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Module 18 Radiographic Inspection PDF

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102 views74 pages

Module 18 Radiographic Inspection PDF

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Daniel Bernard
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Module 18 Radiographic Inspection G PART OF THE GCIL i CERTIFICATE PROGRAMS : MEL, EES a Copyright 2001 a The CWB Group aN (A Division of the CWB Group) Other programs available through the Gooderham Centre: CUSTOMIZED LEARNING PROGRAMS (CLP’S) ‘The customized Learning Programs presented by the Gooderham Centre encompass both the Block Programs formerly offered by the Bureau and the Custom Technical Learning courses (CTL), formerly available from WIC. The CLP is designed as an in-plant training program for the company’s welding staff. The programs can cover material directly related to the work undertaken at the company, or provide general welding training and manual skills upgrading. Clients can select from the Centre's existing programs or the Centre will consider preparing a program to meet the client's needs. CURRENT PROGRAM LISTING Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) ) Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) Electric Resistance Welding (ERW) Outline of CSA Standard W47.1 Outline of CSA Standard W59.1 Outline of ASME Code Section Ix Welding Metallurgy of Low Alloy and Quenched and Tempered Steels Basic Metallurgy of Welding Oxyfuel Gas Apparatus Health & Safety Soldering Theory and Techniques Inspection of Welded Aircraft Components Health and Safety in Aluminum Welding ‘Aluminum Welding Metallurgy CTOD Testing Fatigue and Fatigue Life Enhancement VYYYYYYV YY For availabilty of the programs, please contact Bruce James or Lisa Bradshaw at: (905) 542-2176 Fax: (905) 542-1837 Web: [Link] For French Langua; Service, contact Louis Croteau at 514-694-8421 Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning MODULE 18 RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION CONTENTS Introduction and objectives Basics of radiography. Principles... X-ray equipment Gamma ray source: Image formation. Verifying image quality Film processing 20 Interpretation of discontinuities . 26 Techniques 34 Effect of geometry 34 Planar flaws 35 Estimating depth of flaws 36 Backing bars... Hollow sections : Application of radiography 42 Scheduling. 42 Post-weld heat treatment . 43 Spot radiography a4 Qualifications 45 Procedures .. Acceptance criteria Inspection records and reports 49 Radiation safety. 50 ‘Warning signs 51 Controlling exposure Detecting and measuring radiation Summary Guides and exercises... Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning ~424 Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning MODULE 18 “Introduction - Objectives RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION It has been pointed out in previous modules that a good visual inspectioncan be the mosteffective way of inspecting a welded product. But a visual inspection cannot, of course, detect defects below the surface of the weld. For many applications, therefore, volumetric nondestructive testing is required and one of the main methods for doing this is radiography. Although the actual radiograph must be taken by a qualified techni- cian, the inspector plays an important role in the application of radiog- raphy: verifying when and where itis to be done; checking reports and qualifications; discussing interpretation, and so forth. ‘The inspector requires a sound knowledge of the practical aspects of applying radiog- raphy to welds anditis the intentof this module to discuss these aspects. After successful completion of this module you should be able to: Describe how radiography works Explain how images are formed and what controls their quality Discuss advantages and disadvantages of the method Recognize radiographic images of various defects Degcribe suitable techniques for different applications Discuss acceptance criteria, reports, and qualification requirements Describe basic safety practices. Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Principles BASICS OF RADIOGRAPHY Since the discovery of X-rays by W. Roentgen in 1893 and gamma (® rays by Madame Curie and H. Becquerel in 1897, Radiographic Inspection (also called radiographic testing or ‘RT’) has been an invaluable aid in “seeing inside” a weld. To accomplish this, a source of ionizing radiation is placed on one side of the component and a radiographic film, enclosed within a lightproof container, is placed opposite the radiation source on the far side of the component as shown in Fig. 1. After a calculated period of time, the radiation source is removed and the filmis chemically processed, revealing the status of the welded structure. Radiographic Inspection can be performed with either X-rays or gamma rays. Both are electromagnetic waves, (see Fig. 2), the many forms of which include light, radio waves, and microwaves. The difference between the various forms is the wavelength with X- and Figure 1. The radiographic principle. Fim wil be darkened most under the void, and Jeaet through the thickest part ef the weld. ee ¢ Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Figure 2. The electromagnetic spectrum. Annas n sate peste gamma rays having among the shortest. This property of short wave- ength enables the rays to penetrate and travel through various materials such as steel and other metals. ie wpseaaas Compared with the other inspection methods, radiography has a Merits of radiography. number of advantages and disadvantages. The reasons for these will become apparent in the remaining sections of the module but the main ones are summarized in Table 1. Itis clear from this that there will be situations where it is the preferred method of inspection but also cases where it would be a poor choice. An appreciation of the limitations, discussed in subsequent sections, is important in using the method effectively. Table 1. Main advantages and disadvantages of radiography. Advantages Disadvantages: Avolumetric method ‘Special, sometimes bulky equipment needed : Relatively quick Safety precautions requite work to stop during radiography Provides permanent record | Some detects not raliably detected | —_— Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning X-ray equipment X-rays are produced by the impact of high velocity electrons on tungsten target. The electrons are accelerated towards the target by @ high voltage (Fig. 3). The electron gun and target are sealedin a vacuum surrounded by a metallic shield with a window for the X-rays to exit. ‘There is @ control panel with adjustable controls to vary both the quantity and the quality of the X-rays and a timer tocontrol the time (see Fig. 4). Heavy duty cables connect the panel to the X-ray tube head and Compote X-ray tube Low voltage transformer for filament current ‘Motor for az tube current ‘ranstormer tor ‘accelerating voltage Figure 3. Principle of X-ray generation. Electrons are accelerated towards the ‘anode when it is positive and their impact on the tungsten target generates X-rays. the panel operates froma standard electrical supply, orin thecase of site inspections, from a portable generator. The X-ray tube is supported by an adjustable stand, The main components of an X-ray machine are shown in Fig. 5. When X-rays are generated, a substantial amount of heat is pro- duced which must be removed. The tungsten target is embedded in a copper block toconduct heat away. Thus the overall size and weight of Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Figure 4. X-ray unit showing tube head and control panel. Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Intensity Powerin Figure §. Diagram of an X-ray machine showing the main components. the equipment is controlled by the cooling mechanism which can use air, oil, gas, or water. For thin materials small easily portable tubes employ air or gas inside the tube head. However, as the heat builds up with continuous use, the oil or gas expands and triggers contacts which ‘Shorter (more penetrating) wavelengths by Increased voltage Full current Intensity doubled for ach wavelength aan 4 Interaly also increased 7 etc 4 a Wavelength Wavelength Figure 6. Effect of flament current and voltage on X-rays. Increasing the voltage decreases the wavelength which, in tum, Increases the penetrating power. ¢ Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning La automatically stop the equipment functioning until the temperature drops. With increasing thickness of materials the electrical generating requirements increase and more heat is generated thus increasing the cooling requirements, This, in tum, increases the weight of the equipment, ultimately reducing the portability. ( He ti ig ( : ‘The wavelengths produced from an X-ray tube depend largely on the voltage applied as shown in Fig. 6. Since shorter wavelengths have t greater penetrating power, higher voltages are required for inspecting 7 thicker materials. The thickness of material which can be inspected is | ‘generally related to the kilovoltage (kV) of the equipment (Table 2). ( ¢ ¢ ¢ C iG ( n q Table 2. Capacity of X-ray machines for steel. Potential ‘Maximum Thickness of Stee! 80 KV 40mm — 0.45in 100 75 0.30 150 19 0.75 200 25 1.0 ) 250 50 20 400 75 3.0 1000 125 50 2.000 250 10.0 15.000 10 24 000 500 20.0 Gamma rays are produced by the spontaneous disintegration of radioactive material. The most common industrial sources of y-rays are radioactive isotopes of iridium (Ir) and cobalt (Co), The size of the radioactive material used is very small and consists of pellets which are : ‘encased in a stainless steel capsule, Since gamma rays cannot be . switched off, the capsule is connected to a “pigtail” (Fig. 7) which is y contained in a radiographic exposure device (Fig. 8). The pigtail has a 7 mechanical adaptor at the end to connect to control cables. ‘The exposure device provides sufficient shielding through the use of very dense materials, such as lead or depleted uranium, to reduce the intensity of the gamma rays to an acceptable level. When the pigtail is ie) positioned and locked within the exposure device, the device may be used as a transportation container if it is labelled in accordance with applicable provincial and federal transportation regulations. Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Figure 7. Typical gamma ray source with contro! cable. ‘The radiographic exposure device is a simple mechanical arrange~ ‘ment. The rear of the exposure device is unlocked and aprojection cable ‘can be attached to the rear of the pigtail. The length of the projection ‘cable can vary butis generally 25 feet (7.5 m). This places the operating mechanism and the operating technician in a zone of reduced radiation intensity. Both X- and gamma ray inspection can be carried out in specially designed facilities which incorporate thick shielding walls and electri- cal door interlocks where the operating technician has greater control over restricting access of non-authorized personnel, see Fig. 9. How- ever, one ofthe greatadvantages of radiographic inspectionis portability, Hand crank Pr = ‘Source Source stop Driver cable ‘Stored Position Guide woes ‘Control cable Source ‘Source at Radiographic Site Figure 8. Example of exposure device (Isotope camera) for shielding and exposing gamma ray sources. Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning a Figure 9. Shiekied radiographic exposure room. and the same level of inspection can be carried out in fabricating shops, } construction sites, oron pipelines, Gamma rays have greater penetrat. ) ing capability but the sensitivity is less than for X-ray. ‘The sidebar } provides a comparison between X- and gamma ray radiography. ‘The value of radiography as an inspection tool depends critically on J mr I ho mage formation the quality of the image that is produced. It is important, therefore, to } understand how the image is formed and what factors influence the 1 quality.’ The image is formed by the variation in intensity of the a adiation falling on different parts of the photographic film. Differences Oo in intensity can arise because of differences in: © Gs * the thickness of material the beam must penetrate a ‘+ the type of material through which the beam must penetrate. a a Fig. 10 illustrates the two reasons for differences in intensity. € ' G a - Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning and gamma rays Comparison of X-rays 10 ‘ADVANTAGES Gamma Sources Xray Units ‘Small and portable Radiation can be shut off No electric power required Penetrating power (KV) is No electrical hazard adjustable Rugged Can be used on all materials ‘Small initial cost Provides radiographs with best High penetrating power contrast and sensitivity ‘Accass into small areas with source tube ‘Low maintenance costs DISADVANTAGES Gamma Sources Xray Units Radiation emitted continuously High initial cost Radiation hazard Requires source of electrical Penetrating power cannot be power adjusted Equipment comparatively fragile Radioisotope decays In activity Less portable requiring replacement ‘Tube head usually large in size Radiographic contrast generally Electrical hazard from high fess than X-ray ; voltage Cannot be used on ail matetials, e.g., aluminum Note: It is often found desirable to have both methods available. In deciding which method is to be used itis necessary to consider all the above features to decide which process best suits the application at hand. 27a. tee | Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning toad [Sooper | Set her) Film Figure 10. Variation in intensity of the beam reaching the film can result from differences in thickness or type of material. Contrast ‘Thus differences in thickness or material give rise to contrast on the film. If the energy of the radiation, however, is too high there is little variation in the energy transmitted by different thicknesses and poor contrast results. Thus contrast is improved by using low energy levels. But alow energy increases the exposure time required for the film so in practice there is a compromise between the energy and the exposure time. Note that the penetrating ability of the ray depends on its wave- length, the shorter wavelength having greater penetration, In an X-ray machine the wavelength is decreased by raising the voltage (kV) of the tube but this also raises the energy. Thus there is an optimum kV for each thickness to ensure penetration and achieve adequate contrast. Gamma rays have shorter wavelengths than X-rays and can be used on thicker material. But the contrast is generally poorer, Note also that the final resulting contrast also depends on the type of film used. Film contrast is the ability ofthe film to show a density difference for a given change in exposure. Film speed is the rate at which the film responds to radiation. A slow film speed generally results in a better quality radiograph but requires longer exposure times. The film type and speed should be specified in the radiography procedure and should be checked by the inspector. 1" Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Because the type of material through which the ray penetrates also affects contrast, the image may be able to identify certain materials in the weld. For example, a tungsten inclusion absorbs X-rays and so appears as a light disk on the film. Normal slag on the other hand, absorbs less rays than steel and therefore shows as a darker area on the film. ae The second important aspect of image quality is definition. This is Deninidiony the sharpness of the edge of the image. A fuzzy image has poor definition and may notreveal the defect clearly even though the contrast is adequate. Poor definition can be caused in a number of ways. First, there is inherent unsharpness due to the ray passing through the photographic film itself. As the ray strikes the film, free electrons are released which affect the film in the surrounding regions. This type of tunsharpness cannot be avoided. Figure 11. Geometric construction for determining geometric unsharpness(U, ). FILM PLANE | bbs Second, there is geometric unsharpness. This occurs because the source of radiation is nota true point source buthas afinite size. Fig. 11 illustrates how this causes fuzziness at the edge of the image. The amount of geometric unsharpness Ug, depends on the size of the source F, the object-to-source distanced, and the object-to-film distance s, and is given by Ug =H c Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning ® ' © ® Figure 12. Wlustration of the general geometric principles of shadow formation. In A the source is a point source and a sharp image is formed. In B the source thas a finite size resuting in geometric unsharpness, (the fuzzy area is sometimes a called (penumbra). In C the source is moved further away causing a decrease in the unsharpness. In D the object is closer to the film which also decreases the a unsharpness. Sketches E and F illustrate the effect of an inclined beam or an ee inclined film on the shape of the image. 1 13 Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning CONDITION CONTROL 1) Physical size of the ‘Should be as small as radiation source possible 2) Distance from the radia- Should be as great as tion source to the side of possible—within reason- the specimen facing the able exposure time source 3) Distance from the side of Should be as small as the specimen facing the possible—dependent upon source to the radiographic ‘geometry of the specimen fil Ifthe filmis placed directly against the weld the maximum distance from the film to a defect (1) is equal to the plate thickness. Note that in thick plate a defect in the bottom of a weld close to the film will appear sharper than one at the top. Fig. 12 illustrates how geometry can affect the quality of image produced. Table 3. Control of geometric unsharpness. Since the source size is determined by the equipment and the plate thicknessis given, the only means of controlling the degree of geometric unsharpness is by changing the source-to-weld distance (Table 3), Increasing this reduces Ug and produces a sharper image. But it also reduces the intensity of the rays reaching the film (see Fig. 13) and increases the exposure time required. In practice, therefore, itis usual tocalculate the minimum source distance required to give the specified degree of unsharpness since this gives the minimumexposure time. For example, CSA W59-89 specifies a maximum unsharpness of 0.127 mm (0.005 in.) for a thickness of 25.5 mm (1 in.). For a source size of 4 mm. (0.157 in.) the minimum source distance would be d= fe FP = B03 om @2in) 4 Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Ve Source dy = 2d, Areaatd = 4x Areaatd, Intensity atd 2 = 1/4x intensity at d, Figure 13. The effect of distance on intensity. The intensity follows the ‘inverse ‘square law.’ Thus doubling the distance reduces the intensity four times. A further contribution to poor image quality can come from scat- teredradiation. Any material in the path of the beamcan cause scattered rays which can affect the film and image quality (Fig. 14). Rays may be scattered from behind the weld (back scatter) or from the weld itself forward scatter). Back scattered radiation is reduced by alead sheet on the back side of the film and forward scattered radiation is reduced by a thin lead sheet on the front side of the film. The thin sheet of lead is not so thick as to absorb the main beam but will absorb the scattered radiation since it has a larger wavelength and lower energy. Contrast in an image may be increased by using image intensifiers. The thin lead screens used to reduce forward scattered radiation also intensify the image by emitting electrons when struck by the radiation, Thus they serve a dual purpose. In addition, fluorescent screens intensify the image by emitting light when struck by radiation. Fluores- cent image intensifiers, however, reduce the definition in the image because the light emitted is diffused through the screen, ' 16 Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning wack scarten | hae ae ese, ong, Wetec ee IE need Figure 14. Scattered radiation can reduce image quality. The effects can be Iinimized by using thin lead sheets as shown. To verify that adequate sensitivity (ic., contrast and definition) has been achieved in the image an Image Quality Indicator (IQI) or penetrameter is used. This device is placed alongside the weld being inspected and the radiographic image is obtained simultaneously with the weld image. The image quality indicator is made from material radiographically similar to the weld specimen. Thedimensionsare such that the size of the IQT is related to the thickness of the weld specimen and is generally expressed as a percentage of the specimen thickness. 1 Verifying Ir quality i ‘The use of the 1QI fulfils the definition of radiographic sensitivity: the smallest change in specimen thickness that can be seen on a radiograph, usually expressed as a percentage of the material thickness being inspected. For example, a 2% sensitivity on 25 mm thickness means a thickness change of 0.5 mm is detectable, ‘The most commonly used IQI’s are the ASTM plaque type and the wire type, see Fig. 15. Selection and use is governed by the applicable code or standard determined by the end use of the component. ‘ 16 Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Idontfeaon sro ele = Design for penetrameter thickness LD) rom 0.005" and including 0.050". ae ar Design for panetrameter thickness from 0.060" to and including 0.160*. f-AT dam. —rdiam, Mads in 0.010 increments. ~ Wires equal spaced i ‘encapsulated betwaen two heats of clear Plastic Material ‘grade number Set identifiation lettre Figure 15. Image Quality indicators (10!) or Penetrameters (ASTM ). 1” Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Table 4. Standard penetrameter thickness requirements (CSA W59-M69). Penetrameter Material Thickness | Thickness Range (mm) (mm) Number Upto 13 0.255 10 Over 1310 16 0.320 12 16 to 19 0.380 15 19022 0.445 7 221025 0.510 20 25 to 32 0.695 25 : 321038 0.760 30 : 98 t0 51 0.890 35 51 to 64 1.02 40 641076 1.15 45 76 to 102 1.27 50 102 to 152 1.52 60 152 to 203 2.03, 80 Notes: (1) For X-ray the image of the 2T hole shall appear clearly on the radiograph. (2) For gamma ray the stee! thickness less than 32 mm the image of the 4T hole shail appaar clearly on the radiograph. (8) For gamma ray the steel thickness equal to or greater than 32 mm the image of the 2 hole shall appear clearly on the radiograph. ‘The thickness of the Image Quality Indicator is selected from the appropriate table listed in the governing code and is designated by the number on the IQI which will be projected onto the film. CSA W59 requirements are shown in Table 4. The drilled holes are numerically related to the thickness of the 1QI, e.g., the largest hole diameter is four times the thickness of the IQI, the next diameter is two times the thickness of the IQI with the smallest diameter being equal to the thickness of the QI. ' 18 Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning ‘The sensitivity requirements specify that the outline of the IQU and the required hole must be clearly distinguished according to the appli- cable code, It should be noted that the purpose of the IQT is to verify that the correct procedure and technique have been followed. Itis not intended to judge discontinuity size, As most radiographic inspections are not performed during regular hours, thus rarely witnessed, the radiographic image of the IQlis the only verification that the inspection was carried. out as intended. Location and ‘orientation of enetrameter, and shim when required. aala2%et Alternative location and orientation of penetrameter: {and of shim when required, Lead characters for matching film to weld after processing. — Lead characters identifying the weld (optional location).* “The weld identification er ary addltonal Information required may be provided by ead charactors or other means such as fim Impaote. Figure 16. Location of penetrameters (CSA W59-M1989) for plates of ‘equal thickness. ‘ General rules that apply to the use of IQI’s are: + Location of the IQI should be in the worst geometrical position — at the outer edge of the radiation beam. Fig. 16 shows the location as required by CSA W59-M1989, 19 Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning on’ ‘covered by corr nding lead markers + 1QI should be made from material which is radiographically similar to the specimen material. + IQI should be placed on the surface of the specimen facing the source of radiation. If this is not physically possible, as in the case of a contact exposure on a four inch diameter pipe weld (discussed in a later section), then the IQI may be placed on the film side of the specimen, When this situation occurs the IQI must be reduced one size. Figure 17. Method of identitication of overlapping radiographs on a seam weld. Film processing ‘When seam welds are radiographed the individual shots must be overlapped as shown in Fig. 17. Each section must be identified on the weld and on the radiograph. ‘After exposure, the film is chemically processed to develop the image on the film. Great care must be taken to follow the approved procedure as developing artifacts may be caused leading to misinterpre- tation. Radiographic film is sensitive to light and must be handled and processed under filtered light in a darkroom, 20 Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning ‘Appearance of Defect Finely motted tog. Fogonedge orcomerot film, ‘General fog with or with- out refiections from sur- face below it. Dark circular or pear- shaped marks. Dark spots or areas, sometimes, marble-like Dark branched lines, dark spots, Dark lines or cracks. Dark fingerprints, Dark spots or streaks, Film processing and handling marks (a) DARK SHADOWS. Exposure to white light; fautty closure of good cassette or use of detective cassette. Exposure too near (or for too ong) to satelight or to overbright Safelight; general tog may also bbe due to over-development or tousing old film which may have been badly stored. Developer spiashes before im- ‘mersing whole filmin developer. Insutticient fixation, Marks due to static electrical dis- charges. ‘Scratches or cracks in lead In- tensitying screens, ‘ Film touched before develop- ‘ment with fingers contaminated with chemicals, forexample, cer- tain metai sats, Contamination of film by metallic. Particles or metallic sats. a ‘Suggested Preventive Use fresh film; do not hold too large a stock. Handle filminpropersafelighting conditions; fasten cassettes Properly; repair or replace faulty cassettes. Use recommended safelight un- der the conditions indicated by the filmmanutacturer. Use fresh film free from fog; develop for Fecommended time at recom- mended temperature. Fix for correct time. If this fails Use fresh fixing solution. Avoid rubbing or sliding one film ‘on anotherordrawingtilmquickty {from wrapping paper. Replace screens, Handle film by the edges with clean hands and use the protec- tive folder as long as possible. Use only stainless steel, nickel cr plastic stirrers, etc. Avoid chipped enamel containers for fixing solutions. Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning ‘Appearance of Defect Lightareas usually cres- cent shaped. Light circular patches. Light fingerprints. Circular or‘drop'-shaped light patches. Light spots or areas. Light spots or lines. Light spots or streaks. (b) LIGHT SHADOWS, Probable Cause Pressure marks due to taulty handling of film, for example, buckling or localized pressure onthe film or to a residue of fixer ‘onthe hangerfromprevious use. ‘Air bubbles on film during devel- ‘opment. Film touched before develop- ment with greasy fingers. ‘Splashes of water orfixer on film prior to development. Dust or paper between the film and the intensifying screens, Spots on, or cracks in, fluores- cent intensifying screens. Contamination of film surface with olf before development or oil in the developer. Flim processing and handling marks ‘Suggested Preventive Handle film with care; moon- shaped pressure marks are avoided by handling the film by ‘one comer and by keeping itflat. Rinse and dry hangers before using. Agitationimmediately onimmer- ‘sion during development. See detect, ‘Dark fingerprints.” Use new screensif marks cannot be removed by washing with a ‘good soda-free soap. ‘Handle film only with clean han keep developer {ree {rom con- taminants. Processing takes place in three stages: first, the film is immersed in a developer—typically for five minutes at 20°C—until the image appears. Next, the developer action is halted by immersion in a stop bath. Third, the film is immersed in the fixer solution which prevents any further change in the film. After processing, all traces of chemicals are removed by immersing in a tank of clean flowing water. ‘The film is finally immersed in a wetting agent and water solution (to prevent watermarks) then dried. Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Film processing and handling marks {c) MISCELLANEOUS Probable Cause Suggested Preventive Sharply outlined light or | Non-uniform flow of developer | Maintain the uniform flow of de- dark areas. ‘over film when immersing it in | veloper over the fllm when im- the developer. ‘mersing init, and agitate the film during development. ‘Small depressions with | Bacterlal action In processing, | Avoid washing in water which is black edges. generally In tropical climates. | too warm and avoid drying in too damp an atmosphere. ‘Wavymarble-lkemarks, | Insutficientagitation ofdeveloper increaseddensity below | during development of film. lightareas, reduced den- sity below dark areas. Solatization(tone rever- | Lengthyexposuretounsafelight | Avoid light fogging: check safe- ' sal. after exposure. lights. Reticulation (ikegrainot | Differences in temperature be- | Keep solution temperatures uni- leather). tween successive baths, form, Images of wood grain, | Previous exposure of film to X- | Store films away from X-ray and wall-bricks, etc. rays or gamma rays, gamma ray sources. Radiographic film must be handled carefully. Avoid moist or dirty | chanaling ot si: fingers. Do not draw the film rapidly from cartons or film cassettes, Hee ‘Quick movements can cause friction-static which will mark the film po with circular tree-like markings. Dirty hands can transfer dirt or grease ;O to the film. All film should be handled by the corners. Film must not a be crimped before or after exposure—this will lead to pressure marks. Oo All film should be handled and kept on the dry side of the darkroom until i ready for processing as splashes from the developer can lead to dark HO spots on the film, gee oO 1 23 Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Viewing Failure to agitate during each stage of processing can lead to streaks and uneven density. Water spots and streaks will result if a wetting agent is not used. Yellow stains can result from processing in old developer, failure to use a stop bath, or using an old bath. The most ‘common yellow stain is from exhausted fixer. ‘Too high a temperature of the developer can lead to an overall fog andalow temperature can cause poorcontrast. The sidebars summarize some processing and handling problems. Radiographs must be viewed with a proper viewer (Fig. 18), pref erably with a means of controlling the light intensity. You cannot view a radiograph properly by holding it up to a light or a window! The viewer should be located in a special viewing room with subdued lighting, good ventilation, and a convenient writing area, Figure 18. Typical radiograph viewer. ‘There are some simple rules for viewing which should be followed by the observer: + Before removing aradiograph from the illuminator, slip another one ‘beneath itor shutoff the ight source by means of afootcontrol. This prevents the eye from being subjected to extremely bright light. + Cutoff the glare from lighter areas and around the edges of the film by masking. 24 Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Density ‘+ The viewing room should be illuminated by a low intensity light source giving no front reflection from the film. + Allow five to ten minutes for the eyes to become accustomed to the subdued lighting after coming in from full daylight. Figure 19. Densttometer for determining tlm density. ‘The degree of blackness on the film is known as the density. Itcan ‘be measured with an instrument known as a densitometer (Fig. 19) and is expressed as a number (on a logarithmic stale). ‘The range of acceptable density on a radiograph is usually specified. For example, CSA WS9-89 requires the density to be in the range 1.5 to 3.5. The International Institute of Welding has given recommendations for the viewer brightness according to the film density. The recommendations state that the luminance of the illuminated radiograph should not be less than 30 candelas/metre? and whenever possible 100 cd/m? minimum. To achieve this the illuminator brightness must be: Forfilm density 1.0 brightness. = 300 cd/m? 7 20 . = 3.000 cd/m? . 3.0 - = 30.000 cd/m? Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Anyone interpreting @ radiograph must have adequate eyesight, wearing glasses if necessary. Minimum requirements are normally detailed in the applicable standard. An inspector, even though not formally interpreting radiographs, must meet minimum vision require- Interpretation of discontinuities © ments to be certified under CSA W178.2 (see Module 16). For the interpretation of fine detail a low power (ie., x 4 to x 8) ‘magnifying glass can be used. Interpretation of the radiograph is usually done by a certified radiographer but the inspector is often involved in reviewing radio- ‘graphs and should be able to recognize the images of weld defects. Figure 20. All discontinue in a volume ‘are projected onto a single plane thereby exaggerating the apparent density of flaws. During interpretation it must be remembered that a radiograph illustrates a three-dimensional objectin two dimensions, and all defects occurring throughout the complete depth of weld appear in one plane. ‘This can exaggerate the apparent density or spacing of flaws (Fig. 20). Experience and knowledge of the welding procedure employed assists in assessing the vertical distribution of defects. ‘The objective of radiography is volumetric inspection but the interpretation of radiographs can be hampered by the images of surface features. Surface condition prior to radiography is therefore very important (Fig. 21). 26 nt : Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning HK ‘The weld surtace should have an acceptable profile without ridges and valleys that eould obscure internal detects Ends of weids ehould bbe smooth without" Rincon may eppeer as itemal Sotects on he tn Figure 21. Surface condition prior to radiography is very important. A thorough visual inspection of the weld surface will detect the following discontinuities and will allow them to be rectified before radiography is performed: undercutting, incompletely filled groove, chipping or grinding marks, spatter, overlap, crater cracks, and mis- alignment which could resultindifficulty in interpreting the radiograph. Film indications produced by surface defects are as follows: * Undercut produces a dark line usually broad and diffuse along one or both edges at the junction of the weld bead and the parent metal (Fig. 22). + Weld spatter produces round light indications on the weld image and adjacent metal (Fig. 23). + Suck-back shows asa broad darker area along the centre of the weld ig. 24). + Chipping marks produce round or elongated dark spots which are easily confused with intemal defects. However, chipping hammer marks usually occur on both the weld and parent plate, while intemal weld defects, of course, do not. Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Figure 22, Radiograph showing undercut along the upper edge of the weld. ‘Note the image of the penetrameter in the lower left comer. | Figure 23. Radiograph showing spatter. + Surface cracks produce a fine dark line either straight or irregular, tapering at the ends and possibly discontinuous (Fig. 26). + Surface porosity is typified by rounded dark indications. ‘Some of the images formed by internal discontinuities are showa in Figs. 25 t0 35. Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Figure 24. Radiograph of suck-back. Figure 25. Radiograph of transverse crack. Figure 26. Radiograph of longitudinal surface crack. Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Figure 27. Radiograph of root crack. Figure 28. Radiograph of crack in parent metal adjacent to a weld. + Internal cracks appear as fine dark lines, either straight or irregular. Cracks are classified as longitudinal, transverse, root or crater cracks depending upon direction and location (Figs. 25 to 28). ‘+ Porosity or gas pockets in a weld show on the radiograph as round or slightly elongated dark spots. These may be fine or coarse and may be widely scattered, in line, or grouped in a cluster. Greatly elongated holes called piping or worm holes may alsooccur (Figs. 29 1031). Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Figure 29. Radiograph showing scattered porosity. Figure 30. Radiograph showing starting porosity. Figure 31. Radiograph showing aligned porosity at root of weld. 3 Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning + Slag inclusions may occur in a variety of shapes ranging from a small single inclusion to a continuous slag line. Depending upon their form, they appear on the radiograph as irregular shaped dark areas or continuous dark lines of irregular width, parallel tothe weld bead (Fig. 32). + Lack of fusion is difficult to reveal by radiography. When detected it appears as a diffuse and wavy dark line, parallel to the weld Fig. 33). + Incomplete penetration appears on the radiograph as a straight dark ine, continuous, or intermittent. It will run down the middle of a groove weld (Fig. 34). + Bum-through oricicles are aresultof excessive penetration. Round, light areas in the middle of the bead are typical (Fig. 35). ‘+ Tungsten inclusions can occur when the tip of a tungsten electrode drops into the weld pool. They show as small white disks on the radiograph. Figure 32. Radiograph showing slag lines. Ft Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Figure 33. Radiograph showing lack of fusion. Figure 34. Radiograph showing incomplete penetration, Figure 35. Radiograph showing bum-through. Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning TECHNIQUES ‘The image in a radiograph depends on detecting differences in the intensity of radiation reaching the film. Differences can be created not only by the presence of discontinuities but also by the shape of the ‘componentitself, For example, radiation passing through the round bar shown in Fig, 36 penetrates a far greater thickness of material in the centre than at the edge. If the film is correctly exposed for the middle portion it will be overexposed for the edge with no usable image. Where ‘edge losses of this type occur additional shots are required from another angle to inspect all the material. Fig. 37 shows two shots at 90° to each other are required for a thin-walled small diameter tube. In general, the location of the source and film should be chosen to minimize the ratio of the thickest to thinnest metal penetrated. At the same time the total distance penetrated should be minimized to increase sensitivity to internal flaws and reduce exposure times. In addition, ‘where two or more welds are close the position of the source and film should be selected to avoid overlap of the images from the welds. With these considerations in mind a suitable angle for shooting the fillet weld td xrays Figure 36. The shape of a component atfects the image. In this example edge Joss occurs because of the differences in thickness penetrated. C Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning : | \ Film 2 aa Film Figure 37. Using two shots to radiograph a small diameter tube producing an eliptical image. Optimum angie in this range’ This beam at a large Thls beam penetrates too ‘angle intorfores with much base metal thus second weld and ‘obscuring root of weld, Penetrates too much base metal. Figure 38. Optimum angle for shooting this fillet weld determined by geometrical constraints. ‘Because of such constraints, radiography is not normally recommended for filet walds. illustrated in Fig. 38 would be about 15°-20°. In general, however, radiography is not suitable for fillet welds and is not recommended by CSA w59. Many flaws, such as cracks and lack of fusion, are thin in one direction but may be long in the other directions, i., they are planar discontinuities. If the beam traverses the thin direction there may not ‘be enough difference in intensity to produce an image, and the flaw is Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Atthis angle the defect fits anole the Pater: offers a small dimension to detect presents alarge dimension to the path of the beam. the beam and there is ttle difference in intensity striking the film, Figure 39. Planar flaws such as lack of side wall fusion may not be detected unless the beam is at a favourable angle. ‘Shape of flaws: Estimating dopth of flav not detected. Fig. 39 shows lack of fusion which may not be detected ‘unless the beam is parallel to the long dimension. Knowledge of the welding procedure is helpful in selecting the best radiographic tech- nique. For example, for a double V groove weld with 60° included angles, two shots at 30° either side of the normal to the plate would maximize the chance of finding lack of fusion on the side wall. Unfortunately, this effect means serious planar defects such as cracks can easily be missed with radiography and is a limitation of the method. Radiography is more effective for volumetric flaws such as porosity than for planar flaws. In special cases, taking shots from several angles may assist in defining the type and shape of flaws, important in assessing their significance. The sidebar shows an example where a fillet weld was radiograplied from several angles to define the shape, size, and position of elongated porosity. ‘Multiple shots are not always necessary to estimate the depth of a defect and much can be learned from single radiographs, Estimating depth from a single shot is not, however, a perfect science and other methods (such as ultrasonic examination) are usually more appropriate. “The inspector is advised to seek expert advice where possible, Estimat- ing the depth of a defect is important both in determining the type and “a 4 4 ‘ ‘ 1G Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning Example of Special Technique for Identification of Flaw Shape Elongated porosity in the fillet weld. Geometric arrangement for shots at various angles. I) Orga shot 15 Mpeg Fre ag Te etn 1 wif 45 tromwab ede Seacriea lorecti atu eet oredr ‘Appearance of radiographs. At 60° the flaws appear as WSfimonweldsle eye ty aa ay a ‘small dots thus confirming the narrow, elongated shape of : the flaws. Serene Ney a gta 45 fimon wettsde Pt mar em 37 Gooderham Centre for Industrial Learning cause of a defect and also in planning the repair. Knowingthelocation | through the thickness allows gouging to be done from the closest side which minimizes the cost—particularly important in thick material. Tt is sometimes advantageous to make a tracing of the weld which can be superimposed on the radiograph to help locate defects. ‘the radlograph, the defect _- phapraptinm (ae a Having knowledge of the joint geometry prior to welding can be very helpful in detect location. |. Detects showing one or bath gest be vary straight can be assumed tobe associated wth the ) brignal preparation KJ Figure 40. Knowledge of the joint ZnS geometry helps in estimating detect depth. ‘SOURCE SIDE Defects near the source side will appear with less,

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