There are intercostal muscles between the ribs: external intercostal
muscles contract to raise the ribcage, internal ones to lower it. The muscular diaphragm separates the lungs from the
abdomen. It is usually dome-shaped but flattens when it contracts
The trachea and bronchi are internally lined with ciliated epithelia. The cilia waft
rhythmically. The goblet cells produce mucus containing the digestive enzyme lysozyme.
There are C-shaped bands of cartilage which is strong and flexible, helping to hold the
airways open during inhalation. Inside the cartilage is loose tissue made of smooth
muscle, elastic fibres and other tissue types. The smooth muscle involuntarily contracts to
constrict the airway, restricting air flow to the alveoli. When the muscle relaxes, it cannot
reshape the original tubing, which is the function of the elastic fibres
Blood brings carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs, ensuring that the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood is higher
than that in the air of the alveoli. It then carries oxygen away from the lungs, and vice versa. The mammalian heart pumps
blood from the pulmonary artery to the lungs, where it divides into smaller blood vessels, and into a tiny network of capillaries,
only just wide enough to squeeze one erythrocyte through. These capillaries lie just over the surface of the alveoli, maintaining
a short diffusion path
When a human breathes in (inspiration), the diaphragm contracts, pushing digestive organs down; external intercostal muscles
contract to raise ribs; the volume of the chest cavity increases, and air moves into the lungs
When a human breathes out (expiration), the diaphragm relaxes and is pushed up by displaced organs underneath; external
intercostal muscles relax and the ribs fall; the volume of the chest cavity decreases as air rushes out of the lungs
2.3 Measuring Lung Capacity
A device called a spirometer consists of a chamber filled with oxygen which floats on a tank of water. A person breathes from a
mouthpiece attached to a tube connected to the chamber. Breathing in takes oxygen away from the chamber, which then sinks
down, and breathing in causes it to float back up
6
Expiratory
reserve
volume
Tidal volume
4
Volume/dm
Vital
capacity
Total
lung
capacity
Inspiratory
reserve
volume
Residual
volume
Time
Tidal volume: the volume of air moved in and out of the lungs with each breath at rest
Vital capacity: the largest amount of air that can be moved in and out of the lungs with one deep breath
Residual volume: the volume of air remaining in the lungs after the biggest possible exhalation
Inspiratory reserve volume: how much more air can be breathed in over and above the normal tidal volume
Expiratory reserve volume: how much more air can be breathed out above the tidal volume
The term dead space refers to the amount of air in the bronchioles, bronchi and trachea
A spirometer trace can be used to calculate breathing rate by counting the number of peaks or troughs on the trace over a
period of time, as each one represents another breath since the last. You can also work out pulmonary ventilation, the total air
breathed per minute. This is done using tidal volume x breathing rate
2.4 Circulatory Systems
An effective transport system is composed of three elements: the medium to transport the nutrients and oxygen around the
body (blood); a pump to push the fluid around the body (heart); and exchange surfaces that enable oxygen and other
substances to enter and leave the blood where they are needed to. The mammalian transport system has blood vessels
tubes to transport the blood in
Heart
Gills
Body
Fish are organisms with a single circulatory system. The
blood flows from the heart to the gills, then through the
body to the tissues it needs to go to, and then back to the
heart
Body
Heart
Lungs
Mammals have a circulation using two separate circuits: a double circulatory system. One, the
pulmonary circuit, carries blood to the lungs and back; the other, the systemic circuit, takes it to
the tissues its needed around the body. The heart has adapted to form two pumps, one for each
Advantages of the double circulation system include maintaining blood at a higher pressure in the
systemic circuit (so it is delivered more quickly); and a slightly lower pressure can be maintained in
the pulmonary circuit, preventing the capillaries laying over the alveoli from bursting
In mammals, blood is never released into the body cavity, so we also have a closed circulatory
system. However, there are many animals, like insects, which have an open circulatory system:
this means that the blood isnt held within vessels always, but is instead free to circulate the body
cavity, so all cells, tissues and organs are constantly bathed in blood
Blood flows through a series of vessels as its pumped around the body
Lumen
Endothelium
Lumen
Elastic fibres
Endothelium
Smooth muscle
Collagen fibres
Arteries carry blood away from the
heart. They have a small lumen,
maintaining a high internal pressure;
thick walls containing collagen to give
it strength; elastic tissue which can
stretch and recoil back into shape
when the heart pumps; and smooth
muscle to contract, narrowing the
size of the lumen. The endothelium is
folded, and unfolds when the vessel
stretches
Veins carry blood back to the heart.
The blood is at a low pressure, so the
walls are not as thick and have less
collagen fibres, elastic tissue and
smooth muscle, and also a wider lumen
to ease the flow of blood. Veins contain
valves to prevent the backflow of blood
in the opposite direction. Movement of
blood in the veins is enabled by the
contraction of surrounding muscles,
e.g. in the legs, going against gravity
Capillaries have very thin walls, one
cell thick, making a short diffusion
pathway. The walls consist of
squamous epithelia with small gaps
called fenestrations. The blood cells
are pushed right against the vessel
walls. There is no muscle or elastic
fibres present. These vessels come
as many to spread the high
pressures, so it is not a huge
problem is one bursts in an area
2.5 Blood and Tissue Fluid
Blood contains blood cells in plasma (a watery fluid containing many dissolved substances, including oxygen and carbon
dioxide). The blood cells include red blood cells (erythrocytes), various white blood cells (leucocytes) and platelets
Tissue fluid is like blood, but doesnt contain most of the cells, nor plasma proteins which are found in blood plasma. Tissue
fluid transports oxygen from the blood to the cells, and carbon dioxide from those cells back to the blood
The site of action is at the capillaries. At the arteriole end, the blood is under high pressure from the contraction of cardiac
muscle this is hydrostatic pressure. This fluid tends to push blood fluid out of capillaries, through the fenestrations in the
capillary walls. The fluid leaving the blood consists of plasma with dissolved nutrients and oxygen. Red blood cells and most
white blood cells are too large for the fenestrations and so stay behind. The resultant fluid is tissue fluid
This fluid surrounds body cells, so that gaseous exchange and nutrients exchange can occur across the cell plasma membranes.
This exchange occurs via diffusion and facilitated diffusion
The hydrostatic pressure of the blood is not the only force acting on
the fluid. The tissue fluid itself has some hydrostatic pressure which
will push the fluid back into the capillaries. Both the blood and tissue
fluid contain solutes, so they have a negative water potential. The
water potential of tissue fluid is less negative than that of blood, this
means that water tends to move back into the blood via osmosis
Whilst much tissue fluid returns to the capillary, some is drained
away to the lymphatic system. This is a number of vessels like
capillaries that drain the excess fluid into larger vessels and
eventually rejoin the blood system
Lymph fluid is similar to tissue fluid and contains the same solutes,
but less oxygen and fewer nutrients, as these have been absorbed by
body cells. There will be more carbon dioxide and wastes from body
cells in lymph too. But the main difference is that lymph contains
lymphocytes produced in lymph nodes. Lymph nodes are swellings in
the lymphatic system which filter bacteria from the fluid;
lymphocytes engulf and destroy these particles
Artery
Tissue fluid
surrounding cells
Body cells
Lymphatic
system
Plasma forces
out of capillary
to become
tissue fluid
Excess tissue
fluid drains
into lymphatic
system
Capillary
Tissue fluid returns
to capillary
Vein
2.6 The Mammalian Heart
The mammalian heart is a muscular double pump. The right side pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs to be oxygenated;
the left pumps blood around the body. The heart is made of thick cardiac muscle. There are four chambers: the main two
pumping chambers are the ventricles, and the two chambers above them are the atria. Coronary arteries lay over the heart
which supply the heart itself with a fresh oxygen supply
aorta
Deoxygenated blood flows from the vena
cava into the right atrium. Oxygenation
blood flows from the lungs to the
pulmonary vein into the left atrium
pulmonary
artery
vena cava
pulmonary
vein
semilunar
valve
left atrium
right
atrium
right
atrioventricular
valve
right
ventricle
tendinous
cords
papillary
muscle
semilunar
valve
left
atrioventricular
valve
left
ventricle
ventricular
septum
The blood flows from the atria through
the atrioventricular valves and into the
ventricles below. The AV valves are
pocket tissues which fill with blood and
shut when the ventricles contract,
ensuring blood flows upwards into the
arteries, not back into the atria
Inside the ventricles are tendinous cords,
which attach the valves to the wall of the
ventricle, preventing the valves from
turning inside out
The ventricular septum is a wall of
muscle separating the ventricles: this
ensures the oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood on either side of the
heart do not mix
The cardiac muscle of each chamber contracts to create an increased pressure in the blood. The higher the pressure created in
the heart, the further it will push the blood. The atria walls are very thin, because they only need to push the blood into the
ventricles, so there is no need for a high pressure. However, the walls of the ventricles are thicker, they need higher pressures
to push blood further. The left ventricle is thickest, it needs to pump blood all the way around the body, the right ventricle only
needs to pump to the lungs
A further reason for there needing to be a lower pressure in the pulmonary circuit is that if the right ventricle creates a too
high pressure, there is a risk of the capillaries on the alveoli network bursting
Pulmonary circulation
Blood pressure
Systemic circulation
Arteries Arterioles
Capillaries
Venules Veins Arteries Arterioles Capillaries
Venules Veins
2.7 The Cardiac Cycle
The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events in one heartbeat. The pumping of the heart consists of the alternate contractions
(systole) of the chambers and relaxations (diastole)
Atrial systole: Both atria contract.
Blood flows from the atria into the
ventricles. Backflow of blood into
the vein is prevented by closure of
the valves in the veins
Ventricular systole: Both ventricles
contract. The atrio-ventricular valves
are pushed shut by pressurised
blood in the ventricles. Blood flows
from the ventricles into the arteries
Diastole: Atria and ventricles relax.
The semilunar valves have been
pushed shut. Blood flows from the
veins through the atria and into
the ventricles
The graph below shows the pressure changes of the left atrium, left ventricle and aorta in one heartbeat:
Left ventricle
semilunar
valves open
Aorta
Pressure (kPa)
semilunar
valves close
atrioventricular
valves close
Left atrium
Time
atrioventricular
valves open
The first section of the graph represents
atrial systole, the second ventricular systole
and the third diastole
Heart muscle is myogenic, so it naturally
and involuntarily contracts and relaxes and
does not need to receive nerve impulses to
do so. However, signals are used to control
the rate of the contractions
A specialised patch of muscle in the wall of
the right atrium called the sinoatrial node
(SAN) generates a wave of electrical activity.
The wave of excitation spreads through the
walls of the atria, making them contract
this is what causes atrial systole
But at the base of the atria is a disc of tissue which cannot conduct the excitation, so it cannot spread directly to the ventricular
walls. There is a node at the top of the ventricular septum called the atrioventricular node (AVN) which is the only route the
wave can take. There is a slight time delay at this second node, which allows the atria to finish contracting and for blood to fill
the ventricles, then the wave moves from the AVN down special conducting tissue in the septum called Purkyne tissue. When
the wave reaches the apex of the ventricles, it spreads across them, from the bottom upwards, causing them to contract
An electrocardiogram (ECG) is used to record the electrical
activity within the heart. The ECG of a normal patient would be:
R
SAN
Atria
walls
AVN
Purkyne
tissue
Ventricle
walls
P
Q
S
The P wave represents the contraction of the atria walls due to the excitation spreading over them
The QRS complex represents the wave of excitation spreading through the ventricular walls
The T wave represents diastole in the ventricles
2.8 Haemoglobin
Oxygen is transported within red blood cells containing the protein haemoglobin (Hb). Hb consists of four subunits, each
2+
composed of a protein chain and a haem group, containing a single iron ion (Fe ). Each ion can attract and hold one molecule
of oxygen (it has an affinity or attraction to for oxygen), so one Hb molecule can hold four oxygen molecules. Oxygen binds
reversibly with Hb to become oxyhaemoglobin
Mammalian Hb is well-adapted for its function because
the partial pressure of oxygen in the lungs means almost
100% saturation can be achieved, similarly, the pressure
in the respiring tissues is low enough for the Hb to
readily dissociate its oxygen. This curve shown is called
the oxygen dissociation curve
A second line is shown for foetal haemoglobin. A foetus
does not have functioning lungs and so the foetal Hb
must have a higher affinity for oxygen than maternal
haemoglobin. In the placenta, the foetus must absorb
oxygen from the mothers blood, and because foetal Hb
has a higher affinity for oxygen than maternal, the curve
is slightly upwards and to the left, as shown
Percentage saturation with oxygen
Oxygen is absorbed in the lungs and delivered to the rest of the body. Oxyhaemoglobin must be able to release their oxygen to
these respiring body tissues this is called dissociation. The ability for Hb to take up and release oxygen is dependent upon the
amount of oxygen in surrounding tissues the amount of oxygen is measured by its relative pressure it contributes to a
mixture of gases its partial pressure (pO2)
100
At low pressure, Hb will bind less readily with oxygen (it
90
has a low affinity for oxygen at low pressures). However,
Foetal haemoglobin
as the pressure increases, the affinity for oxygen
80
increases, producing the sigmoid curve shown in red on
Maternal haemoglobin
the graph here. The curve eventually levels off because
70
after attracting three oxygen molecules, it becomes hard
60
for Hb to attract the fourth
50
40
30
20
10
0
10
6
8
4
Partial pressure of oxygen (kPa)
12
14
2.9 Carriage of Carbon Dioxide
The respiring tissues release carbon dioxide when they respire, so this has to be removed, either by:
dissolving directly into the blood plasma (only about 5% is removed this way)
combining with haemoglobin to become carbaminohaemoglobin (only about 10% removed this way)
or, it can form hydrogen carbonate ions
Carbon dioxide diffuses into the blood and enters erythrocytes, where it combines with water to form carbonic acid. This
reaction is catalysed by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase
CO2
H2O
H2CO3
The carbonic acid (H2CO3) is unstable, so easily dissociates to release hydrogen ions (protons) and hydrogen carbonate ions.
H2CO3
HCO3
The hydrogen carbonate ions (HCO3 ) diffuse out of the erythrocyte, and because these ions are negative, chloride ions (Cl )
move into the now-positive cell to balance the charges. This process is called the chloride shift. To prevent the hydrogen ions
+
(which are protons) causing the blood to become acidic, the ions are taken up by Hb to produce haemoglobinic acid (HHb )
Oxyhaemoglobin dissociates, releasing oxygen. The hydrogen ions released from the dissociation of carbonic acid above
compete for space on the Hb molecule with oxygen. So when carbon dioxide is present, hydrogen ions displace oxygen
molecules on the Hb. As a result, the higher the potential pressure of CO 2, the more oxygen is released from the
oxyhaemoglobin, because there is a lower affinity for oxygen
100
Where you have heavily respiring tissues, such as the
muscles, there will be more carbon dioxide present.
Therefore, also more hydrogen ions produced in the
red blood cells, making the oxyhaemoglobin release
more oxygen. This called the Bohr effect
Percentage saturation with oxygen
90
80
70
The shift is shown in the graph (the Bohr shift), moved
downwards and to the right. At any oxygen partial
pressure, oxyhaemoglobin releases more oxygen when
the carbon dioxide is of a higher concentration so
when more carbon dioxide is present, Hb is less oxygen
saturated
60
50
40
30
The Bohr effect results in oxygen being more readily
released where more carbon dioxide is produced from
respiration: what muscles need to continue working
20
10
0
10
6
8
4
Partial pressure of oxygen (kPa)
12
14
2.10 Xylem and Phloem
The transport system in plants is made up of vascular tissue: there is xylem tissue which transports water and soluble minerals
upwards, and there is phloem tissue which transports sugars upwards and downwards. The two tissues are found together in
vascular bundles, which might also contain other tissue types
Vascular bundles are arranged differently in different areas of a plant. In the root, the
xylem are arranged in a three, four or five-pointed star or cross (stained green in the
photo). The phloem are arranged in lumps in between each spike of the xylem star
(stained deep red in the photo)
phloem
cambium
small vein
xylem
xylem
central midrib
phloem
In the stem, the vascular bundles are found toward
the outer edge arranged in a ring (see diagram). The
xylem is on the inside, and the phloem on the
outside. They are separated by a layer of cambium,
a layer of meristem cells which divide to produce
more phloem or xylem
In a leaf, the bundles form the midrib and veins. Usually, the patterns
tends to be veins branching away from the midrib, forming a network
which gradually gets smaller and smaller with distance from the
midrib. The xylem can be seen on top of the phloem within each vein
Xylem tissue consists of xylem vessels which transport water and dissolved minerals. Xylem vessels are made of long cells with
thick walls impregnated with lignin which makes the cells waterproof, and kills them, so their contents and end walls
decompose to make a hollow tube of dead cells. The lignin also strengthens the vessel, preventing it from collapsing
Phloem tissue transports sugars around the plant. There are sieve tube elements and companion cells. The sieve tube
elements line up end-to-end to form a tube which will transport the sucrose. Sieve plates allow the contents to be transferred
through cross-walls
2.11 Water Potential
The term water potential () refers to the tendency of water to osmotically diffuse from one place to another. Water
molecules always move from areas of high water potential to areas of low water potential. Pure water has a of zero (this is
the highest possible as the scale for the measure is negative). It is measure in kilopascals (kPa)
Cell cytoplasm
= -500kPa
Water enters the cell
down the water
potential gradient
Pure water
= 0kPa
The water potential of the cell is negative, but the
pure water surrounding it is zero (the highest possible
water potential), so water molecules move into the cell
The cell on the left has a higher water potential
because its value is less negative, so water molecules
move from it into the cell on the right which has a
lower water potential (it has a higher negative value)
= -600kPa
= -1400kPa
In a plant cell, the cytoplasm contains sugars and other
solutes, reducing its , so all plant cells have a negative
lower than zero
When you place a plant cell in pure water, it will take up water
molecules by osmosis, due to the lower inside the cell. But it
will not continue absorbing water until it bursts, as it has a
strong cellulose cell wall. It becomes turgid, and the water
starts to exert pressure on the cell wall. This pressure is known
as pressure potential (also symbolised as ). As this pressure
builds up, the intake of water via osmosis slows down
When you place a plant cell in a concentrated solution, which
will have a very low , it will lose water by osmosis. Water
molecules will move out of the cell and into the solution
because of the concentration gradient. The cytoplasm and
vacuole will begin to shrink and shrivel up. Eventually, the
cytoplasm stops pushing against the cell wall. If the water loss
continues, the plasma membrane loses contact with the cell
wall this is called plasmolysis
2.12 Water Uptake and Movement Up the Stem
There are three different ways which water can travel between cells:
The vacuolar pathway (A) involves travelling through the cytoplasm and vacuole of each
cell [cell wall cytoplasm vacuole cytoplasm cell wall cytoplasm]
The symplast pathway (B) involves travelling only through the cytoplasm of the cells, not
the vacuoles [cell wall cytoplasm cell wall cytoplasm cell wall]
The apoplast pathway (C) involves travelling straight through the water-filled spaces
between the different cell walls [cell wall cell wall cell wall]
For pathways A and B, there are strands of cytoplasm which connect different cells to each
other called plasmodesmata, which enable the water molecules to travel between cells via
just the cytoplasm
Although the C pathway means the water does not travel through the cytoplasm of cells,
the pathway forces it to travel through the cytoplasm at the endodermis, because the
endodermal cells have a waterproof layer formed from the substance suberin, called the
Casparian strip.
A
Water enters the root hair cell via osmosis. The water potential of root hair cells is lower than their surrounding water, the
water can then move across the root via osmosis, to the endodermis, via osmosis. The endodermal cells pump the minerals
into the xylem via active transport. This lowers the water potential in the xylem, causing water to follow into the xylem by
osmosis. The water is then pulled up by the transpiration pull generated by water up the top of the xylem leaving
4 Osmosis moves the water
across the leaf cells
5 Evaporation of water
from cell surfaces
3- Water transported
up the xylem due to
transpirational pull
1 - Water osmotically
transported (and minerals
by active transport) into
the root hair cells and
through adjacent cells
6 Diffusion of the
water vapour out of the
leaf (transpiration)
2 - Water enters the xylem to
replace lost water (water potential
lowered as other water molecules
leave the xylem)
The endodermis is a layer of cells which surrounds the xylem. Many of them have a waterproof layer in their cell wall
appearing in bands, the Casparian strip. This blocks the apoplast pathway, forcing water to take the symplast pathway
The purpose of the Casparian strip is to ensure that the water carrying salts and dissolved minerals has to travel through the
plasma membranes into the cytoplasm (to allow this there are transport proteins). This decreases the water potential of the
xylem, encouraging water to load onto the xylem due to the increase in water potential gradient
Movement up the stem is caused by the transpiration pull, but also root pressure (the endodermal action described above)
and capillary action (forces of cohesion and adhesion pulling water molecules up the side of the transport vessels)
2.13 Transpiration
Transpiration is an inevitable consequence of photosynthesis. This is because the stomata are opened during photosynthesis
for gaseous exchange, allowing water vapour to be lost from the leaves.
xylem
mesophyll cells
Transpiration can be summed up in three main processes:
osmosis from the xylem vessels to the mesophyll cells (
)
evaporation from the surface of the mesophyll cells into intercellular air spaces (
diffusion of water vapour through the stomata (
)
As water is lost by transpiration, more water is pulled up through the roots and transported around the plant. This constant
cyclic movement of water is called the transpirational stream. This can be measured using a potometer, although it does not
measure transpiration, it measures water uptake which is roughly the same amount
A xerophyte is a plant which has adapted specifically to reduce the loss of water vapour from transpiration. This is usually
because xerophytic plants live in harsh conditions. Adaptations include:
they have smaller leaves, often even like needles, reducing surface area so less water is lost through transpiration
densely packed spongy mesophyll reduces the air spaces, so transpiration happens at a slower rate
some are able to close the stomata when water availability is low
many have hairs on the surface of their leaves to trap a layer of air close to the surface: this air becomes saturated with
moisture and will reduce the water potential gradient from inside the leaf/outside, therefore reducing transpiration rate
rolling the leaves so that the lower epidermis is not exposed to the atmosphere can trap air that becomes saturated
cacti and other succulents have specialised water-storing facilities
there may be either very long roots to increase water uptake or very short roots to exploit overnight moisture
2.14 Translocation
Translocation is the process of the movement of assimilates (sugars and other substances) in the phloem transport tissue.
Sugars are transported in the form of sucrose, from areas where it is produced (sources) to areas it is needed (sinks). Regions
which produce sugars will be photosynthetic parts of the plant, sinks will not be, but will need them to respire
The following descriptions relate to the diagram on the next page:
The leaf is the source. The sucrose molecules are moving from the leaf into the phloem by active transport (this is
because they are moving from a low-to-high concentration); and as the sugar content of the sap (phloem contents)
increases, its water potential decreases, so water moves into the phloem from the xylem by osmosis
As water moves into the phloem, the turgor pressure of the phloem increases, and this pushes the contents of the
phloem vessel down the sieve elements
The contents of the phloem move down to the sink (in this case, a bud) where the sucrose is needed, and there is a low
concentration of sucrose molecules on the sinks side of the phloem tube
The sucrose molecules move into the sink by diffusion (it would have to be facilitated diffusion, because the molecules
are very big and are polar charged so would need specific transport proteins). This will increase the water potential of
the phloem, and therefore it is usually the case that water molecules will return to the xylem
leaf
(source)
phloem
xylem
sucrose
molecule
bud
(sink)
The following diagram shows how sucrose is loaded into the phloem tube:
Sieve
element
of sieve
tube
Companion
cell
H
+
sucrose
sucrose
Sieve plate
between
neighbouring
elements
Neighbouring
cell
(e.g. spongy
Hydrogen
mesophyll)
ion pump
protein in
H
membran
+
e
Co-transporter
protein in
membrane
sucrose
1 Hydrogen ions are actively pumped out of the companion cell,
via a transport protein in the membrane
2 The ions diffuse back into the companion cell via co-transport
proteins (carrying sucrose with them) this is facilitated
diffusion
3 Sucrose moves from a high concentration in the companion
cell to low concentration in the sieve tube element by diffusion
(mainly through the plasmodesmata)
Co-transport is a process of transport of molecules where two
substances are attached together, so they can diffuse at the
same time. Sucrose is a good example of a molecule which cotransports alongside the hydrogen ions as above. It uses
transport proteins, because the two molecules together are too
large for simple diffusion, and are both polar, therefore it is a
form of facilitated diffusion. It uses no energy so is a passive
process