WCDMA RAN Fundamental
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
The first generation is the analog cellular mobile communication network in the time
period from the middle of 1970s to the middle of 1980s. The most important
breakthrough in this period is the concept of cellular networks put forward by the Bell
Labs in the 1970s, as compared to the former mobile communication systems. The
cellular network system is based on cells to implement frequency reuse and thus
greatly enhances the system capacity.
The typical examples of the first generation mobile communication systems are the
AMPS system and the later enhanced TACS of USA, the NMT and the others. The
AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) uses the 800 MHz band of the analog cellular
transmission system and it is widely applied in North America, South America and
some Circum-Pacific countries. The TACS (Total Access Communication System) uses
the 900 MHz band. It is widely applied in Britain, Japan and some Asian countries.
NMT (Nordisk MobilTelefoni or Nordiska MobilTelefoni-gruppen, Nordic Mobile
Telephony in English) is the first fully automatic cellular phone system.
it was specified by Nordic telecommunications administrations (PTTs) and opened for
service in 1 October 1981 as a response to the increasing congestion and heavy
requirements of the manual mobile phone networks: ARP (150 MHz) in Finland and
MTD (450 MHz) in Sweden and Denmark and OLT in Norway. The Swedish electrical
engineer sten Mkitalo is considered as the father of this system, and of the cell
phone.
NMT is based on analog technology (first generation or 1G) and two variants exist:
NMT-450 and NMT-900. The numbers indicate the frequency bands uses. NMT-900
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was introduced in 1986 because it carries more channels than the previous NMT-450
network.
WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Put forward in 1985 by the ITU (International Telecommunication Union), the 3G
mobile communication system was called the FPLMTS (Future Public Land Mobile
Telecommunication System) and was later renamed as IMT-2000
(International Mobile Telecommunication-2000). The major systems include
WCDMA, cdma2000 and UWC-136. On November 5, 1999, the 18th conference of
ITU-R TG8/1 passed the Recommended Specification of Radio Interfaces of IMT-2000
and the TD-SCDMA technologies put forward by China were incorporated into the
IMT-2000 CDMA TDD part of the technical specification. This showed that the work of
the TG8/1 in formulating the technical specifications of radio interfaces in 3G mobile
communication systems had basically come into an end and the development and
application of the 3G mobile communication systems would enter a new and essential
phase.
The 3GPP is an organization that develops specifications for a 3G system based on the
UTRA radio interface and on the enhanced GSM core network.
The 3GPP2 initiative is the other major 3G standardization organization. It promotes
the CDMA2000 system, which is also based on a form of WCDMA technology. In the
world of IMT-2000, this proposal is known as IMT-MC. The major difference between
the 3GPP and the 3GPP2 approaches into the air interface specification development
is that 3GPP has specified a completely new air interface without any constraints from
the past, whereas 3GPP2 has specified a system that is backward compatible with IS95 systems.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
ITU has allocated 230 MHz frequency for the 3G mobile communication
system IMT-2000: 1885 ~ 2025MHz in the uplink and 2110~ 2200 MHz in the
downlink. Of them, the frequency range of 1980 MHz ~ 2010 MHz (uplink) and that
of 2170 MHz ~ 2200 MHz (downlink) are used for mobile satellite services. As the
uplink and the downlink bands are asymmetrical, the use of dual-frequency FDD mode
or the single-frequency TDD mode may be considered. This plan was passed in WRC92
and new additional bands were approved on the basis of the WRC-92 in the
WRC2000 conference in the year 2000: 806 MHz ~ 960 MHz, 1710 MHz ~
1885 MHz and 2500 MHz ~ 2690 MHz.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
The WCDMA system uses the following frequency spectrum (bands other than those
specified by 3GPP may also be used): Uplink 1920 MHz ~ 1980 MHz and
downlink 2110 MHz ~ 2170 MHz. Each carrier frequency has the 5M band
and the duplex spacing is 190 MHz. In America, the used frequency spectrum is
1850 MHz ~ 1910 MHz in the uplink and 1930 MHz ~ 1990 MHz in the
downlink and the duplex spacing is 80 MHz.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Compatible with abundant services and applications of 2G, 3G system has an open
integrated service platform to provide a wide prospect for various 3G services.
Features of 3G Services
3G services are inherited from 2G services. In a new architecture, new service
capabilities are generated, and more service types are available. Service characteristics
vary greatly, so each service features differently. Generally, there are several features
as follows:
Compatible backward with all the services provided by GSM.
The real-time services (conversational) such as voice service
generally have the QoS requirement.
The concept of multimedia service (streaming, interactive,
background) is introduced.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Formulated by the European standardization organization 3GPP, the core network
evolves on the basis of GSM/GPRS and can thus be compatible with the existing
GSM/GPRS networks. It can be based on the TDM, ATM and IP technologies to
evolve towards the all-IP network architecture. Based on the ATM technology,
the UTRAN uniformly processes voice and packet services and evolves
towards the IP network architecture.
The cdma2000 system is a 3G standard put forward on the basis of the IS-95 standard.
Its standardization work is currently undertaken by 3GPP2. Circuit Switched (CS)
domain is adapted from the 2G IS95 CDMA network, Packet Switched (PS)
domain is A packet network based on the Mobile IP technology. Radio Access
Network (RAN) is based on the ATM switch platform, it provides abundant
adaptation layer interfaces.
The TD-SCDMA standard is put forward by the Chinese Wireless
Telecommunication Standard (CWTS) Group and now it has been merged into the
specifications related to the WCDMA-TDD of 3GPP. The core network evolves on
the basis of GSM/GPRS. The air interface adopts the TD-SCDMA mode.
IS-41, also known as ANSI-41, is a mobile, cellular telecommunications system
standard to support mobility management by enabling the networking of switches.
ANSI-41 is the standard now approved for use as the network-side companion to the
wireless-side AMPS (analog), IS-136 (Digital AMPS), cdmaOne, and
CDMA2000 networks. It competes with GSM MAP, but the two will eventually
needed] to support
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merge[citation
worldwide
roaming.
IS-41 facilitates inter-switch operations like handoff and roaming
WCDMA RAN Fundamental
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
In mobile communication systems, GSM adopts TDMA; WCDMA, cdma2000 and TDSCDMA adopt CDMA.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Frequency Division Multiple Access means dividing the whole available
spectrum into many single radio channels (transmit/receive carrier pair). Each
channel can transmit one-way voice or control information. Analog cellular
system is a typical example of FDMA structure.
Time Division Multiple Access means that the wireless carrier of one
bandwidth is divided into multiple time division channels in terms of time (or
called timeslot). Each user occupies a timeslot and receives/transmits signals
within this specified timeslot. Therefore, it is called time division multiple access.
This multiple access mode is adopted in both digital cellular system and GSM.
CDMA is a multiple access mode implemented by Spreading Modulation.
Unlike FDMA and TDMA, both of which separate the user information in
terms of time and frequency, CDMA can transmit the information of multiple
users on a channel at the same time. The key is that every information before
transmission should be modulated by different Spreading Code to broadband
signal, then all the signals should be mixed and send. The mixed signal would be
demodulated by different Spreading Code at the different receiver. Because all
the Spreading Code is orthogonal, only the information that was be
demodulated by same Spreading Code can be reverted in mixed signal.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
In third generation mobile communication systems, WCDMA and cdma2000 adopt
frequency division duplex (FDD), TD-SCDMA adopts time division duplex (TDD).
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
WCDMA including the RAN (Radio Access Network) and the CN (Core
Network). The RAN is used to process all the radio-related functions, while the CN
is used to process all voice calls and data connections within the UMTS system,
and implements the function of external network switching and routing.
Logically, the CN is divided into the CS (Circuit Switched) Domain and the PS
(Packet Switched) Domain. UTRAN, CN and UE (User Equipment) together
constitute the whole UMTS system
A RNS is composed of one RNC and one or several Node Bs. The Iu interface is
used between RNC and CN while the Iub interface is adopted between RNC and
Node B. Within UTRAN, RNCs connect with one another through the Iur
interface. The Iur interface can connect RNCs via the direct physical connections
among them or connect them through the transport network. RNC is used to
allocate and control the radio resources of the connected or related Node B.
However, Node B serves to convert the data flows between the Iub interface
and the Uu interface, and at the same time, it also participates in part of radio
resource management.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
The overall structure of the WCDMA network is defined in 3GPP TS 23.002. Now,
there are the following three versions: R99, R4, R5.
3GPP began to formulate 3G specifications at the end of 1998 and beginning
of 1999. As scheduled, the R99 version would be completed at the end of
1999, but in fact it was not completed until March, 2000. To guarantee the
investment benefits of operators, the CS domain of R99 version do not
fundamentally change., so as to support the smooth transition of
GSM/GPRS/3G.
After R99, the version was no longer named by the year. At the same time, the
functions of R2000 are implemented by the following two phases: R4 and R5.
In the R4 network, MSC as the CS domain of the CN is divided into the MSC
Server and the MGW, at the same time, a SGW is added, and HLR can be
replaced by HSS (not explicitly specified in the specification).
In the R5 network, the end-to-end VOIP is supported and the core network
adopts plentiful new function entities, which have thus changed the original
call procedures. With IMS (IP Multimedia Subsystem), the network can use HSS
instead of HLR. In the R5 network, HSDPA (High Speed Downlink Packet
Access) is also supported, it can support high speed data service.
In the R6 network, the HSUPA is supported which can provide UL service rate
up to 5.76Mbps. And MBMS (MultiMedia Broadcast Multicast Service) is also
supported.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
MIMO: multiple input multiple output
DC: Dual Carrier
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
The layer 1 supports all functions required for the transmission of bit streams
on the physical medium. It is also in charge of measurements function
consisting in indicating to higher layers, for example, Frame Error Rate (FER),
Signal to Interference Ratio (SIR), interference power and transmit power.
The layer 2 protocol is responsible for providing functions such as mapping,
ciphering, retransmission and segmentation. It is made of four sublayers: MAC
(Medium Access Control), RLC (Radio Link Control), PDCP (Packet Data
Convergence Protocol) and BMC (Broadcast/Multicast Control).
The layer 3 is split into 2 parts: the access stratum and the non access stratum.
The access stratum part is made of RRC (Radio Resource Control) entity and
duplication avoidance entity. The non access stratum part is made of CC, MM
parts.
Not shown on the figure are connections between RRC and all the other
protocol layers (RLC, MAC, PDCP, BMC and L1), which provide local inter-layer
control services.
The protocol layers are located in the UE and the peer entities are in the NodeB
or the RNC.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Protocol structures in UTRAN terrestrial interfaces are designed according to
the same general protocol model. This model is shown in above slide. The
structure is based on the principle that the layers and planes are logically
independent of each other and, if needed, parts of the protocol structure may
be changed in the future while other parts remain intact.
Horizontal Layers
The protocol structure consists of two main layers, the Radio Network
Layer (RNL) and the Transport Network Layer (TNL). All UTRANrelated issues are visible only in the Radio Network Layer, and the
Transport Network Layer represents standard transport technology that
is selected to be used for UTRAN but without any UTRAN-specific
changes.
Vertical Planes
Control Plane
The Control Plane is used for all UMTS-specific control signaling. It
includes the Application Protocol (i.e. RANAP in Iu, RNSAP in Iur and
NBAP in Iub), and the Signaling Bearer for transporting the Application
Protocol messages. The Application Protocol is used, among other
things, for setting up bearers to the UE (i.e. the Radio Access Bearer in
Iu and subsequently the Radio Link in Iur and Iub). In the three plane
structure the bearer parameters in the Application Protocol are not
directly tied to the User Plane technology, but rather are general bearer
parameters. The Signaling Bearer for the Application Protocol may or
may not be of the same type as the Signaling Bearer for the ALCAP. It is
always set up by O&M actions.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Protocol Structure for Iu CS
The Iu CS overall protocol structure is depicted in above slide. The three planes
in the Iu interface share a common ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
transport which is used for all planes. The physical layer is the interface to the
physical medium: optical fiber, radio link or copper cable. The physical layer
implementation can be selected from a variety of standard off-the-shelf
transmission technologies, such as SONET, STM1, or E1.
Iu CS Control Plane Protocol Stack
The Control Plane protocol stack consists of RANAP, on top of
Broadband (BB) SS7 (Signaling System #7) protocols. The applicable
layers are the Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP), the Message
Transfer Part (MTP3-b) and SAAL-NNI (Signaling ATM Adaptation
Layer for Network to Network Interfaces).
Iu CS Transport Network Control Plane Protocol Stack
The Transport Network Control Plane protocol stack consists of the Signaling
Protocol for setting up AAL2 connections (Q.2630.1 and adaptation layer
Q.2150.1), on top of BB SS7 protocols. The applicable BB SS7 are those
described above without the SCCP layer.
Iu CS User Plane Protocol Stack
A dedicated AAL2 connection is reserved for each individual CS service.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
SCTP is streaming control transmission protocol. It is a reliable transport
protocol operating on top of IP.
M3UA is MTP3 user adaption layer based on IP.
RTP is real-time transmission protocol. It provides CS data IP-based
transmission.
RTCP is Real-time Transport Control Protocol.
UDP is User Datagram Protocol.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Protocol Structure for Iu PS
The Iu PS protocol structure is represented in above slide. Again, a common
ATM transport is applied for both User and Control Plane. Also the physical
layer is as specified for Iu CS.
Iu PS Control Plane Protocol Stack
The Control Plane protocol stack consists of RANAP, on top of Broadband (BB)
SS7 (Signaling System #7) protocols. The applicable layers are the Signaling
Connection Control Part (SCCP), the Message Transfer Part (MTP3-b) and
SAAL-NNI (Signaling ATM Adaptation Layer for Network to Network
Interfaces).
Iu PS Transport Network Control Plane Protocol Stack
The Transport Network Control Plane is not applied to Iu PS. The setting up of
the GTP tunnel requires only an identifier for the tunnel, and the IP addresses
for both directions, and these are already included in the RANAP RAB
Assignment messages.
Iu PS User Plane Protocol Stack
In the Iu PS User Plane, multiple packet data flows are multiplexed on one or
several AAL5 PVCs. The GTP-U (User Plane part of the GPRS Tunneling
Protocol) is the multiplexing layer that provides identities for individual packet
data flow. Each flow uses UDP connectionless transport and IP addressing.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
SCTP is streaming control transmission protocol. It is a reliable transport protocol
operating on top of IP.
M3UA is MTP3 user adaption layer based on IP.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
The Iub interface is the terrestrial interface between NodeB and RNC. The Radio
Network Layer defines procedures related to the operation of the NodeB. The
Transport Network Layer defines procedures for establishing physical connections
between the NodeB and the RNC.
The Iub application protocol, NodeB application part ( NBAP ) initiates the
establishment of a signaling connection over Iub . It is divided into two essential
components, CCP and NCP.
NCP is used for signaling that initiates a UE context for a dedicated UE or signals that
is not related to specific UE. Example of NBAP-C procedure are cell configuration ,
handling of common channels and radio link setup
CCP is used for signaling relating to a specific UE context.
SAAL is an ATM Adaptation Layer that supports communication between signaling
entities over an ATM link.
The user plane Iub Frame Protocol ( FP ), defined the structure of the frames and the
basic in band control procedure for every type of transport channel. There are DCHFP, RACH-FP, FACH-FP, HS-DSCH FP and PCH FP.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Iur interface connects two RNCs. The protocol stack for the Iur is shown in above slide.
The RNSAP protocol is the signaling protocol defined for the Iur interface.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Source coding can increase the transmitting efficiency.
Channel coding can make the transmission more reliable.
Spreading can increase the capability of overcoming interference.
Through the modulation, the signals will transfer to radio signals from digital
signals.
Bit, Symbol, Chip
Bit : data after source coding
Symbol: data after channel coding and interleaving
Chip: data after spreading
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
AMR is compatible with current mobile communication system (GSM, IS-95,
PDC and so on), thus, it will make multi-mode terminal design easier.
The AMR codec offers the possibility to adapt the coding scheme to the radio
channel conditions. The most robust codec mode is selected in bad
propagation conditions. The codec mode providing the highest source rate is
selected in good propagation conditions.
During an AMR communication, the receiver measures the radio link quality
and must return to the transmitter either the quality measurements or the
actual codec mode the transmitter should use during the next frame. That
exchange has to be done as fast as possible in order to better follow the evolution of
the channels quality.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Source coding can increase the transmitting efficiency.
Channel coding can make the transmission more reliable.
Spreading can increase the capability of overcoming interference.
Scrambling can make transmission in security.
Through the modulation, the signals will transfer to radio signals from digital signals.
Bit, Symbol, Chip
Bit : data after source coding
Symbol: data after channel coding and interleaving
Chip: data after spreading
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
During the transmission, there are many interferences and fading. To guarantee
reliable transmission, system should overcome these influence through the channel
coding which includes block coding, channel coding and interleaving.
Block coding: The encoder adds some redundant bits to the block of bits and
the decoder uses them to determine whether an error has occurred during the
transmission. This is used to calculate Block Error Ratio (BLER) used in the
outer loop power control.
The CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) is used for error checking of the transport
blocks at the receiving end. The CRC length that can be inserted has four different
values: 0, 8, 12, 16 and 24 bits. The more bits the CRC contains, the lower is
the probability of an undetected error in the transport block in the receiver.
Note that certain types of block codes can also be used for error correction, although
these are not used in WCDMA.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
UTRAN employs two FEC schemes: convolutional codes and turbo codes. The
idea is to add redundancy to the transmitted bit stream, so that occasional bit
errors can be corrected in the receiving entity.
The first is convolution that is used for anti-interference. Through the
technology, many redundant bits will be inserted in original information. When error
code is caused by interference, the redundant bits can be used to recover the original
information.
Convolutional codes are typically used when the timing constraints are tight.
The coded data must contain enough redundant information to make it
possible to correct some of the detected errors without asking for repeats.
Turbo codes are found to be very efficient because they can perform close to
the theoretical limit set by the Shannons Law. Their efficiency is best with
high data rate services, but poor on low rate services. At higher bit rates,
turbo coding is more efficient than convolutional coding.
In WCDMA network, both Convolution code and Turbo code are used. Convolution
code applies to voice service while Turbo code applies to high rate data service.
Note that both block codes and channel codes are used in the UTRAN. The idea
behind this arrangement is that the channel decoder (either a convolutional or turbo
decoder) tries to correct as many errors as possible, and then the block decoder (CRC
check) offers its judgment on whether the resulting information is good enough to be
used in the higher layers.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Channel coding works well against random errors, but it is quite vulnerable to
bursts of errors, which are typical in mobile radio systems. The especially fast
moving UE in CDMA systems can cause consecutive errors if the power
control is not fast enough to manage the interference. Most coding schemes
perform better on random data errors than on blocks of errors. This problem can be
eased with interleaving, which spreads the erroneous bits over a longer
period of time. By interleaving, no two adjacent bits are transmitted near to
each other, and the data errors are randomized.
The longer the interleaving period, the better the protection provided by the
time diversity. However, longer interleaving increases transmission delays and
a balance must be found between the error resistance capabilities and the
delay introduced.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Source coding can increase the transmitting efficiency.
Channel coding can make the transmission more reliable.
Spreading can increase the capability of overcoming interference.
Scrambling can make transmission in security.
Through the modulation, the signals will transfer to radio signals from digital signals.
Bit, Symbol, Chip
Bit : data after source coding
Symbol: data after channel coding and interleaving
Chip: data after spreading
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Correlation is used to measure similarity of any two arbitrary signals. It is computed by
multiplying the two signals and then summing (integrating) the result over a defined
time windows. The two signals of figure (a) are identical and therefore their
correlation is 1 or 100 percent. In figure (b) , however, the two signals are
uncorrelated, and therefore knowing one of them does not provide any information
on the other.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
By spreading, each symbol is multiplied with all the chips in the orthogonal sequence
assigned to the user. The resulting sequence is processed and is then transmitted over
the physical channel along with other spread symbols. In this figure, 4-digit codes are
used. The product of the user symbols and the spreading code is a sequence of digits
that must be transmitted at 4 times the rate of the original encoded binary signal.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
The receiver dispreads the chips by using the same code used in the transmitter.
Notice that under no-noise conditions, the symbols or digits are completely recovered
without any error. In reality, the channel is not noise-free, but CDMA system employ
Forward Error Correction techniques to combat the effects of noise and enhance the
performance of the system.
When the wrong code is used for dispreading, the resulting correlation yields an
average of zero. This is a clear demonstration of the advantage of the orthogonal
property of the codes. Whether the wrong code is mistakenly used by the target user
or other users attempting to decode the received signal, the resulting correlation is
always zero because of the orthogonal property of codes.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Traditional radio communication systems transmit data using the minimum bandwidth
required to carry it as a narrowband signal. CDMA system mix their input data with a
fast spreading sequence and transmit a wideband signal. The spreading sequence is
independently regenerated at the receiver and mixed with the incoming wideband
signal to recover the original data. The dispreading gives substantial gain proportional
to the bandwidth of the spread-spectrum signal. The gain can be used to increase
system performance and range, or allow multiple coded users, or both. A digital bit
stream sent over a radio link requires a definite bandwidth to be successfully
transmitted and received.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
For common services, the bit rate of voice call is 12.2kbps, the bit rate of video
phone is 64kbps, and the highest packet service bit rate is 384kbps(R99).
After the spreading, the chip rate of different service all become 3.84Mcps.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Spreading means increasing the bandwidth of the signal beyond the
bandwidth normally required to accommodate the information. The spreading
process in UTRAN consists of two separate operations: channelization and
scrambling.
The first operation is the channelization operation, which transforms every data
symbol into a number of chips, thus increasing the bandwidth of the signal.
The number of chips per data symbol is called the Spreading Factor (SF).
Channelization codes are orthogonal codes, meaning that in ideal
environment they do not interfere each other.
The second operation is the scrambling operation. Scrambling is used on top of
spreading, so it does not change the signal bandwidth but only makes the signals
from different sources separable from each other. As the chip rate is already
achieved in channelization by the channelization codes, the chip rate is not affected by
the scrambling.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Orthogonal codes are easily generated by starting with a seed of 1, repeating the 1
horizontally and vertically, and then complementing the -1 diagonally. This process is
to be continued with the newly generated block until the desired codes with the
proper length are generated. Sequences created in this way are referred as Walsh
code.
Channelization uses OVSF code, for keeping the orthogonality of different
subscriber physical channels. OVSF can be defined as the code tree illustrated in the
following diagram.
Channelization code is defined as Cch SF, k,, where, SF is the spreading factor
of the code, and k is the sequence of code, 0kSF-1. Each level definition
length of code tree is SF channelization code, and the left most value of each
spreading code character is corresponding to the chip which is transmitted
earliest.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
The channelization codes are Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor (OVSF) codes.
They are used to preserve orthogonality between different physical channels. They
also increase the clock rate to 3.84 Mcps. The OVSF codes are defined using a code
tree.
In the code tree, the channelization codes are individually described by Cch,SF,k, where
SF is the Spreading Factor of the code and k the code number, 0 k SF-1.
A channelization sequence modulates one users bit. Because the chip rate is
constant, the different lengths of codes enable to have different user data
rates. Low SFs are reserved for high rate services while high SFs are for low
rate services.
The length of an OVSF code is an even number of chips and the number of codes (for
one SF) is equal to the number of chips and to the SF value.
The generated codes within the same layer constitute a set of orthogonal codes.
Furthermore, any two codes of different layers are orthogonal except when one of the
two codes is a mother code of the other. For example C4,3 is not orthogonal with C1,0
and C2,1, but is orthogonal with C2,0.
SF in uplink is from 4 to 256.
SF in downlink is from 4 to 512.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
For voice service (AMR), downlink SF is 128, it means there are 128 voice
services maximum can be supported in one WCDMA carrier;
For Video Phone (64k packet data) service, downlink SF is 32, it means there
are 32 voice services maximum can be supported in one WCDMA carrier.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
In addition to spreading, part of the process in the transmitter is the
scrambling operation. This is needed to separate terminals or base stations
from each other.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Different scrambling codes will be planned to different cells in downlink.
Different scrambling codes will be allocated to different UEs in uplink.
The scrambling code is always applied to one 10 ms frame.
In UMTS, Gold codes are chosen for their very low peak cross-correlation.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
There are totally 512 primary scrambling codes defined by 3GPP. They are further
divided into 64 primary scrambling code groups. There are 8 primary scrambling codes
in every group. Each cell is allocated with only one primary scrambling code.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Source coding can increase the transmitting efficiency.
Channel coding can make the transmission more reliable.
Spreading can increase the capability of overcoming interference.
Scrambling can make transmission in security.
Through the modulation, the signals will transfer to radio signals from digital signals.
Bit, Symbol, Chip
Bit : data after source coding
Symbol: data after channel coding and interleaving
Chip: data after spreading
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
A data-modulation scheme defines how the data bits are mixed with the
carrier signal, which is always a sine wave. There are three basic ways to modulate
a carrier signal in a digital sense: amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift
keying (FSK), and phase shift keying (PSK).
In ASK the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified by the digital signal.
In FSK the frequency of the carrier signal is modified by the digital signal.
The PSK family is the most widely used modulation scheme in modern cellular systems.
There are many variants in this family, and only a few of them are mentioned here.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
In binary phase shift keying (BPSK) modulation, each data bit is transformed
into a separate data symbol. The mapping rule is 1 - 1 and 0 1. There
are only two possible phase shifts in BPSK, 0 and radians.
NRZ means none return zero.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
The quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) modulation has four phases: 0, /2,
, and 3/2 radians. Two data bits are transformed into one complex data
symbol; A symbol is any change (keying) of the carrier.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
The UTRAN air interface uses QPSK modulation in the downlink, although HSDPA may
also employ 16 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (16QAM). 16QAM requires good
radio conditions to work well. As seen, with 16QAM also the amplitude of the signal
matters.
As explained, in QPSK one symbol carries two data bits; in 16QAM each symbol
includes four bits. Thus, a QPSK system with a chip rate of 3.84Mcps could
theoretically transfer 2 3.84 = 7.68 Mbps, and a 16QAM system could
transfer 4 3.84 Mbps = 15.36 Mbps. In 3GPP also the usage of 64QAM with
HSDPA has been studied.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Source coding can increase the transmitting efficiency.
Channel coding can make the transmission more reliable.
Spreading can increase the capability of overcoming interference.
Scrambling can make transmission in security.
Through the modulation, the signals will transfer to radio signals from digital signals.
Bit, Symbol, Chip
Bit : data after source coding
Symbol: data after channel coding and interleaving
Chip: data after spreading
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
A mobile communication channel is a multi-path fading channel and any transmitted
signal reaches a receive end by means of multiple transmission paths, such as direct
transmission, reflection, scatter, etc.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Furthermore, with the moving of a mobile station, the signal amplitude, delay and
phase on various transmission paths vary with time and place. Therefore, the levels of
received signals are fluctuating and unstable and these multi-path signals, if overlaid,
will lead to fast fading. Fast fading conforms to Rayleigh distribution. The mid-value
field strength of fast fading has relatively gentle change and is called slow fading.
Slow fading conforms to lognormal distribution.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Diversity technology means that after receiving two or more input signals with
mutually uncorrelated fading at the same time, the system demodulates these signals
and adds them up. Thus, the system can receive more useful signals and overcome
fading.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
Diversity technology is an effective way to overcome overlaid fading. Because it can be
selected in terms of frequency, time and space, diversity technology includes
frequency diversity, time diversity and space diversity.
Time diversity: Channel coding
Frequency diversity: WCDMA is a kind of frequency diversity. The signal energy is
distributed on the whole bandwidth.
Space diversity: using two antennas
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
The RAKE receiver is a technique which uses several baseband correlators to
individually process multipath signal components. The outputs from the
different correlators are combined to achieve improved reliability and
performance.
When WCDMA system is designed for cellular system, the inherent widebandwidth signals with their orthogonal Walsh functions were natural for
implementing a RAKE receiver. In WCDMA system, the bandwidth is wider than
the coherence bandwidth of the cellular. Thus, when the multi-path components are
resolved in the receiver, the signals from different paths are uncorrelated with each
other. The receiver can then combine them using some combining schemes. So with
RAKE receiver WCDMA system can use the multi-path characteristics of the channel to
get signal with better quality.
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
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WCDMA RAN Fundamental
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