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WHAT IS TRANSHUMANISM?
Nick Bostrom
(Original version appeared in 1998, here slightly revised and with a
postscript added in 2001)
Over the past few years, a new paradigm for thinking about humankind's
future has begun to take shape among some leading computer scientists,
neuroscientists, nanotechnologists and researchers at the forefront of
technological development. The new paradigm rejects a crucial
assumption that is implicit in both traditional futurology and practically all
of today's political thinking. This is the assumption that the "human
condition" is at root a constant. Present-day processes can be finetuned; wealth can be increased and redistributed; tools can be
developed and refined; culture can change, sometimes drastically; but
human nature itself is not up for grabs.
This assumption no longer holds true. Arguably it has never been true.
Such innovations as speech, written language, printing, engines, modern
medicine and computers have had a profound impact not just on how
people live their lives, but on who and what they are. Compared to what
might happen in the next few decades, these changes may have been
slow and even relatively tame. But note that even a single additional
innovation as important as any of the above would be enough to
invalidate orthodox projections of the future of our world.
"Transhumanism" has gained currency as the name for a new way of
thinking that challenges the premise that the human condition is and will
remain essentially unalterable. Clearing away that mental block allows
one to see a dazzling landscape of radical possibilities, ranging from
unlimited bliss to the extinction of intelligent life. In general, the future by
present lights looks very weird - but perhaps very wonderful - indeed.
Some of the possibilities that you will no doubt hear discussed in the
coming years are quite extreme and sound like science-fiction. Consider
the following:
Superintelligent machines. Superintelligence means any form
of artificial intelligence, maybe inspired by a better understanding
of the computational architectures and learning algorithms used by
human brains, that is capable of outclassing the best human brains
in practically every discipline, including scientific creativity,
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practical wisdom, and social skills. Several commentators have
argued that both the hardware and the software required for
superintelligence might be developed within a few decades.
Lifelong emotional well-being through re-calibration of
the pleasure-centers. Even today, mild variants of sustainable
euphoria are possible for a minority of people who respond
especially well to clinical mood-brighteners ("antidepressants").
Pharmaceuticals currently under development promise to give an
increasing number of "normal" people the choice of drastically
reducing the incidence of negative emotions in their lives. In some
cases, the adverse side-effects of the new agents are negligible.
Whereas street drugs typically wreak havoc on the brain's
neurochemistry, producing a brief emotional "high" followed by a
crash, modern clinical drugs may target with high specificity a
given neurotransmitter or receptor subtype, thereby avoiding any
negative effect on the subject's cognitive faculties - (s)he won't
feel "drugged" - and enables a constant, indefinitely sustainable
mood-elevation without being addictive. David Pearce advocates
and predicts a post-Darwinian era in which all aversive
experience will be replaced by gradients of pleasure beyond the
bounds of normal human experience. As cleaner and safer moodbrighteners and gene-therapies become available, paradiseengineering may become a practicable possibility.
Personality pills. Drugs and gene therapy will yield far more
than shallow one-dimensional pleasure. They can also modify
personality. They can help overcome shyness, eliminate jealousy,
increase creativity and enhance the capacity for empathy and
emotional depth. Think of all the preaching, fasting and selfdiscipline that people have subjected themselves to throughout the
ages in attempts to ennoble their character. Shortly it may become
possible to achieve the same goals much more thoroughly by
swallowing a daily cocktail pill.
Space colonization. Today, space colonization is technologically
feasible but prohibitively expensive. As costs decrease, it will
become economically and politically possible to begin to colonize
space. The thing to note is that once a single self-sustaining colony
has been established, capable of sending out its own colonization
probes, then an exponentially self-replicating process has been set
in motion that is capable - without any further input from the
planet Earth - of spreading out across the millions of stars in our
galaxy and then to millions of other galaxies as well. Of course,
this sequence of events will take an extremely long time on a
human time-scale. But it is interesting to notice how near we are
to being able to initiate a chain of events that will have such
momentous consequences as filling the observable universe with
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our descendants.
Molecular nanotechnology. Nanotechnology is the hypothetical
design and manufacture of machines to atomic-scale precision,
including general-purpose "assemblers", devices that can position
atoms individually in order to build almost any chemically
permitted matter-configuration for which we can give a detailed
specification - including exact copies of themselves. An existenceproof of a limited form of nanotechnology is given by biology: the
cell is a molecular self-replicator that can produce a broad range
of proteins. But the part of design space that is accessible to
present biological organisms is restricted by their evolutionary
history, and is mostly confined to non-rigid carbon structures. Eric
Drexler was the first person to analyze in detail the physical
possibility of a practically universal molecular assembler. Once
such a gadget exists, it would make possible dirt-cheap (but
perfectly clean) production of almost any commodity, given a
design-specification and the requisite input of energy and atoms.
The bootstrap problem for nanotechnology - how to build this first
assembler - is very hard to solve. Two approaches are currently
pursued. One of them builds on what nature has achieved and
seeks to use biochemistry to engineer new proteins that can serve
as tools in further engineering efforts. The other attempts to build
atomic structures from scratch, using proximal probes such as
atomic-force microscopes to position atoms one-by-one on a
surface. The two methods can potentially be used in conjunction.
Much research is required before the physical possibility of
Drexlerian nanotechnology can be turned into an actuality; it will
certainly not happen in the next couple of years, but it might come
about in the first few decades of the 21st century.
Vastly extended life spans. It may prove feasible to use radical
gene-therapy and other biological methods to block normal aging
processes, and to stimulate rejuvenation and repair mechanisms
indefinitely. It is also possible that nothing short of nanotechnology
will do the trick. Meanwhile there are unproven and in some cases
expensive hormone treatments that seem to have some effect on
general vitality in elderly people, although as yet nothing has been
shown to be more effective at life-extension than controlled
caloric restriction.
Extinction of intelligent life. The risks are as enormous as the
potential benefits. In addition to dangers that are already
recognized (though perhaps inadequately counteracted?), such as
a major military, terrorist or accidental disaster involving nuclear,
chemical, viral or bacteriological agents, the new technologies
threaten dangers of a different order altogether. Nanotechnology,
for example, could pose a terrible threat to our existence if
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obtained by some terrorist group before adequate defense
systems have been developed. It is not even certain that adequate
defense is possible. Perhaps in a nanotechnological world offense
has a decisive intrinsic advantage over defense. Nor is it
farfetched to assume that there are other risks that we haven't yet
been able to imagine.
The interconnected world. Even in its present form, the Internet
has an immense impact on some people's lives. And its
ramifications are just beginning to unfold. This is one area where
radical change is quite widely perceived, and where media
discussion has been extensive.
Uploading of our consciousness into a virtual reality. If we
could scan the synaptic matrix of a human brain and simulate it on
a computer then it would be possible for us to migrate from our
biological embodiments to a purely digital substrate (given certain
philosophical assumptions about the nature of consciousness and
personal identity). By making sure we always had back-up
copies, we might then enjoy effectively unlimited life-spans. By
directing the activation flow in the simulated neural networks, we
could engineer totally new types of experience. Uploading, in this
sense, would probably require mature nanotechnology. But there
are less extreme ways of fusing the human mind with computers.
Work is being done today on developing neuro/chip interfaces.
The technology is still in its early stages; but it might one day
enable us to build neuroprostheses whereby we could "plug in" to
cyberspace. Even less speculative are various schemes for
immersive virtual reality -- for instance, using head-mounted
displays that communicate with the brain via our natural sense
organs.
Reanimation of cryonics patients. Persons frozen with today's
procedure can probably not be brought back to life with anything
less than mature nanotechnology. Even if we could be absolutely
sure that mature nanotechnology will one day be developed, there
would still be no guarantee that the cryonics customer's gamble
would succeed -- perhaps the beings of the future won't be
interested in reanimating present-day humans. Still, even a 5% or
10% chance of success could make cryonics contracts a rational
option for people who can afford it and who place a great value
on their continued personal existence. If reanimated, they might
look forward to aeons of subjective life time under conditions of
their own choosing.
These prospects might seem remote. Yet transhumanists think there is
reason to believe that they might not be so far off as is commonly
supposed. The Technology Postulate denotes the hypothesis that
several of the items listed, or other changes that are equally profound,
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will become feasible within, say, seventy years (possibly much sooner).
This is the antithesis of the assumption that the human condition is a
constant. The Technology Postulate is often presupposed in
transhumanist discussion. But it is not an article of blind faith; it's a
falsifiable hypothesis that is argued for on specific scientific and
technological grounds.
If we come to believe that there are good grounds for believing that the
Technology Postulate is true, what consequences does that have for how
we perceive the world and for how we spend our time? Once we start
reflecting on the matter and become aware of its ramifications, the
implications are profound.
From this awareness springs the transhumanist philosophy -- and
"movement". For transhumanism is more than just an abstract belief that
we are about to transcend our biological limitations by means of
technology; it is also an attempt to re-evaluate the entire human
predicament as traditionally conceived. And it is a bid to take a farsighted and constructive approach to our new situation. A primary task
is to provoke the widest possible discussion of these topics and to
promote a better public understanding. The set of skills and
competencies that are needed to drive the transhumanist agenda extend
far beyond those of computer scientists, neuroscientists, softwaredesigners and other high-tech gurus. Transhumanism is not just for brains
accustomed to hard-core futurism. It should be a concern for our whole
society.
It is extremely hard to anticipate the long-term consequences of our
present actions. But rather than sticking our heads in the sand,
transhumanists reckon we should at least try to plan for them as best we
can. In doing so, it becomes necessary to confront some of the notorious
"big questions" about the structure of the world and the role and
prospects of sentience within it. Doing so requires delving into a number
of different scientific disciplines as well as tackling hard philosophical
problems.
While the wider perspective and the bigger questions are essential to
transhumanism, that does not mean that transhumanists do not take an
intense interest in what goes in our world today. On the contrary! Recent
topical themes that have been the subject of wide and lively debate in
transhumanist forums include such diverse issues as cloning; proliferation
of weapons of mass-destruction; neuro/chip interfaces; psychological
tools such as critical thinking skills, NLP, and memetics; processor
technology and Moore's law; gender roles and sexuality; neural
networks and neuromorphic engineering; life-extension techniques such
as caloric restriction; PET, MRI and other brain-scanning methods;
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evidence (?) for life on Mars; transhumanist fiction and films; quantum
cryptography and "teleportation"; the Digital Citizen; atomic force
microscopy as a possible enabling technology for nanotechnology;
electronic commerce.... Not all participants are equally at home in all of
these fields, of course, but many like the experience of taking part in a
joint exploration of unfamiliar ideas, facts and standpoints.
An important transhumanist goal is to improve the functioning of human
society as an epistemic community. In addition to trying to figure out
what is happening, we can try to figure out ways of making ourselves
better at figuring out what is happening. We can create institutions that
increase the efficiency of the academic- and other knowledgecommunities. More and more people are gaining access to the Internet.
Programmers, software designers, IT consultants and others are involved
in projects that are constantly increasing the quality and quantity of
advantages of being connected. Hypertext publishing and the
collaborative information filtering paradigm have the potential to
accelerate the propagation of valuable information and aid the demolition
of what transpire to be misconceptions and crackpot claims. The people
working in information technology are only the latest reinforcement to the
body of educators, scientists, humanists, teachers and responsible
journalists who have been striving throughout the ages to decrease
ignorance and make humankind as a whole more rational.
One simple but brilliant idea, developed by Robin Hanson, is that we
create a market of "idea futures". Basically, this means that it would be
possible to place bets on all sorts of claims about controversial scientific
and technological issues. One of the many benefits of such an institution
is that it would provide policy-makers and others with consensus
estimates of the probabilities of uncertain hypotheses about projected
future events, such as when a certain technological breakthrough will
occur. It would also offer a decentralized way of providing financial
incentives for people to make an effort to be right in what they think.
And it could promote intellectual sincerity in that persons making strong
claims would be encouraged to put their money where their mouth is. At
present, the idea is embodied in an experimental set-up, the Foresight
Exchange, where people can stake "credibility points" on a variety of
claims. But for its potential advantages to materialize, a market has to be
created that deals in real money and is as integrated in the established
economic structure as are current stock exchanges. (Present antigambling regulations are one impediment to this; in many countries
betting on anything other than sport and horses is prohibited.)
The transhumanist outlook can appear cold and alien at first. Many
people are frightened by the rapid changes they are witnessing and
respond with denial or by calling for bans on new technologies. It's
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worth recalling how pain relief at childbirth through the use of anesthetics
was once deplored as unnatural. More recently, the idea of "test-tube
babies" has been viewed with abhorrence. Genetic engineering is widely
seen as interfering with God's designs. Right now, the biggest moral
panic is cloning. We have today a whole breed of well-meaning
biofundamentalists, religious leaders and so-called ethical experts who
see it as their duty to protect us from whatever "unnatural" possibilities
that don't fit into their preconceived world-view. The transhumanist
philosophy is a positive alternative to this ban-the-new approach to
coping with a changing world. Instead of rejecting the unprecedented
opportunities on offer, it invites us to embrace them as vigorously as we
can. Transhumanists view technological progress as a joint human effort
to invent new tools that we can use to reshape the human condition and
overcome our biological limitations, making it possible for those who so
want to become "post-humans". Whether the tools are "natural" or
"unnatural" is entirely irrelevant.
Transhumanism is not a philosophy with a fixed set of dogmas. What
distinguishes transhumanists, in addition to their broadly technophiliac
values, is the sort of problems they explore. These include subject matter
as far-reaching as the future of intelligent life, as well as much more
narrow questions about present-day scientific, technological or social
developments. In addressing these problems, transhumanists aim to take
a fact-driven, scientific, problem-solving approach. They also make a
point of challenging holy cows and questioning purported impossibilities.
No principle is beyond doubt, not the necessity of death, not our
confinement to the finite resources of planet Earth, not even
transhumanism itself is held to be too good for constant critical
reassessment. The ideology is meant to evolve and be reshaped as we
move along, in response to new experiences and new challenges.
Transhumanists are prepared to be shown wrong and to learn from their
mistakes.
Transhumanism can also be very practical and down-to-earth. Many
transhumanists find ways of applying their philosophy to their own lives,
ranging from the use of diet and exercise to improve health and lifeexpectancy; to signing up for cryonic suspension; creating transhumanist
art; using clinical drugs to adjust parameters of mood and personality;
applying various psychological self-improvement techniques; and in
general taking steps to live richer and more responsible lives. An
empowering mind-set that is common among transhumanists is dynamic
optimism: the attitude that desirable results can in general be
accomplished, but only through hard effort and smart choices.
Are you a transhumanist? If so, then you can look forward to
increasingly seeing your own views reflected in the media and in society.
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For it is clear that transhumanism is an idea whose time has come.
_______________
Postscript
(September, 2001)
This article was first published in 1998. Since then things have
developed, both technologically (of course) but also philosophically. I
want to say just a few words about the main changes in my own thinking
that have occurred over the past years.
1. When the first version was written, the main challenge was to make
people aware of potential developments that the article discusses. That
has been happening increasingly. Although there is still a long way to go,
the focus for me has shifted to getting into the details, taking more
account of the obstacles and downsides, and trying to develop a more
sensitive treatment of the complex issues involved.
2. Many people are scared by transhumanism. While some of the fear is
based on misconceptions, a significant part of it reflects a legitimate
concern that in the process of pursuing technological improvements,
we could risk losing some of the things that we regard as most valuable.
The challenge, therefore, is to be sensitive to our fundamental values and
to find a vision and a roadmap that will not lead to their disappearance
but rather their enhancement (albeit, perhaps, in a transposed form). We
must emphasize that what we should strive for is not technology instead
of humanity, but technology for humanity.
3. In addition to the somewhat intangible risk that we create a utopia
where we have forgotten to include the things we care about most, there
are various concrete risks of technology being used destructively, either
by accident or malicious intent (consider e.g. the risks from
nanotechnology referred to above). Planning to minimize these risks is a
central concern.
4. A fundamental fact about us humans is that we care about how we
relate to each other. Love, affection, envy, and friendships are such
important parts of who and what we are that they cannot be left out of
the equation. And there are no easy technological fixes to these issues.
For example, maybe future technology could give you the illusion and the
feeling of being loved. But maybe what you really want is to actually be
loved and not just by some custom-made lovebot, but by this currently
existing human being that you have given your heart to. The best
technology could do is to help you create the conditions under which
your love could flourish and grow indefinitely, unencumbered by the
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erosive forces of current material and psychological conditions.
_______________
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Im grateful to Anders Sandberg and David Pearce for comments on an
earlier draft.
About Nick Bostrom
Dr. Nick Bostrom received his Ph.D. in philosophy from the London
School of Economics in the year 2000. He is currently a Lecturer at the
Department of Philosophy at Yale University. A founder of the World
Transhumanist Association, he is the author of numerous publications in
the foundations of probability theory, ethics, transhumanism, and
philosophy of science, including the book Anthropic Bias:
Observation Selection Effects in Science and Philosophy
(Routledge, New York), which is due out in April 2002. For more
information, see: [Link]
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