Software Development in Engineering and
Science (SDES)
Using Linux Tools
FOSSEE team
(In particular: Puneet Chaganti, C. Madhusudan, Asokan Pichai,
2010)
Department of Aerospace Engineering
IIT Bombay
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Outline
1
Introduction
Getting Started
Getting Help
Basic File Handling
Linux File Hierarchy, Permissions & Ownership
Looking at files
The Command Shell
More text processing
Simple Shell Scripts
10
Control structures and Operators
11
Miscellaneous Tools
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Introduction
Outline
1
Introduction
Getting Started
Getting Help
Basic File Handling
Linux File Hierarchy, Permissions & Ownership
Looking at files
The Command Shell
More text processing
Simple Shell Scripts
10
Control structures and Operators
11
Miscellaneous Tools
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Introduction
What is the Linux OS?
Free Open Source Operating System
Free Free as in Free Speech, not Free Beer
Open-Source Permit modifications and redistribution of source
code
Unix-inspired
Linux Kernel + Application software
Runs on a variety of hardware
Also called GNU/Linux
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Introduction
Why Linux?
Free as in Free Speech
Secure & versatile
Why Linux for Scientific Computing?
Free as in Free Speech
Can run for ever
Libraries
Parallel Computing
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Getting Started
Outline
1
Introduction
Getting Started
Getting Help
Basic File Handling
Linux File Hierarchy, Permissions & Ownership
Looking at files
The Command Shell
More text processing
Simple Shell Scripts
10
Control structures and Operators
11
Miscellaneous Tools
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Getting Started
Logging in
GNU/Linux does have a GUI
Command Line for this module
Hit Ctrl + Alt + F1 (learn how to come out of that first!)
(Please note: this is keyboard dependent, and GNU/Linux
distribution specific.)
Login
logout command logs you out
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Getting Started
Where am I?
Logged in. Where did we reach?
pwd command gives the present working directory
$ pwd
/home/user
Think of a tree rooted at /
$
is called the bash prompt (or shell prompt).
Type command argument at the prompt $
: i.e.
command argument
You can change the prompt $ (bash syntax: $PS1).
Some commands do not need an argument.
Almost all commands can be provided with additional options:
$ command -o1 -o2 arguments
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Getting Started
What is in there?
ls command lists contents of pwd
$ ls
[Link] [Link] [Link] Music
Can also pass directory as argument
$ ls Music
one.mp3 two.mp3 three.mp3
The GNU/Linux world is case sensitive.
Commands, arguments, directory names: almost all.
There is a space between command, options, arguments:
some options can be combined.
Avoid spaces in general. In SDES course: spaces (and some
more characters) are banned (from filenames)!
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Getting Started
New folders
mkdir creates new directories
$ mkdir sdes
$ ls
Special characters need to be escaped OR quoted
$ mkdir software\ engineering
$ mkdir "software engg"
Generally, use hyphens or underscores instead of spaces in
names
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Getting Started
Moving around
cd command changes the pwd
$ cd sdes
$ pwd
/home/user/sdes/
Alternately written as cd ./sdes (. : current)
Specifying path relative to pwd
.. takes one level up the directory structure (.. : parent)
$ cd ..
We could use absolute path instead of relative
$ cd /home/user/sdes/
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Getting Started
New files
touch command creates a blank file
$ pwd
/home/user
$ cd sdes
$ touch first
$ ls
first
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Getting Help
Outline
1
Introduction
Getting Started
Getting Help
Basic File Handling
Linux File Hierarchy, Permissions & Ownership
Looking at files
The Command Shell
More text processing
Simple Shell Scripts
10
Control structures and Operators
11
Miscellaneous Tools
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Getting Help
What does a command do?
whatis gives a quick description of a command
$ whatis touch
touch (1) - change file timestamps
man command gives more detailed description
$ man touch
Shows all tasks that the command can perform
Hit q to quit the man page. (This is syntax of less.)
For more, see the man page of man
$ man man
less is more than more.
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Getting Help
Using additional options
-h or -help give summary of command usage
$ ls --help
List out all files within a directory, recursively
$ ls -R
Create a new directory along with parents, if required
$ pwd
/home/user/
$ ls sdes/
$ mkdir -p sdes/linux-tools/scripts
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Getting Help
Searching for a command
apropos searches commands based on their descriptions
$ apropos remove
Returns a list of all commands that contain the search term
In this case, we are interested in rm, rmdir
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Basic File Handling
Outline
1
Introduction
Getting Started
Getting Help
Basic File Handling
Linux File Hierarchy, Permissions & Ownership
Looking at files
The Command Shell
More text processing
Simple Shell Scripts
10
Control structures and Operators
11
Miscellaneous Tools
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Basic File Handling
Removing files
rm is used to delete files
$ rm foo
rm works only for files; not directories
Additional arguments required to remove a directory
-r stands for recursive.
Removes directory and all of its content
$ rm -r bar
rmdir can also be used; Explore
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Basic File Handling
Copying Files
cp copies files from one location to another
$ cp linux-tools/scripts/foo linux-tools/
New file-name can be used at target location
foo copied to new location with the name bar
$ cp linux-tools/scripts/foo linux-tools/bar
cp overwrites files, unless explicitly asked not to
To prevent this, use the -i flag
$ cp -i linux-tools/scripts/foo linux-tools/b
cp: overwrite bar?
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Basic File Handling
Copying Directories
-r is required to copy a directory and all its content
Copying directories is similar to copying files
$ cd /home/user
$ cp -ir sdes course
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Basic File Handling
Moving Files
cp and rm would be one way
mv command does the job
Also takes -i option to prompt before overwriting
$ cd /home/user
# Assume we have course directory already cre
$ mv -i sdes/ course/
No prompt! Why?
$ ls course
sdes became a sub-directory of course
mv command doesnt over-write directories
-i option is useful when moving files around
mv to rename move to same location with new name
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Linux File Hierarchy, Permissions & Ownership
Outline
1
Introduction
Getting Started
Getting Help
Basic File Handling
Linux File Hierarchy, Permissions & Ownership
Looking at files
The Command Shell
More text processing
Simple Shell Scripts
10
Control structures and Operators
11
Miscellaneous Tools
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Linux File Hierarchy, Permissions & Ownership
Linux File Hierarchy
/ is called the root directory
It is the topmost level of the hierarchy
For details man hier
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Linux File Hierarchy, Permissions & Ownership
Permissions and Access control
In a multi-user environment, access control is vital
Look at the output of ls -l
drwxr-xr-x
5 root users
4096 Jan 21 20:07
The first column shows the permission information
First character specifies type of the file
Files have -; Directories have d
3 sets of 3 characters for user, group and others
r, w, x for read, write, execute
Either the corresponding character or - is present
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Linux File Hierarchy, Permissions & Ownership
Changing the permissions
Permissions can be changed by owner of the file
chmod command is used
-R option to recursively change for all content of a directory
Change permissions of [Link] from -rw-r--r-- to
-rwxr-xr-$ ls -l [Link]
$ chmod ug+x [Link]
$ ls -l [Link]
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Linux File Hierarchy, Permissions & Ownership
Symbolic modes
Reference
u
g
o
a
Operator
+
=
Class
user
group
others
all
Description
the owner of the file
users who are members of the files group
users who are not hte owner of the file or members of
all three of the above; is the same as ugo
Description
adds the specified modes to the specified classes
removes the specified modes from the specified classes
the modes specified are to be made the exact modes for the spe
Mode
r
w
x
Name
read
write
execute
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Description
read a file or list a directorys contents
write to a file or directory
execute a file or recurse a directory tree
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Linux File Hierarchy, Permissions & Ownership
Changing Ownership of Files
chown changes the owner and group
By default, the user who creates file is the owner
The default group is set as the group of the file
$ chown alice:users [Link]
Did it work? Not every user can change ownership
Super-user or root user alone is empowered
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Looking at files
Outline
1
Introduction
Getting Started
Getting Help
Basic File Handling
Linux File Hierarchy, Permissions & Ownership
Looking at files
The Command Shell
More text processing
Simple Shell Scripts
10
Control structures and Operators
11
Miscellaneous Tools
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Looking at files
cat
Displays the contents of files
$ cat [Link]
Concatenates the text of multiple files
$ cat [Link] [Link]
Not-convenient to view long files
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Looking at files
less
View contents of a file one screen at a time
$ less [Link]
q: Quit
Arrows/Page Up/Page Down/Home/End: Navigation
ng: Jump to line number n
/pattern: Search. Regular expressions can be used
h: Help
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Looking at files
wc
Statistical information about the file
the number of lines in the file
the number of words
the number of characters
$ wc [Link]
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Looking at files
head & tail
let you see parts of files, instead of the whole file
head start of a file; tail end of a file
show 10 lines by default
$ head [Link]
-n option to change the number of lines
$ head -n 1 [Link]
tail is commonly used to monitor files
-f option to monitor the file
Ctrl-C to interrupt
$ tail -f /var/log/dmesg
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Looking at files
cut
Allows you to view only certain sections of lines
Lets take /etc/passwd as our example
root:x:0:0:root:/root:/bin/bash
View only user names of all the users (first column)
$ cut -d : -f 1 /etc/passwd
-d specifies delimiter between fields (default TAB)
-f specifies the field number
Multiple fields by separating field numbers with comma
$ cut -d : -f 1,5,7 /etc/passwd
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Looking at files
cut
Allows choosing on the basis of characters or bytes
Example below gets first 4 characters of /etc/passwd
$ cut -c 1-4 /etc/passwd
One of the limits of the range can be dropped
Sensible defaults are assumed in such cases
$ cut -c -4 /etc/passwd
$ cut -c 10- /etc/passwd
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Looking at files
paste
Joins corresponding lines from two different files
[Link]
[Link]
Hussain
Dilbert
Anne
Raul
Sven
89 92 85
98 47 67
67 82 76
78 97 60
67 68 69
$ paste [Link] [Link]
$ paste -s [Link] [Link]
-s prints content, one below the other
If first column of marks file had roll numbers? How do we get a
combined file with the same output as above (i.e. without roll
numbers). We need to use cut & paste together. But how?
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The Command Shell
Outline
1
Introduction
Getting Started
Getting Help
Basic File Handling
Linux File Hierarchy, Permissions & Ownership
Looking at files
The Command Shell
More text processing
Simple Shell Scripts
10
Control structures and Operators
11
Miscellaneous Tools
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The Command Shell
Redirection and Piping
$ cut -d " " -f 2- [Link] \
> /tmp/m_tmp.txt
$ paste -d " " [Link] m_tmp.txt
or
$ cut -d " " -f 2- [Link] \
| paste -d " " [Link] The first solution used Redirection
The second solution uses Piping
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The Command Shell
Redirection
The standard output (stdout) stream goes to the display
Not always, what we need
First solution, redirects output to a file
> states that output is redirected; It is followed by location to
redirect
$ command > file1
> creates a new file at specified location
appends to a file at specified location
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The Command Shell
Redirection . . .
Similarly, the standard input (stdin) can be redirected
$ command < file1
input and the output redirection could be combined
$ command < infile > outfile
Standard error (stderr) is the third standard stream
All error messages come through this stream
stderr can also be redirected
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The Command Shell
Redirection . . .
Following example shows stderr redirection
Error is printed out in the first case
Error message is redirected, in the second case
$ cut -d " " -c 2- [Link] \
> /tmp/m_tmp.txt
$ cut -d " " -f 2- [Link] 1> \
/tmp/m_tmp.txt 2> /tmp/m_err.txt
1> redirects stdout; 2> redirects stderr
$ paste -d " " [Link] m_tmp.txt
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The Command Shell
Piping
$ cut -d " " -f 2- [Link] \
| paste -d " " [Link] - instead of FILE asks paste to read from stdin
cut command is a normal command
the | seems to be joining the two commands
Redirects output of first command to stdin, which becomes
input to the second command
This is called piping; | is called a pipe
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The Command Shell
Piping
Roughly same as 2 redirects and a temporary file
$ command1 > tempfile
$ command2 < tempfile
$ rm tempfile
Any number of commands can be piped together
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The Command Shell
Tab-completion
Hit tab to complete an incompletely typed word
Tab twice to list all possibilities when ambiguous completion
Bash provides tab completion for the following.
1
2
3
4
5
6
File Names
Directory Names
Executable Names
User Names (when they are prefixed with a )
Host Names (when they are prefixed with a @)
Variable Names (when they are prefixed with a $)
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The Command Shell
History
Bash saves history of commands typed
Up and down arrow keys allow to navigate history
Ctrl-r searches for commands used
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The Command Shell
Shell Meta Characters
meta characters are special command directives
File-names shouldnt have meta-characters
/<>!$%^&*|{}[]"~;
$ ls file.*
Lists [Link] files, where ext can be anything
$ ls file.?
Lists [Link] files, where ext is only one character
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More text processing
Outline
1
Introduction
Getting Started
Getting Help
Basic File Handling
Linux File Hierarchy, Permissions & Ownership
Looking at files
The Command Shell
More text processing
Simple Shell Scripts
10
Control structures and Operators
11
Miscellaneous Tools
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More text processing
sort
sort can be used to get sorted content
Command below prints student marks, sorted by name
$ cut -d " " -f 2- [Link] \
| paste -d " " [Link] - \
| sort
The default is sort based on the whole line
sort can sort based on a particular field
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More text processing
sort . . .
The command below sorts based on marks in first subject
$ cut -d " " -f 2- [Link] \
| paste -d " " [Link] -\
| sort -t " " -k 2 -rn
-t specifies the delimiter between fields
-k specifies the field to use for sorting
-n to choose numerical sorting
-r for sorting in the reverse order
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More text processing
grep
grep is a command line text search utility
Command below searches & shows the marks of Anne alone
$ cut -d " " -f 2- [Link] \
| paste -d " " [Link] | grep Anne
grep is case-sensitive by default
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More text processing
grep . . .
-i for case-insensitive searches
$ cut -d " " -f 2- [Link] \
| paste -d " " [Link] | grep -i Anne
-v inverts the search
To see everyones marks except Annes
$ cut -d " " -f 2- [Link] \
| paste -d " " [Link] | grep -iv Anne
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More text processing
tr
tr translates or deletes characters
Reads from stdin and outputs to stdout
Given, two sets of characters, replaces one with other
The following, replaces all lower-case with upper-case
$ cat [Link] | tr a-z A-Z
-s compresses sequences of identical adjacent characters in
the output to a single one
Following command removes empty newlines
$ tr -s \n \n
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More text processing
tr . . .
-d deletes all specified characters
Only a single character set argument is required
The following command removes carriage return characters
(converting file in DOS/Windows format to the Unix format)
$ cat [Link] | tr -d \r > [Link]
-c complements the first set of characters
The following command removes all non-alphanumeric
characters
$ tr -cd [:alnum:]
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More text processing
uniq
uniq command removes duplicates from sorted input
$ sort [Link] | uniq
uniq -u gives lines which do not have any duplicates
uniq -d outputs only those lines which have duplicates
-c displays the number of times each line occurs
$ sort [Link] | uniq -u
$ sort [Link] | uniq -dc
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Simple Shell Scripts
Outline
1
Introduction
Getting Started
Getting Help
Basic File Handling
Linux File Hierarchy, Permissions & Ownership
Looking at files
The Command Shell
More text processing
Simple Shell Scripts
10
Control structures and Operators
11
Miscellaneous Tools
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Simple Shell Scripts
Shell scripts
Simply a sequence of shell commands in a file
To save results of students in [Link] in marks dir
#!/bin/bash
mkdir ~/marks
cut -d " " -f 2- [Link] \
| paste -d " " [Link] - \
| sort > ~/marks/[Link]
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Simple Shell Scripts
Shell scripts . . .
Save the script as [Link]
Make file executable and then run
$ chmod u+x [Link]
$ ./[Link]
What does the first line in the script do?
Specify the interpreter or shell which should be used to
execute the script; in this case bash
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Simple Shell Scripts
Variables & Comments
$ name=FOSSEE
$ count=wc -l [Link]
$ echo $count # Shows the value of count
It is possible to create variables in shell scripts
Variables can be assigned with the output of commands
NOTE: There is no space around the = sign
All text following the # is considered a comment
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Simple Shell Scripts
echo
echo command prints out messages
#!/bin/bash
mkdir ~/marks
cut -d " " -f 2- [Link] \
| paste -d " " [Link] - \
| sort > ~/marks/[Link]
echo "Results generated."
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Simple Shell Scripts
Command line arguments
Shell scripts can be given command line arguments
Following code allows to specify the results file
#!/bin/bash
mkdir ~/marks
cut -d " " -f 2- [Link] \
| paste -d " " [Link] - \
| sort > ~/marks/$1
echo "Results generated."
$1 corresponds to first command line argument
$n corresponds to nth command line argument
It can be run as shown below
$ ./[Link] [Link]
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Simple Shell Scripts
PATH
The shell searches in a set of locations, for the command
Locations are saved in environment variable called PATH
echo can show the value of variables
$ echo $PATH
Put [Link] in one of these locations
It can then be run without ./
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Control structures and Operators
Outline
1
Introduction
Getting Started
Getting Help
Basic File Handling
Linux File Hierarchy, Permissions & Ownership
Looking at files
The Command Shell
More text processing
Simple Shell Scripts
10
Control structures and Operators
11
Miscellaneous Tools
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Control structures and Operators
Control Structures
if-else
for loops
while loops
test command to test for conditions
A whole range of tests that can be performed
STRING1 = STRING2 string equality
INTEGER1 -eq INTEGER2 integer equality
-e FILE existence of FILE
man page of test gives list of various tests
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Control structures and Operators
if
Print message if directory exists in pwd
#!/bin/bash
if test -d $1
then
echo "Yes, the directory" \
$1 "is present"
fi
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Control structures and Operators
if-else
Checks whether argument is negative or not
#!/bin/bash
if test $1 -lt 0
then
echo "number is negative"
else
echo "number is non-negative"
fi
$ ./[Link] -11
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Control structures and Operators
[ ] - alias for test
Square brackets ([]) can be used instead of test
#!/bin/bash
if [ $1 -lt 0 ]
then
echo "number is negative"
else
echo "number is non-negative"
fi
spacing is important, when using the square brackets
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Control structures and Operators
if-else
An example script to greet the user, based on the time
#!/bin/sh
# Script to greet the user
# according to time of day
hour=date | cut -c12-13
now=date +"%A, %d of %B, %Y (%r)"
if [ $hour -lt 12 ]
then
mess="Good Morning \
$LOGNAME, Have a nice day!"
fi
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Control structures and Operators
if-else . . .
if [ $hour -gt 12 -a $hour -le 16 ]
then
mess="Good Afternoon $LOGNAME"
fi
if [ $hour -gt 16 -a $hour -le 18 ]
then
mess="Good Evening $LOGNAME"
fi
echo -e "$mess\nIt is $now"
$LOGNAME has login name (env. variable)
backquotes store commands outputs into variables
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Control structures and Operators
for
Problem
Given a set of .mp3 files, that have names beginning with numbers
followed by their names 08 - Society.mp3 rename the
files to have just the names. Also replace any spaces in the name
with hyphens.
Loop over the list of files
Process the names, to get new names
Rename the files
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Control structures and Operators
for
A simple example of the for loop
for animal in rat cat dog man
do
echo $animal
done
List of animals, each animals name separated by a space
Loop over the list; animal is a dummy variable
Echo value of animal each name in list
for i in {10..20}
do
echo $i
done
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Control structures and Operators
for
Lets start with echoing the names of the files
for i in ls *.mp3
do
echo "$i"
done
Spaces in names cause trouble!
The following works better
for i in *.mp3
do
echo "$i"
done
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Control structures and Operators
tr & cut
Replace all spaces with hyphens using tr -s
Use cut & keep only the text after the first hyphen
for i in *.mp3
do
echo $i|tr -s " " "-"|cut -d - -f 2done
Now mv, instead of just echoing
for i in *.mp3
do
mv $i echo $i|tr -s " " "-"\
|cut -d - -f 2-
done
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Control structures and Operators
while
Continuously execute a block of commands until condition
becomes false
program that takes user input and prints it back, until the input
is quit
while [ "$variable" != "quit" ]
do
read variable
echo "Input - $variable"
done
exit 0
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Control structures and Operators
Environment Variables
Pass information from shell to programs running in it
Behavior of programs can change based on values of variables
Environment variables vs. Shell variables
Shell variables only current instance of the shell
Environment variables valid for the whole session
Convention environment variables are UPPER CASE
$ echo $OSTYPE
linux-gnu
$ echo $HOME
/home/user
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Control structures and Operators
Environment Variables . . .
The following commands show values of all the environment
variables
$ printenv | less
$ env
Use export to change Environment variables
The new value is available to all programs started from the
shell
$ export PATH=$PATH:$HOME/bin
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Outline
1
Introduction
Getting Started
Getting Help
Basic File Handling
Linux File Hierarchy, Permissions & Ownership
Looking at files
The Command Shell
More text processing
Simple Shell Scripts
10
Control structures and Operators
11
Miscellaneous Tools
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find
Find files in a directory hierarchy
Offers a very complex feature set
Look at the man page!
Find all .pdf files, in current dir and sub-dirs
$ find . -name *.pdf
List all the directory and sub-directory names
$ find . -type d
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cmp
Compare two files
$ find . -name quick.c
./Desktop/programs/quick.c
./c-folder/quick.c
$ cmp Desktop/programs/quick.c \
c-folder/quick.c
No output when the files are exactly the same
Else, gives location where the first difference occurs
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diff
We know the files are different, but want exact differences
$ diff Desktop/programs/quick.c \
c-folder/quick.c
line by line difference between files
> indicates content only in second file
< indicates content only in first file
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Miscellaneous Tools
tar
tarball essentially a collection of files
May or may not be compressed
Eases the job of storing, backing-up & transporting files
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Extracting an archive
$
$
$
$
mkdir extract
cp [Link] extract/
cd extract
tar -xvf [Link]
-x Extract files within the archive
-f Specify the archive file
-v Be verbose
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Creating an archive
$ tar -cvf [Link] *.txt
-c Create archive
Last argument is list of files to be added to archive
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Compressed archives
tar can create and extract compressed archives
Supports compressions like gzip, bzip2, lzma, etc.
Additional option to handle compressed archives
Compression Option
gzip
-z
bzip2
-j
lzma
--lzma
$ tar -cvzf [Link] *.txt
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Customizing your shell
Bash reads /etc/profile, ~/.bash_profile,
~/.bash_login, and ~/.profile in that order, when
starting up as a login shell.
~/.bashrc is read, when not a login shell
Put any commands that you want to run when bash starts, in
this file.
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