And now, construction tiles made from

recycled shells. This was found in a study

done by researchers of the Nueva Viscaya
State University (NVSU) in Bayombong,
Nueva Vizcaya. Indigenous or recycled shells
such as those of golden apple snail (golden
kuhol) and mussel (tahong) could be used for
tile-making, according to Dr. Felizardo P.
Ubando and Rosalinda G. Nones in their
research project titled "Powerred Shells as
Tiles". The study was monitored by the Los
Baos-cased Department of Science and
Technology-Philippine Council for Aquatic
and Marine Research and Development
(DOST-PCAMRD). Currently headed by
Executive Director Rafael D. Guerrero III,
PCAMRD is DOST's planning council for
fisheries and aquatic resources that
coordinates the national aquatic resources
research
and
development
network
(NARRDN) now composed of more than a
hundred R&D agencies and institutions.
In their study, Ubando and Nones followed
processing steps such as washing and
cleaning the shells, boiling to remove the
impurities,
air-drying,
pounding
and
pulverizing, molding, drying, and impact
testing. The tiles produced were dried for 15
to 25 days. As reported by PCAMRD's Dr.
Dolly DG Fernandez, the ground shells
mixed with styrofoam resulted in grayish tiles
similar to the granite tiles, has similar texture,
and were stronger and cheaper than the
commercial tiles. A piece of commercial tile
costs P10 while th shell tile fetches a price of
only P4.10 per unit, said Dr. Fernandez.
Findings of the NVSU study also showed that
the shells are sources of calcium oxide
(CaO), which strengthens the plastic
materials of the experimental tile. To be
commercially competitive, however, the
experimental tiles should further be tested to
determine its endurance to weight or
pressure and should be properly glazed,
Ubando and Nones recommended. —
Rudy A. Fernandez
As our life styles changes, the demands for
some
items
are
increased
[Link] there is . high demand

for natural mussels shell tiles in luxurious

villas and homes in India and countries in
abroad. Utilizing this situation,our nation can
create high employment opportunities as well
as entrepreneurship [Link]
the subject, an eminent pearl culturist from
Kerala,[Link]
developed
a
new technology to make tiles out of dead
green mussel shells after years of rigorous
research and development. Green mussels
are growing in the coastal areas especially in
the rock in the [Link] now the people
are started to grow and cultivating the same
in the [Link] meat of the green mussels
are using as food by avoiding the [Link] is
harvested in the Philippines as food source
because
of
its
[Link]
is
rich
in vitamins,minerals,protein
and
carbohydrates .In Kerala towns of such like
shells are throwing out and becoming wasre
and
[Link],from
his
experience and research,understood that it
can be utilized by developing it as a value
added [Link] utilizing the technology, the
shell can be opened and then manufacture
[Link] tiles are natural and the colour
will not fade or [Link] colour is
beautiful,since it is a natural [Link]
commencing industrial production,it can
generate employment opportunities and can
earn [Link] tiles have high demand
from abroad,especially from Middle East
countries. In India,these tiles are using in
door panels,wall panels,furniture,devotional
pictures,art picture,modern design,interior
decoration etc.

Ceramic Tilea

leader at 16.6 million ft.2/day as of 1989.

Following Italy (at 24.6 percent of the world
market) are Spain (12.6 percent), Brazil and

Background

Germany (both at 11.2 percent), and the

Wall and floor tile used for interior and

United States (4.5 percent). The total market

exterior decoration belongs to a class of

for floor and wall tile in 1990 according to one

ceramics known as whitewares. The

estimate was $2.4 billion.

production of tile dates back to ancient times

The United States has approximately 100

and peoples, including the Egyptians, the

plants that manufacture ceramic tile, which

Babylonians, and the Assyrians. For

shipped about 507 million ft.2 in 1990

instance, the Step Pyramid for the Pharoah

according to the U.S. Department of

Djoser, built in ancient Egypt around

Commerce. U.S. imports, by volume,

2600 B.C. , contained colorful glazed tile.

accounted for approximately 60 percent of

Later, ceramic tile was manufactured in

consumption in 1990, valued at around $500

virtually every major European country and in

million. Italy accounts for almost half of all

the United States. By the beginning of the

imports, with Mexico and Spain following.

twentieth century, tile was manufactured on

U.S. exports have seen some growth, from

an industrial scale. The invention of the

$12 million in 1988 to about $20 million in

tunnel kiln around 1910 increased the

1990.

automation of tile manufacture. Today, tile

manufacture is highly automated.

Because the tile industry is a relatively

mature market and dependent on the

The American National Standards Institute

building industry, growth will be slow. The

separates tiles into several classifications.

United States Department of Commerce

Ceramic mosaic tile may be

estimates a three to four percent increase in

either porcelain or of natural clay composition

tile consumption over the next five years.

of size less than 39 cm2 (6 in.2). Decorative

Another economic analysis predicts that 494

wall tile is glazed tile with a thin body used

million ft.2 will be shipped in 1992, a growth

for interior decoration of residential walls.

of about 4 percent from the previous year.

Paver tile is glazed or unglazed porcelain or

Some tile manufacturers are a bit more

natural clay tile of size 39 cm2 (6 in.2) or

optimistic; an American Ceramic Society

more. Porcelain tile is ceramic mosaic tile or

survey showed an average growth of around

paver tile that is made by a certain method

36 percent per manufacturer over the next

called dry pressing. Quarry tile is glazed or

five years.

unglazed tile of the same size as paver tile,

but made by a different forming method.

Raw Materials

Europe, Latin America, and the Far East are

The raw materials used to form tile consist of

the largest producers of tile, with Italy the

clay minerals mined from the earth's crust,

natural minerals such as feldspar that are

cylinders partially filled with spherical

used to lower the firing temperature, and

grinding media.

chemical additives required for the shaping

process. The minerals are often refined or
beneficiated near the mine before shipment
to the ceramic plant.

Screens are used to separate out particles in

a specific size range. They operate in a
sloped position and are vibrated
mechanically or electromechanically to

The raw materials must be pulverized and

improve material flow. Screens are classified

classified according to particle size. Primary

according to mesh number, which is the

crushers are used to reduce large lumps of

number of openings per lineal inch of screen

material. Either a jaw crusher or gyratory

surface. The higher the mesh number, the

crusher is used, which operate using a

smaller the opening size.

horizontal

A glaze is a glass material designed to melt

onto the surface of the tile during firing, and
which then adheres to the tile surface during
cooling. Glazes are used to provide moisture
resistance and decoration, as they can be
colored or can produce special textures.

The initial step in ceramic tile manufacture

involves mixing the ingredients. Sometimes,
water is then added and the ingredients are
wet milled or ground in a ball mill. If wet
milling is used, the excess water is removed
using filter pressing followed by spray drying.
The resulting powder is then pressed into the
desired tile body shape.
squeezing motion between steel plates or
rotating motion between steel cones,
respectively.
Secondary crushing reduces smaller lumps
to particles. Hammer or muller mills are often
used. A muller mill uses steel wheels in a

The Manufacturing
Process
Once the raw materials are processed, a
number of steps take place to obtain the
finished product. These steps include
batching, mixing and grinding, spray-drying,
forming, drying, glazing, and firing. Many of
these steps are now accomplished using
automated equipment.
Batching

shallow rotating pan, while a hammer

mill uses rapidly moving steel hammers to

1 For many ceramic products,

crush the material. Roller or cone type

including tile, the body composition is

crushers can also be used.

determined by the amount and type of

A third particle size reduction step may be

necessary. Tumbling types of mills are used
in combination with grinding media. One of
the most common types of such mills is the
ball mill, which consists of large rotating

raw materials. The raw materials also

determine the color of the tile body,
which can be red or white in color,
depending on the amount of ironcontaining raw materials used.
Therefore, it is important to mix the

right amounts together to achieve the

3 If wet milling is first used, the excess

desired properties. Batch calculations

water is usually removed via spray

are thus required, which must take into

drying. This involves pumping the

consideration both physical properties

slurry to an atomizer consisting of a

and chemical compositions of the raw

rapidly rotating disk or nozzle. Droplets

materials. Once the appropriate weight

of the slip are dried as they are heated

of each raw material is determined, the

by a rising hot air column, forming

raw materials must be mixed together.

small, free flowing granules that result

Mixing and grinding

2 Once the ingredients are weighed,
they are added together into a shell
mixer, ribbon mixer, or intensive mixer.
A shell mixer consists of two cylinders
joined into a V, which rotates to tumble
and mix the material. A ribbon mixer
uses helical vanes, and an intensive
mixer uses rapidly revolving plows.
This step further grinds the
ingredients, resulting in a finer particle
size that improves the subsequent
forming process (see step #4 below).

in a powder suitable for forming.

Tile bodies can also be prepared by
dry grinding followed by granulation.
Granulation uses a machine in which
the mixture of previously dry-ground
material is mixed with water in order to
form the particles into granules, which
again form a powder ready for forming.
Forming
4 Most tile is formed by dry pressing.
In this method, the free flowing powder
containing organic binder or a low
percentage of moistureflows from a

Sometimes it is necessary to add

hopper into the forming die. The

water to improve the mixing of a

material is compressed in a steel

multiple-ingredient batch as well as to

cavity by steel plungers and is then

achieve fine grinding. This process is

ejected by the bottom plunger.

called wet milling and is often

Automated presses are used with

performed using a ball mill. The

operating pressures as high as 2,500

resulting water-filled mixture is called a

tons.

slurry or slip. The water is then

removed from the slurry by filter
pressing (which removes 40-50
percent of the moisture), followed by
dry milling.

Several other methods are also used

where the tile body is in a wetter, more
moldable form. Extrusion plus
punching is used to produce irregularly
shaped tile and thinner tile faster and

Spray drying

more economically. This involves

compacting a plastic mass in a highpressure cylinder and forcing the

material to flow out of the cylinder into

cracks. Continuous or tunnel driers are

short slugs. These slugs are then

used that are heated using gas or

punched into one or more tiles using

oil, infrared lamps, or microwave

hydraulic or pneumatic punching

energy. Infrared drying is better suited

presses.

for thin tile, whereas microwave drying

Ram pressing is often used for heavily

profiled tiles. With this method,
extruded slugs of the tile body are
pressed between two halves of a hard
or porous mold mounted in a hydraulic
press. The formed part is removed by

works better for thicker tile. Another

method, impulse drying, uses pulses
of hot air flowing in the transverse
direction instead of continuously in the
material flow direction.
Glazing

first applying vacuum to the top half of

the mold to free the part from the

6 To prepare the glaze, similar

bottom half, followed by forcing air

methods are used as for the tile body.

through the top half to free the top

After a batch formulation is calculated,

part. Excess material must be

the raw materials are weighed, mixed

removed from the part and additional

and dry or wet milled. The milled

finishing may be needed.

glazes are then applied using one of

the many methods available. In

Another process, called pressure

glazing, has recently been developed.
This process combines glazing and
shaping simultaneously by pressing
the glaze (in spray-dried powder form)
directly in the die filled with the tile
body powder. Advantages include the
elimination of glazing lines, as well as
the glazing waste material
(called sludge) that is produced with
the conventional method.
Drying

centrifugal glazing or discing, the glaze

is fed through a rotating disc that flings
or throws the glaze onto the tile. In the
bell/waterfall method, a stream of
glaze falls onto the tile as it passes on
a conveyor underneath. Sometimes,
the glaze is simply sprayed on. For
multiple glaze applications, screen
printing on, under, or between tile that
have been wet glazed is used. In this
process, glaze is forced through a
screen by a rubber squeegee or other
device.

5 Ceramic tile usually must be dried

(at high relative humidity) after

Dry glazing is also being used. This

forming, especially if a wet method is

involves the application of powders,

used. Drying, which can take several

crushed frits (glass materials), and

days, removes the water at a slow

granulated glazes onto a wet-glazed

enough rate to prevent shrinkage

tile surface. After firing, the glaze

particles melt into each other to

bisque firing before glazing. This step

produce a surface like granite.

removes the volatiles from the material

and most or all of the shrinkage. The

Firing

body and glaze are then fired together

7 After glazing, the tile must be heated

in a process called glost firing. Both

intensely to strengthen it and give it

firing processes take place in a tunnel

the desired porosity. Two types of

or continuous kiln, which consists of a

ovens, or

chamber through which the ware is

slowly moved on a conveyor on
refractory battsshelves built of
materials that are resistant to high
temperaturesor in containers called
saggers. Firing in a tunnel kiln can
take two to three days, with firing
temperatures around 2,372 degrees
Fahrenheit (1,300 degrees Celsius).
For tile that only requires a single firing
usually tile that is prepared by wet
millingroller kilns are generally used.

After forming, the file is dried slowly

(for several days) and at high

These kilns move the wares on a roller

conveyor and do not require kiln

humidity, to prevent cracking and

furnitures such as batts or saggers.

shrinkage. Next, the glaze is

Firing times in roller kilns can be as

applied, and then the tile is fired in

a furnace or kiln. Although some
types of tile require a two-step
firing process, wet-milled tile is fired

low as 60 minutes, with firing

temperatures around 2,102 degrees
Fahrenheit (1,150 degrees Celsius) or
more.

only once, at temperatures of 2,000

degrees Fahrenheit or more. After
firing, the tile is packaged and
shipped.

8 After firing and testing, the tile is

ready to be packaged and shipped.
Byproducts

kilns, are used for firing tile. Wall tile,

A variety of pollutants are generated during

or tile that is prepared by dry grinding

the various manufacturing steps; these

instead of wet milling (see #2 and #3

emissions must be controlled to meet air

above), usually requires a two-step

control standards. Among the pollutants

process. In this process, the tile goes

produced in tile manufacture are fluorine and

through a low-temperature firing called

lead compounds, which are produced during

firing and glazing. Lead compounds have

The final product must meet certain

been significantly reduced with the recent

specifications regarding physical and

development of no-lead or low-lead glazes.

chemical properties. These properties are

Fluorine emissions can be controlled with

determined by standard tests established by

scrubbers, devices that basically spray the

the American Society of Testing and

gases with water to remove harmful

Materials (ASTM). Properties measured

pollutants. They can also be controlled with

include mechanical strength, abrasion

dry processes, such as fabric filters coated

resistance, chemical resistance, water

with lime. This lime can then be recycled as a

absorption, dimensional stability, frost

raw material for future tile.

resistance, and linear coefficient of thermal

The tile industry is also developing processes

to recycle wastewater and sludge produced
during milling, glazing, and spray-drying.
Already some plants recycle the excess
powder generated during dry-pressing as
well as the overspray produced during
glazing. Waste glaze and rejected tile are
also returned to the body preparation
process for reuse.
Quality Control
Most tile manufacturers now use statistical
process control (SPC) for each step of the
manufacturing process. Many also work
closely with their raw material suppliers to
ensure that specifications are met before the
material is used. Statistical process control
consists of charts that are used to monitor
various processing parameters, such as
particle size, milling time, drying temperature
and time, compaction pressure, dimensions
after pressing, density, firing temperature and
time, and the like. These charts identify
problems with equipment, out of spec
conditions, and help to improve yields before
the final product is finished.

expansion. More recently, the slip resistance,

which can be determined by measuring the
coefficient of friction, has become a concern.
However, no standard has yet been
established because other factors (such as
proper floor design and care) can make
results meaningless.
The Future
In order to maintain market growth, tile
manufacturers will concentrate on developing
and promoting new tile products, including
modular or cladding tile, larger-sized tile, slipand abrasion-resistant tile, and tile with a
polished, granite or marble finish. This is
being accomplished through the
development of different body formulations,
new glazes, and glaze applications, and by
new and improved processing equipment
and techniques. Automation will continue to
play an important role in an effort to increase
production, lower costs, and improve quality.
In addition, changes in production technology
due to environmental and energy resource
issues will continue.

I was asked to open oysters on two

separate occasions for two of my
favorite places in the San
Francisco Bay area-the Dolphin
Club and The Headlands Center
for the Arts. Following the events,
when face with huge piles of
oysters shells, instead of tossing
them out, I made oyster shell tiles
that are 1/2 oyster shell-1/2
cement, with polished oyster shell
tiles. Since these are sharp and
crumbly, I poured a layer of resin
on top.
I wasn't sure how strong the oyster
shell cement would be and they
had a few sharp spots, so I've
decided to use these as a
backsplash to my kitchen rather
than flooring.

Step 1: Clean Oyster Shells

and Lay in Sun to Dry

I boiled the oyster shells

with a little vinegar,
scraped out any remnants
of the flesh, and laid them
in the sun to dry and
bleach.

Step 2: Prepare
Shells

I then put them through a

tumbler for about 1 hour. I
crushed some with a
mallet and then ground
them up with a grain
grinder. I pulled aside
some whole shells that
would lay flat, and then

smashed up other shells

into shards.

Step 3: Mix
Cement &
Oyster Shells

Spread your cement

evenly through the mold.

Pictured here is grout,

which has a fine texture,

Step 6: Add
Oyster Top
Coat

but the color was too dark.

I recommend using regular
cement, and if possible,
some white cement
pigment to add to it. Follow
the directions on the
cement package. And
keep in mind, cement is
very messy.

Step 5: Spread
Oyster Shell
Cement

Add oyster shells on top of

this while still wet, and
press into the cement.

Step 7: Add
Resin

best results. If need be,

prop up a corner.)

Step 8: Let Dry

Spray the edge of your

mold with a resin

Put them somewhere away

release, and then mix

from debris, pets and

your resin and hardener

children to dry. (Even eco-

according to package.

friendly resin can be nasty

Evenly pour this onto the

stuff).

tile until it comes up to

the edge of the mold.
(Work on a flat table for

Step 9:
Measure Your
Area-Install
Measure the area where
you will be installing the
tiles. These are thick and

heavy, so you'll need a

sawzall to cut them. When
I get the backsplash
installed, I'll post pictures
of it.