9/20/2015

EAPS 100 Planet Earth

Professor L. Braile
2271 HAMP (CIVL), braile@[Link]

EAPS 100 Planet Earth

Professor L. Braile
2271 HAMP (CIVL), braile@[Link]
Textbook: Foundations of Earth Science
Lutgens and Tarbuck
7th Edition, 2014

Welcome to Planet Earth

EAPS 10000 001, 3 credits, Tu/Th
1:30 2:45, EE 129, CRN 17524

EAPS 100 Planet Earth

Prof. L. Braile
2271 HAMP (CIVL), braile@[Link]
Format: Lecture (PowerPoint,
Slides, Videotapes, Quizzes
and In-class activities)
Reading in Textbook
3 one-hour exams
Homework
Handouts today: Course outline
7th Edition, 2014
/syllabus, Blank sheet of paper.

How do points predict final grade?

Course Topics:
Introduction (fundamentals,
skills, review)
Earth Science (Geology)
Oceanography
Atmospheric Science (Meteorology)
Astronomy (Earths place in solar system and
universe)

EAPS 100 Planet Earth, Requirements:

1) Lectures and Reading in Text
(Attendance)
2) Exams (One hour, covering previous ~5 weeks of material,
skills, review)
th
~20%
Midterm (6 week)
th
Midterm (12 week)
~20%
Final (Final Exam week)
~20%
3) Quizzes and In-class activities
(8-10 unannounced)
~10-15%
4) Homework (6-7)
~25-30%

Total points for semester ~525

There is also an online EAPS 100 course, so in any email
message, please identify yourself as being in the lecture,
T/Th or 001 EAPS 100 course.

How do points predict final grade?

One Students
scores
Pre-Test score is
not a good
predictor.
r = correlation coefficient
(1.0 = perfect correlation)

As expected, Exam
score is a better
predictor, but r is
still fairly low.

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How do points predict final grade?

L. Braile Home Page:

[Link]

EAS 100 Home Page:

[Link]
Or, just do a search for braile

r = 0.86
The high correlation coefficient means that
the performance on quizzes is an excellent
predictor of final grade! (Of course, all
points are important for final grade.)

EAPS 100 Home Page: to find search on braile EAPS 100

Also, taking notes (!)

Why (Geo-) Science???

1. Excellent subject for learning fundamental
scientific principles
2. We interact with geoscience every day
3. Importance to future Energy, climate,
environment natural hazards
environment,
4. Scientific literacy increasingly technological
society
5. Increasing awareness and enjoyment of the
Earth
6. Science education (for teachers)

Earth, ocean and atmosphere processes are

dynamic. We interact with the Earth, the
oceans and the atmosphere every day!
These processes have shaped and changed the
solid Earth, oceans and atmosphere
p
over time.
Occasionally, these processes cause sudden,
sometimes violent events that we refer to as
natural hazards.
Some examples:
Dec. 22, 2013 24-hour radar loop (GMT time).

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Dec. 22, 2013 24-hour radar loop (GMT time).

Aug. 16, 2012 (Thursday) Shelf or Roll cloud (Lafayette Journal and
Courier, Aug. 17, 2012)

California Drought Effects, 2011-2014 (USA Today,

9/3/2014; Oroville is in Northern California)

Shasta Reservoir, 2015

Western U.S. Drought and Wildfires, USAToday, August 9,

2015

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Wildfires, USAToday,
August 25, 2015 (news
reports state that it is
about 95% in California)

Wildfires, USAToday, August 9, 2015

Aug. 24, 2014 M6.0 Napa, California

Earthquake (Journal and Courier, 8/25/2014)

Aug. 23, 2011 M5.3 Colorado and M5.9 Central Virginia Earthquakes

[Link]

0
S. America Lithosphere
Cross section
view in next slide

Depth
h (km)

Also, 2010 M8.8

earthquake near
Concepcion

Oceanic
Lithosphere
200

400

Subducted Slab

600
Distance (km)

Feb. 27, 2010 M8.8 Chile Earthquake Historical Seismicity

Feb. 27, 2010 M8.8 Chile Earthquake Cross-Section View

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Feb. 27, 2010 M8.8 Chile Earthquake Seismic Gap

Feb. 27, 2010 M8.8 Chile Earthquake Gap Filled by 2/27/10 event

Feb. 27, 2010 M8.8 Chile Earthquake Damage to Alto Rio

Building, Concepcion, Chile

Feb. 27, 2010 M8.8 Chile Earthquake Damage to Alto Rio

Building, Concepcion, Chile

Feb. 27, 2010 M8.8 Chile Earthquake Damage to Alto Rio

Building, Concepcion, Chile

EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS A MESSAGE FROM PURDUE

To report an emergency, call 911. To obtain updates regarding an ongoing
emergency, sign up for Purdue Alert text messages, view [Link]/ea.
There are nearly 300 Emergency Telephones outdoors across campus and
in parking garages that connect directly to the PUPD. If you feel threatened or
need help, push the button and you will be connected immediately.
If we hear a fire alarm during class we will immediately suspend class,
evacuate the building,
g and p
proceed outdoors. Do not use the elevator.
If we are notified during class of a Shelter in Place requirement for a tornado
warning, we will suspend class and shelter in [the basement].
If we are notified during class of a Shelter in Place requirement for a
hazardous materials release, or a civil disturbance, including a shooting or
other use of weapons, we will suspend class and shelter in the classroom,
shutting the door and turning off the lights.
Please review the Emergency Preparedness website for additional information.
[Link]

9/20/2015

[Link]

Emergency Preparedness: [Link]

Emergency Alert: [Link]

Up to 10 m high tsunami waves hit coastal area near

Sendai, in northern Honshu, Japan

Kahului, Maui Tide data, March 9 Tsunami (still propagating

- 19, 2011 GMT
through Pacific Ocean ~6

days later)
Observed
Predicted

Difference

Max. Amplitude ~ 2.0 meters

Tsunami Damage Near Sendai

Tsunami Damage from the Tohoku [Northern Honshu, Japan]

M9.0 Earthquake of March 11 Satellite View before Tsunami
[Link]

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Winter storm, January 9-10, 2009

Tsunami Damage from the Tohoku [Northern Honshu, Japan]
M9.0 Earthquake of March 11 Satellite View after Tsunami
[Link]

Flooding near Chehalis, Washington caused

by heavy rains and rapid melting of unusually
heavy snow pack, early January, 2009.

Winter storm, Jan. 11-12, 2011 (2 -hr loop, 10:00-12:30

GMT Jan. 12, 2011; from [Link])

Flooding near Chehalis, Washington caused

by heavy rains and rapid melting of unusually
heavy snow pack, early January, 2009.

Sunrise Tippecanoe County Indiana, 6 January 2014 . Surface air temperature is -15F. Optical phenomena produced by
flat hexagonal ice crystals or plates, as well as hexagonal pencil crystals, consisting of a) solar pillar, produced by
reflection of light from horizontal mirrors or plates, and b) sun dogs, c) halo, d) upper arc above solar pillar, all produced
by refraction of light from both hexagonal plates and pencil hexagonal crystals. Color spectrum of light is distinctly present
in both sun dogs. Photo taken inside shows a window reflection, which is not a part of the solar optical phenomena.
(Contributed by [Link], Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Purdue University.)

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Median Earnings vs. Level of Education

Not everyone
is motivated
by money
(USA Today,
April 28,
2011; survey
of high
school
seniors)

What characteristics did you

observe in your sketches?
Lead-in to discussion about
what is science and the
scientific method
Used to illustrate common
stereotype and attempt to
adjust their view of science

Another reason:
Health an 8-9 year
increase in life
expectancy (USA
Today May 15
Today,
15, 2012)

(This is actually a classic activity that has been used

with students of all ages, and adults)
Be sure to hand in your scientist drawing paper (first
quiz) with your name clearly written on it front of room
or, on one of two desks by aisles in back of room.

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Scientist Drawings 5th grade students

Scientist Drawings 5th grade students

Lab coat
Lab
Coat

Pens

Chemistry
Experiment
Experiment

Scientist Drawings 5th grade students

Scientist Drawings
5th grade students
Lab Experiment

Pens

Scientist Drawings college students

Scientist Drawings college students

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Results

Results

Actual number of female

scientists is >30%
Stereotype (glasses, weird hair
p
in
or bald,, lab coat,, male,, pens
pocket or pocket protector, chemistry
experiment the mad scientist stereotype)
This stereotype is firmly ingrained in
students as young as 2nd grade and does
not change!

Scientist drawings:
Glasses: 94%; Labcoat:
p
68%; Pens/Pocket protector:
66%; Bald, weird hair: 56%; Chemistry
experiment/test tube, etc.: 36%
Male students (college class) drew male
scientists 100% of the time; Female
students drew male scientists 89% of the
time.

How is this stereotype formed?

Women with STEM undergraduate

degrees in Math, science,
engineering and computer science
over the past 40 years (USAToday,
Oct. 15, 2012)

Drawings often
include science
themes

Draw a Scientist Themes

Chemistry
Biology/Ecology
Astronomy
Computer
Other

Earth Science

65%
15%
6%
6%
8%

0%

5th Grade Students

How is science
communicated
to the public?

Discussion of scientist drawings

Reality versus stereotype
What does this mean about our views
of science?
Interestingly, these views of science and
scientists are ingrained in us at a very early
age and usually dont
don t change

Popular movies:
Back to the Future,
Independence Day

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EAS 100 Home Page:

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2013,

[Link]

Hurricane Katrina at landfall near LA/MS border (Cat. 3,

205 km/hr [125 mph] winds) ~ 7 a.m. EDT on August 29,
2005. About 60,00 people tried to ride out the storm in
New Orleans. Katrina destroyed about 124,000 houses,
killed about 1800 people, and caused over $108 billion
in damages. 80% of New Orleans underwater. Cleanup
and recovery is still going on today. ([Link]
org/wiki/Timeline_of_Hurricane_Katrina).

Hurricane Katrina at peak strength (Cat. 5, 280 km/hr [175 mph] winds, 902
mbar pressure) ~ 1 p.m. EDT on August 28, 2005
([Link]

Hawaii

Three Category 4 hurricanes on Sunday morning (8/30/2015) in the Pacific.

Kilo (left), Ignacio (center) and Jimena (right) moving ~west
northwest. (NASA) Infrared image, bright to dark colors are cold (high cloud
tops). ([Link]

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So, what is science?

Science is:
-- Description, organization, search for order,
quantification of observations (data and
experimental results)
-- Analytical
-- Quantitative
-- Constantly changing and being refined
-- Conclusions based on observations
-- Rational

Science is a method for testing claims

about the natural world, not an

The Scientific Method

(2 Views)
1. -- Observation and Measurement
-- Analysis
-- Inference
-- Conclusions
2. --Hypothesis (prediction)
-- Experiment (hypothesis testing) [Observation]
-- Theory
-- Law

Science is NOT:
-- Constant

immutable compendium of absolute

-- Truth

truths
truths.
-- Stephen Jay Gould
Bully for Brontosaurus, 1991, p. 437

Examples of pseudo-science:
-- Astrology
-- Almost anything printed in Enquirer,
Weekly World News, Globe,
Star, etc. (grocery store tabloids)

-- Based only on belief

-- Magic tricks and flashy demos

Pre-Test Not for a grade.

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9/20/2015

1.

Metric system review:

1.

Metric system review:

a.
(1)
(2)

30 cm is about how many inches?

6 in.
(3)
36 in.
12 in.
(4)
92 in.

a.
(1)
(2)

30 cm is about how many inches?

6 in.
(3)
36 in.
12 in.
(4)
92 in.

b.
The temperature in Miami yesterday was about 82
Fahrenheit. What is this temperature on the Celsius scale?
(1)
15C
15
C
(3)
28
28
(2)
22C
(4)
35C

b.
The temperature in Miami yesterday was about 82
Fahrenheit. What is this temperature on the Celsius scale?
(1)
15C
15
C
(3)
28
28
(2)
22C
(4)
35C

c.
miles.
(1)
(2)

c.
miles.
(1)
(2)

The distance from Lafayette to Indianapolis is about 60

This distance is how many kilometers?
40 km
(3)
150 km
100 km
(4)
180 km

The distance from Lafayette to Indianapolis is about 60

This distance is how many kilometers?
40 km
(3)
150 km
100 km
(4)
180 km

d.
A person who weighs 165 pounds would weigh how much
in kilograms?
(1)
20 kg
(3)
75 kg
(2)
40 kg
(4)
105 kg

d.
A person who weighs 165 pounds would weigh how much
in kilograms?
(1)
20 kg
(3)
75 kg
(2)
40 kg
(4)
105 kg

e.
(1)
(2)

What is a microgram?
0.1 g
(3)
10-6 g
0 001 g
0.001
(4)
10-99 g

e.
(1)
(2)

What is a microgram?
0.1 g
(3)
10-6 g
0 001 g
0.001
(4)
10-99 g

2.
a.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

Applied math and graph interpretation review:

The number 5x106 is equal to:
five thousand (5000)
five hundred thousand (500,000)
five million (5,000,000)
five billion (5,000,000,000)

2.
a.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

Applied math and graph interpretation review:

The number 5x106 is equal to:
five thousand (5000)
five hundred thousand (500,000)
five million (5,000,000)
five billion (5,000,000,000)

b.
To convert a velocity (speed) expressed in km/s to units of
km/hr, one should:
(1)
multiply by 3600
(3)
divide by 3600
(2)
multiply by 60
(4)
divide by 60
c.
A spacecraft is launched from Earth and travels at a
,
km/hr directlyy toward the moon which
constant velocityy of 20,000
is 400,000 km from Earth. How long will it take for the spacecraft
to get to the moon?
(1)
10 hours
(3)
20 hours
(2)
0.05 hours
(4)
200 hours

b.
To convert a velocity (speed) expressed in km/s to units of
km/hr, one should:
(1)
multiply by 3600
(3)
divide by 3600
(2)
multiply by 60
(4)
divide by 60
Trick/strategy: Use dimensional analysis (make units work out):
3600 s/hr x km/s = km/hr
cc.
A spacecraft is launched from Earth and travels at a
constant velocity of 20,000 km/hr directly toward the moon which
is 400,000 km from Earth. How long will it take for the spacecraft
to get to the moon?
(1)
10 hours
(3)
20 hours
(2)
0.05 hours
(4)
200 hours
400,000 km divided by 20,000 km/hr = 20 hr

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d.
Examine the graph below which shows dimensionless
speed (speed divided by the square root of leg length times the
acceleration of gravity) plotted versus relative stride length (length
of step) for various animals walking or running. What is the
approximate slope of the line shown on the graph?
(1)
0.50
(4)
2.00
(2)
0.75
(5)
6.00
Dimensionless speed versus
((3))
1.3

Dimensionless speed versus

Stride length for walking and
running animals

St id llength
Stride
th ffor walking
lki and
d
running animals

e.
We observe dinosaur footprints in a sandstone which
indicate a stride length of 4 meters. Using the relationship on the
graph, what is the estimated dimensionless speed of this
dinosaur?
(1)
1.0
(4)
0.5
(2)
2.4
(5)
6.0
(3)
4.0

Dimensionless speed versus

Stride length for walking and
running animals

Dimensionless speed versus

St id llength
Stride
th ffor walking
lki and
d
running animals

Dimensionless speed versus

Stride length for walking and
running animals
4

2d. slope ~ 1.3 (answer 3)

Dimensionless speed versus
Stride length for walking and
running animals
Select two points (far apart)
on the line

Y intercept
2.4

2e. dimensionless speed ~ 2.4 (answer 2)

x1, y1

x = x2-x1 = 3

x2, y2
y = y2-y1 = 4
Slope = y/x
((rise over run
= 4/3)

Dont count squares!

(they arent always the same size)

Review of slope concept: [Link]

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Dimensionless speed versus

Stride length for walking and
running animals
2

1
To calculate slope, dont just count squares
that ONLY works when the squares are one unit
by one unit on each side.
X

Resource/Review on the slope of a line:

[Link]

Stride (m)

People
for scale
Brontosaurus

Tracks

Allosaurus

Glen Rose, TX (Late Jurassic rocks)

3.
We observe that the moon revolves around the earth
approximately every 28 days. We also observe that we always
see the same side of the moon from Earth. What does this imply
about the rotation (about its axis) rate of the moon and the
direction of its axis of rotation? (A sketch might help you answer
this question).

4.

What is the cause of seasons on Earth?

The complete Pre-Test can be found on the EAPS 100 Web

page (Select Handouts from Home Page)

Metric! Metric! Metric!

Why Metric?
A. The metric system is much easier. All metric units are related by
factors of 10.
B. Nearly the entire world (>95%), except the United States, now
uses the metric system. U.S. economic competitiveness would be
strengthened by converting to the metric system.
C. Metric is used exclusivelyy in science -- therefore,, understanding
g
of scientific and technical issues by non-scientists will be enhanced if
the metric system is universally adopted.
D. Because the metric system uses units related by factors of ten
and the types of units (distance, area, volume, mass) are simplyrelated, performing calculations with the metric system is much
easier thus facilitating quantitative analysis and understanding in
science. That is, mathematical manipulations using the metric
system are easier which leads to fewer mistakes and less
confusion and increases the chance that scientific principles
and concepts can be understood!

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Countries which have officially adopted the metric system (green). Only three
nations have been unable to officially adopt the International System of Units as
their primary or sole system of measurement: Burma, Liberia, and the United
States.

Some examples of Earth science and the

increasing need for informed, technical
consideration by ALL citizens:
1. Climate change (global warming)
2. Human impact on the environment (population growth
and increasing consumption)
3. Toxic waste isolation
4. Energy supply (fossil fuels, nuclear)
5. Other natural resources (water, soil, minerals, recreation)

Year of conversion to metric

([Link]

RESEARCH ON LEARNING CATEGORIES

How much we retain after one year
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Attitudes
100%
Thinking skills and processes 80%
Motor skills
70%
Concepts
50%
Factual material
35%
Nonsense syllables
10%

6. Natural hazards Earthquakes, volcanoes, floods,

storms, impacts, sea level rise, El Nino, etc. (How much
effort and money to spend on evaluation, prevention and
mitigation?)

WE LEARN AND RETAIN

10% of What We Hear
15% of What We See
20% of What We Both See and Hear
40% of What We Discuss With Others
80% of What We Experience Directly or Practice
90% of What We Attempt to Teach Others
____________________________
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

Scale
(actual size / model size = scale factor,
usually expressed as 1:1 million, for example)
Importance of SCALE
Significance and understanding of large and
small quantities in the geosciences:
Distance scales:
-15
25
10 to 10 meters
Time scales:
-6
10 to 15 billion years
10
(1.5 x 10 years)

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Various Scales
(actual/model size = scale factor)
Model Car so, for the model car, an actual car is about 5 m
long and the model car is about 15 cm long, so 4.5 m/15 cm =
450 cm/15 cm = 30 (notice that the units cancel
Dinosaur
State Map
Globe

Various Scales
(actual size/model size = scale factor)
Model Car

1:30

Dinosaur

1:50

State Map

1:1 million

Globe

1:40 million

Solar System

1:1 billion

Solar System

People
for scale
Brontosaurus

Tracks

Allosaurus

Glen Rose, TX (Late Jurassic rocks)

Typical roadmap of
the state of Indiana
(such as one you
would carry in a
vehicle) would have
a height of about 0.5
meters The true Nmeters.
N
S distance of the
state is almost 500
km, so the map scale
is about 1:1 million
(500 km/0.5 m).

Various Scales
(actual/model size =
scale factor)
Globe: Typical diameter is
~30 cm. Earth diameter is
~13,000 km. So scale is
,
km or 13,000,000
,
,
m
13,000
divided by 30 cm or 0.30 m.
Now the meters cancel, so
the scale factor is ~40 million
and the scale is written as
1:40 million.

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Sun and Earth at 1:1 billion Scale

D = 1.39 m

How much is a billion???

Sun

Earth

D = 1.3 cm
9

(1 billion = 10 )

150 m
Orbit

Checking scale.
9
150 m x 1 billion (10 )
9
= 150 x 10 m
6
= 150 x 10 km
= 150 million km !
(93 million miles)

EAPS 100 Planet Earth

How many is a Billion?

Counting to a billion or, a billion seconds
0

1
One
10
100
1 000
1,000
Th
Thousand
d
10,000
100,000
1,000,000
Million
10,000,000
100,000,000
1,000,000,000 Billion

10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
10
8
10
9
10

1 second
10 seconds
1.67 minutes
16 6 minutes
16.67
i
2.78 hours
1.16 days
11.57 days
115.7 days
3.17 years
31.7 years

How fast is Earth moving through space?

Prof. L. Braile
2271 HAMP (CIVL), braile@[Link]

If you were nott here

h
last
l t time,
ti
please

7th Edition, 2014

- Pick up the course outline

- a blank sheet of paper, and draw a sketch of a
scientist hand in at the end of the hour (or
next time) this is Quiz 1 (10 points)

Earth

1. Revolution (orbit)
Distance = d (circumference)

Rotation
Sun

Earth

(24 hours)

150 million km

Revolution
(Orbit around Sun,
365.25 days = 1 year)
Earth rotation and revolution (looking down from above orbital plane,
~ above the North Pole), is counter-clockwise.

= 3.14 x 2 x 150 million km

Sun

~ 9 x 108 km
((almost 1 billion km in one y
year))
Velocity =

9 108

km
days
hrs
/ 365
/ 24
yr
yr
day

~ 100,000 km/hr
~ 30 km/s (0.001% of the speed of light)

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2. Rotation (about axis; at equator)

Earth
Radius =
Circumference
6371 km
= d = ~6000 km x 2 x 3.14
N Pole
~ 40,000 km
Velocity =

40,000

km
hrs
/ 24
day
day

~ 1700 km/hr
~ 0.5 km/s

Powers of Ten video:

Illustrates vast scale of the universe by viewing scenes
(pictures or simulated images from progressively greater
distances each view is ten times as far away as the
previous view and, therefore, shows an image ten times as
wide (1m
(1m, 10m
10m, 100m
100m, 1 km
km, 10 km
km, 100 km )) through
over 40 powers of ten from the subatomic scale to the
scale of the universe. The film provides a useful
illustration of distances and the relative sizes of objects in
the universe.
[Link]

Examples of Scale Illustrations

Fig. 5.18 Text

Fig. 1.8 Text

Also see Fig.

6.26 Text

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9/20/2015

[Link]
(~60 MB jpeg file)

Hubble Space Telescope (HST)

Ultra Deep Field Image (2003-04)

Can image 30th magnitude objects.

Required 400 orbits, 11.3 days or recording.
Image contains about 10,000 galaxies.
Area covers 1/12.7 million of the entire sky.
Like looking through an 2 m (8 ft) long soda straw.
With this view, astronomers would need about 50
Ultra Deep Fields to cover the entire Moon.
Hubble's keen vision (0.085 arc seconds) is
equivalent to standing at the U.S. Capitol and seeing
the date on a quarter 400 m (1/4 mile) away at the
Washington monument.

[Link]
/2009/31/fastfacts/
Galaxies as far as 13 billion light-years distance

[Link]
/2009/31/fastfacts/
Galaxies as far as 13 billion light-years distance

1 Degree of angle (60 arc

seconds is 1/60 of
this angle!)

60 arc seconds of angle (1/60 of a degree)

60 arc seconds of angle (1/60 of a degree)

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Area of night
sky covered by
the Hubble
eXtreme Deep
Field (XDF) view

[Link]

XDF size
compared to the
size of the moon
several thousand
galaxies, each
consisting of
billions of stars,
are in this small
view

Hubble eXtreme Deep Field (XDF)

[Link]

Hubble eXtreme Deep Field (XDF) close-up

[Link]
NASA's Hubble and Spitzer Team up to Probe Faraway Galaxies
[Link]

NASA's Hubble and Spitzer Team up to Probe Faraway Galaxies close-up

[Link]
NASA's Hubble and Spitzer Team up to Probe Faraway Galaxies close-up
[Link]

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Important concepts for today:

Forces and Energy (four types of forces;
density (mass/volume so gravity is involved)
Sources of energy
Energy conversion
Thermodynamics

Density Samples:

Density (g/cm3)

Material

Air
0.001
Styrofoam
0.01
Wood
0.5 1.0
Water
1.0 (1 g water = 1 ml = 1 cm3)
Typical surface rocks
2.0 2.8
Earths mantle (olivine) 3.3
Pyrite
5.5
Iron
5.5
Lead
8 .0
Gold
20

Density = Mass / volume = m/v

3
(mass per unit volume; usually given in g/cm
Density of water = 1.0 g/cm3)

Forces (4 types):

For styrofoam block:

3

so, v = 5 x 10 x 8 = 400 cm
(0.4 Liter)

m ~ 4g so,
Density 4/400 0.01 g/cm

(Gravity equation involves mass, and density =

mass/volume, so materials, rocks, of differing densities will
be affected differently by GRAVITY)

The Solar System (not to scale)

Fig. 15.17, Text

Gravitational attraction Sun and Earth Fig. 15.16, Text

22

9/20/2015

Electromagnetic [EM] Spectrum/Energy/Radiation

Gravity controls
the orbits of
planets resulting
in precise
relationships.
relationships
Fig. 11.18
Text
Schematic illustration of wavelengths of EM energy

Sources of Energy (Heat)

1. Gravitational (impacts during
accretion of Earth, mass movements
due to density variations)

Energy transfer radiation (radiating

energy), conduction, convection

2. Solar Radiation [EM] (atmosphere

and oceans)
3. Nuclear Radioactivity (note two
3
different meanings of the term radiation)
Energy Transfer
1. Radiation (radiating) [EM]
2. Conduction

Fig. 11.17 Text

3. Convection

Thermodynamics: (Thermodynamics is a branch of natural

science concerned with heat and temperature and their relation to
energy and work, [Link]

Energy Conversion
1. Gravitational (kinetic) to Heat
2. Thermodynamics
(Pressure-Temperature)
2

3. Energy Mass E = mc

Equilibrium of pressure and temperature effects in

mechanical interactions (work)
Follows from Conservation of Energy
Adiabatic Effects (process in which no heat is
added or subtracted temperature changes are
caused by changes in pressure):
increase pressure temperature increases
decrease pressure temperature decreases
(example: releasing air from a tire, refrigeration, air
conditioning)

23

9/20/2015

Example of Thermodynamic Effect Adiabatic

Heating and Cooling
Volume of Air

Volume
decreases
Temperature
increases

Important concepts for today:

Radioactive decay; Half-life
Radiometric Dating
Geologic Time

Molecules
(vibrating and
interacting)

Volume increases Temperature decreases

Geologic Time Scale: (see Figure 8.22, text)

rock age originally described by name based on

The Geological
Time Scale

locations (i.e. Cambria and Devon in England)

of distinctive layers that could be observed or
g
8.14 and 8.16,, text)) over
correlated ((see Figure
long distances. After radiometric age dating
was developed, absolute ages have been

(see Figure 8.22,

text)

determined for the geologic ages. A simplified

geologic time scale (useful for our purposes,
and easy to remember) is:

Half-Lives of Some Useful Radioactive Isotopes

Cenozoic (young life)

0 to 65 mya*

Mesozoic (middle life)

65 to 251 mya

Radioactive
Parent

Stable Daughter
Product

Paleozoic (old life)

251 to 542 mya

Carbon 14

Nitrogen 14

Potassium 40

Argon
g 40

1.3 Billion

Uranium 238

Lead 206

4.5 Billion

Thorium 232

Lead 208

14.1 Billion

Uranium 235

Lead 207

713 million

Rubidium 87

Strontium 87

4.7 Billion

Precambrian**

542 to 4500 mya

* mya = millions of years ago

** Precambrian is the name used for the vast time period
before the Cambrian which is the oldest major time unit of the
Paleozoic

Half-Life
5730 yrs

half-life = the time for 50% of the parent material to decay

24

9/20/2015

Important concepts for today:

Radioactive decay; Half-life
Radiometric Dating
Uniformitarianism (Uniformity)
Examples: Glaciations (ice ages); Asteroid,
meteor and comet impact

Iron-Nickel Meteorite (Radiometric age dating of meteorites

results in consistent age determinations of ~4.5-4.6 billion years)

Geologic Time/Age of the Earth

1. Observations:
- Oldest rocks on Earth ~ 4.1+ billion years
- Almost all meteorites ~ 4.5 billion years
2 A
2.
Age Dating
D ti M
Methods:
th d
a. Relative age
- Rates of processes erosion,
deposition,
-cooling of Earth,
-accumulation of salt in the oceans

- Superposition for layered rocks

deposited on the surface, oldest rocks
are on the bottom
youngest
oldest

.
.
.
.

- Fossils correlation of rocks with

distinctive index fossils
- Cross-cutting relationships
(see figure; also Figures 8.4, 8.5, 8.12,
text)

25

9/20/2015

Superposition of sedimentary layers

Figure 8.2, text.

Superposition of sedimentary layers

Figure 8.2, text.

b. Absolute methods
- Rates of processes (when calibrated)

Uranium238 to Lead 206

- Fossils when age of index fossils (exist

over only a short time duration, but
are widely distributed) are known
-R
Radiometric
di
ti d
dating
ti ((mostt iimportant)
t t)
based on spontaneous decay of
isotopes (radioactivity) at constant
rates (see Figure 8.19, text);
examples:

Potassium40 to Argon40
Carbon

14

to Nitrogen

14

Rate described by:

half-life = the time for 50% of the parent

material to decay

Illustration of the meaning of half life for a radioactive

isotope (14C parent, 14N daughter product) with a half
life of 5700 years
Half Lives
Age (yrs)
100 % Parent (Radioactive) Isotopes
0

Production and decay of Carbon-14 (Figure 8.20, text)

When the tree dies

dies, falls down and is
buried by sediments, it has a fixed
amount of 14C (well call it 100% for
simplicity) and no longer interacts with
its surroundings in the same way. This
amount is shown by the partial bar
graph above. Now the 14C in the tree
begins to radioactively decay and is not
replenished from its surroundings.

26

9/20/2015

Illustration of the meaning of half life for a radioactive

isotope (14C) with a half life of 5700 years

Illustration of the meaning of half life for a radioactive

isotope (14C) with a half life of 5700 years

Half Lives

Half Lives

Age (yrs)

100 % Parent (radioactive) Isotopes

0
1

100 % Parent Isotopes

0

50% remaining

Age (yrs)

5700
Daughter product
(stable isotopes)

After one half life (~5700 years for 14C), there is 50% of the
original 14C remaining.

50% remaining

5700

25%

11,400

After two half lives (~11,400 years for 14C), there is 25% of
the original 14C remaining. Because the number of 14C
isotopes has decreased, the number that decay in our
sample in the second half life is less even though the
rate of decay remains a constant.

Illustration of the meaning of half life for a radioactive

isotope (14C) with a half life of 5700 years

Illustration of the meaning of half life for a radioactive

isotope (14C) with a half life of 5700 years

Half Lives

Half Lives

Age (yrs)
100 % Parent Isotopes

Age (yrs)
100 % Parent Isotopes

50% remaining

5700

50% remaining

5700

25%

11,400

25%

11,400

12.5%

17,100

12.5%

17,100

6.25%

22,800

Time

Half Lives: 0

6.25%

25%

50%

6.25%

25%

Parent
isotopes
remaining

12.5%

12.5%

Half Lives: 0

Note that this is an

exponential decay,
so the % of parent
(still radioactive)
isotopes decreases
rapidly
p y with time, so
the curve (blue line)
approaches zero
after many half
lives.
50%

Parent
isotopes
remaining

100%

We turn
this into a
bar graph
as shown
here.

After four half lives, there is only 6.25% of the original 14C.

100%

After three half lives, there is 12.5% of the original

remaining.

14C

So, after many half

lives (say 10 to 15),
there is so little parent
material remaining that
it cannot be
measured accurately.
For the 14C method,
this is about 70,000
years (due to the
short half life of 14C).
For other isotopes
(used for rocks, much
longer half lives), age
dating can extend back
millions or billions of
years.

Time

27

9/20/2015

6.25%

25%

12.5%

Half Lives: 0

50%

Parent
isotopes
remaining

100%

The 14C
method is
very useful for
dating
archaeological
sites, paleoearthquake
features, and
recent ice age
g
(Quaternary)
deposits.

To use the 14C

radiometric age dating
method, we collect a
sample of an organic
material, such as part of
the dead and buried tree,
and measure the amount
of 14C remaining (relative
to the amount it had
when alive). For
example, if there is
12.5% of the 14C parent
material remaining (and
87.5% of the 14C has
decayed into the
daughter product 14N),
then the age of the
sample is 3 half lives or
~17,100 years old.

Explanation
of radioactive
decay, halflife and
radiometric
age dating
(Figure 8.19,
text)

Time

The basic concepts of radiometric

dating (the exponential decay and
the generally constant-over-time half
life of isotopes) have been verified
by laboratory measurements and
comparisons of age dates using
different isotopes.

The Grand Canyon has one of the best exposures

of rocks that extend over ~2 billion years in age.

For
o tthe
e ca
carbon
bo 14 method,
et od, accuracy
accu acy
of the method has been verified by
comparison with other dating
methods such as: comparison with
yearly layering (can just be counted)

in ice cores, glacial and ocean sediments, corals; and tree ring
chronologies. The radiometric ages (from other, longer half-life
isotopes) are also consistent with worldwide measurements of
plate velocities that can be accurately measured.

Figure 8.14, text.

Grand Canyon
rock layers

See Figures 8.11 and 8.14 in text.

28

9/20/2015

Figure 8.13, text.

Some fossils are index fossils (widespread, distinctive, limited age

range) and provide accurate age information for geologic units.

Also see Figure 8.13, text.

Fossil fish from near Kemmerer, WY

about 50 million years old, larger fish
is eating smaller fish. Did a sudden
underwater landslide of sand bury
these two fish, or did the larger fish
bite off more than it could chew?

[Link]

Orthoceras,
Paleozoic-Early
Mesozoic fossil

Geologic Time Videotape

Examines the ~2 billion year record of the Grand Canyon,
age dating methods, and the age of rock units versus
the age of the carving (erosion) of the canyon by the
Colorado River.

Figure 8.16, text.

Rock and fossil correlation

to determine relative age

Please Note:
1. Record of layered sedimentary rocks
2 Age
2.
A d
dating
i techniques
h i
a. Relative ages superposition
b. Dating techniques tree rings, index fossils,
radiometric dating
c. Times of erosion or no deposition indicated by
unconformities
3. Animation (speeded up time) showing geologic history
of the Grand Canyon

29

9/20/2015

Uniformitarianism (uniformity):

The Grand Canyon has one of the best exposures

of rocks that extend over ~2 billion years in age.

Analogous to: Laws of physics are constant

The present is the key to the past

By studying modern geologic processes, we can
infer past events when we observe the results of
th
those
processes di
displayed
l
d iin th
the geologic
l i record
d- examples: volcanic deposits, sediments in
shape of delta, offset of layers by faulting due to
an earthquake
Earth is shaped by slow, continuous processes
acting over geologic time
Figure 8.14, text.

Columbia river
basalt flows (~16
million years old)

[Link]
oes/ColumbiaPlateau/descriptio
n_columbia_plateau.html

Note layers of basalt lava, erupted on the surface, so youngest above

and oldest below (superposition). The canyon is younger than the
rock units (cross-cutting relationship).

Layered
Layered sedimentary
sedimentary rocks,
rocks, Grand
Grand Canyon
Canyon
([Link]
([Link]
/dating-rocks-and-fossils-using-geologic/dating-rocks-and-fossils-using-geologicmethods-107924044)
methods-107924044) this
this web
web page
page has
has an
an
excellent
excellent description
description of
of geologic
geologic dating
dating methods
methods
and
results.
and results.

Note layers of basalt lava, erupted on the surface, so

youngest above and oldest below.

30

9/20/2015

Catastrophism:
Earth is shaped by sudden, occasional,
catastrophic events
(some events are once-only or very rare so are
often thought of as catastrophic - examples:
l
- - differentiation of Earth (crust, mantle, core)
- - development of atmosphere, oceans, life
- - asteroid/comet impacts)

Two Examples of Uniformitarianism:

Glaciation (ice ages)

Meteor, asteroid, comet

impacts

Modified principle (mostly applied to evolution of

species through time) is Punctuated Equilibrium

Glaciation - - an example of application of the

concept of uniformitariansim
(Louis Agassiz, 1850)

Alpine (mountain) glacier A river of ice

In modern glaciers and glacial terrane, we

observe distinct features (striations, deposits [till],
moraines, drumlins, U-shaped
p valleys,
y erratics,
etc.)
Recognition of these features in the geologic
record (ancient deposits and landforms, etc.)
allows inference of previous glaciations or ice
ages
Figure 4.6, text.

31

9/20/2015

Striations (scratches) and polished rock

surfaces indicate glacial ice movement

A U-shaped
valley
results after
melting of
alpine
glaciers
(Y
(Yosemite
it
valley is a
good
example)
Figure 4.11, text.

Erratic
Striations
(Crater Lake,
Oregon), also
see Figure
4 10 ttext.
4.10,
t

Glacial till (deposited

directly by glacial ice; not
mix of sediment sizes)

Also see Figure

4.14, text.

Figure 4.13, text.

Drumlins
(streamlined hills)

Antarctic ice sheet,

profile location (A-B)
and cross-section,
below.

Moraine
Figure 4.17, text.

32

9/20/2015

A modern day ice sheet - Antarctica

Cross-section view (like slicing through a layer cake) through the
Antarctic ice sheet note that the ice sheet is about 3 km thick
near the South Pole.
Elevation
(meters)
3000

(Sea
Level) 0

Maximum extent of
continental glaciers
(ice sheets),
Northern
hemisphere, last
ice age (~20,000
years ago)
ago).
(Figure 4.22, text)

-3000 m

-3000 meters

(Vertical exaggeration makes slopes look

much greater than they actually are)

Comparison of coastlines: past (~18,000 years ago),

present, and future (? if ice sheets melt).

Also see Figure 4.19, Lutgens and Tarbuck, 2011.

National Geographic, September, 2013

Asteroid Impact:
Observations:
- - Circular craters (Moon, Meteor Crater,
AZ, etc.)
- - Disturbed and overturned rock layers
- - Shocked (high pressure) quartz
- - Deposits caused by impact
- - Extinction events

National Geographic, September, 2013

33

9/20/2015

Meteor Crater, AZ, 1.2 km, 50 m meteor, 20 MT,

[Link]

Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet after breaking up into about 21

pieces. First discovered on March 24 of 1993, the chain of
comets sometimes called string of pearls, had been orbiting
Jupiter for about 20-30 years. It apparently broke into
fragments about July of 1992 and then collided with Jupiter
beginning on July 16 to July 22, 1994 with a speed of about
60 km/s (~200,000 km/hr).
50 m, 20 MT, [Link]

The planet Jupiter after

Shoemaker-Levy 9
comets collided with
the planet. The small
dark spot near the top
of the image is one of
p
moons. The
Jupiters
larger impact effects
are larger than the size
of the Earth.

[Link]

[Link]

A chain of craters on
Ganymede (one of
Jupiters moons),
probably caused by a
chain of comets or
asteroids similar to (but
smaller than) the
Shoemaker- Levy 9
p
events. The
impact
picture covers an area
approximately 190 km
across.

[Link]

34

9/20/2015

Orbits of Potentially Hazardous

Asteroids (August 14, 2013)
Image Credit: NASA, JPL-Caltech

[Link]

Orbits of Potentially Hazardous

Asteroids (August 14, 2013)
Image Credit: NASA, JPL-Caltech

35

9/20/2015

Photographic time
exposure through a
telescope. White streaks
are stars. The apparent
motion is due to the
Earths rotation during the
ti
time
exposure. The
Th
asteroid (~300 m in size),
discovered in this image,
has a very different
apparent motion because
it is much, much closer to
the Earth.

(National
Geographic, 2008)

Asteroid Eros

33 km long
asteroid

36

9/20/2015

Kondyor Crater, Siberia

(mining for titanium and
other metals)

Manicouagan
Crater, Quebec
(NASA)

About 1- 20 m asteroids, [Link]

37

9/20/2015

Meteor crater
event about every
f
few
tens
t
off thousand
th
d years

Chicxulub crater event about

every 100 million years

Meteor crater
event about every
f
few
tens
t
off thousand
th
d years

Asteroid/Comet/
Meteor Impacts

Chicxulub crater event about

every 100 million years

[Link]

Apollo 17 landing site

Note scale and large
numbers of craters

Meteor crater
event about every
f
few
tens
t
off thousand
th
d years

Chicxulub crater event about

every 100 million years

[Link]

Apollo 17 landing site

Note scale
Explanation:
Thisand
viewlarge
of the Apollo 17 landing site in the TaurusLittrow
valley was
numbers
of captured
craterslast month by the Lunar Reconnaissance
Orbiter (LRO), the sharpest ever recorded from space. The high
resolution image data was taken during a period when LRO's orbit was
modified to create a close approach of about 22 kilometers as it passed
over some of the Apollo landing sites. That altitude corresponds to only
about twice the height of a commercial airline flight over planet Earth
Earth.
Labeled in this image are Apollo 17 lunar lander Challenger's descent
stage (inset), the lunar rover (LRV) at its final parking spot, and the
Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP) left to monitor the
Moon's environment and interior. Clear, dual lunar rover tracks and the
foot trails left by astronauts Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt, the
last to walk on the lunar surface, are also easily visible at the Apollo 17
site.
[Link]

38

9/20/2015

New Martian impact crater photo taken Nov. 19, 2013

([Link]

Cross-cutting craters

Small craters
(impacts) after larger
crater formed

New Martian impact crater photo taken Nov. 19, 2013

([Link]
A dramatic, fresh impact crater dominates this image taken by the High
Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) camera on NASA's
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter on Nov. 19, 2013. Researchers used
HiRISE to examine this site because the orbiter's Context Camera had
revealed a change in appearance here between observations in July
2010 and May 2012, bracketing the formation of the crater between
those observations.
The crater spans approximately 100 feet (30 meters) in diameter and
is surrounded by a large, rayed blast zone. Because the terrain where
the crater formed is dusty, the fresh crater appears blue in the
enhanced color of the image, due to removal of the reddish dust in that
area. Debris tossed outward during the formation of the crater is called
ejecta. In examining ejecta's distribution, scientists can learn more
about the impact event. The explosion that excavated this crater threw
ejecta as far as 9.3 miles (15 kilometers).

Conclusion:
Impacts on Earth have been important in Earth
history (more frequent in early history) and will occur
in the future
future. They can be catastrophic
catastrophic, but actually
represent uniformitarianism. Questions remain such
as correlations with extinctions like the dinosaur
extinction event 65 million years ago.

39