FE Review
Geotechnical Engineering
January, 2016
Soil Properties and
Classification
Definition of Soil
An assemblage (or system) of particles
that vary in size, shape and chemical
composition
Particle shapes
Cohesionless soil (sand and gravel)
Spheroid shape (tiny pebbles)
Cohesive soil (silt and clay)
Flat platelets (confetti of plastic wrap)
Size of Particles
Gravel
4.75mm to 75mm
Sand
0.075mm to 4.75mm
Silt and clay smaller than 0.075mm
4.75mm = No. 4 sieve (4 openings/inch)
0.075mm = No. 200 sieve (200 openings/in.)
Grain Size (sieve) Analysis
Quantifying Gradation
Uniformity Coefficient
Cu = D60/D10
Coefficient of Gradation (curvature)
Cc = D302/ (D60 x D10) Where,
D60 = Diameter at which 60% of grains are passing
D10 = Diameter at which 10% of grains are passing
D30 = Diameter at which 30% of grains are passing
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Soils with Fines (-200 sieve)
Moisture line (increasing)
Solid
State
Non-plastic
State
SL,(s)
Plastic
State
LL,(l)
PL,(p)
SL = Shrinkage Limit
PL = Plastic Limit
LL = Liquid Limit
Liquid
State
Atterberg Limits
PI (Ip) = Plasticity Index = LL - PL
Unified Soil Classification System
Primary Descriptions
G = Gravel, S = Sand, C = Clay, M = Silt
Secondary Descriptions
P
= Poorly Graded
W
= Well Graded
L
= Low Plasticity
H
= High Plasticity
O
= Organic soil
Pt
= Highly organic soil (peat)
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A soil has 3 phases
Solids
Voids
Filled with air and/or
water
Idealized Phase Diagram
Vv
Va
Air
Vw
Water
Ww
Wt
Vt
Vs
Solids
Ws
Soil Properties
Void Ratio:
Porosity:
Moisture Content:
Deg. of Saturation:
e = Vv/Vs
= Vv/Vt
= Ww/Ws
S = (Vw/Vv) X 100
Helpful Relationships
Specific Gravity: Gs = solid mineral/ w
= e/(1+e)
e = /(1- )
(Gs) () = (S) (e) (S as decimal)
Unit Weight:
t = Wt/Vt (lbs./ft.3), sometimes called
density
Consider the 1 cubic foot box
Unit Weights
d = Ws/Vt
m = (Ws + Ww)/Vt
sat = (Ws + Ww)/Vt
@ S = 100%
Buoyant (effective) unit weight:
b = sat - w (w =62.4pcf)
Relative Density:
Dr = [(emax-e)/(emax-emin)] X100
d = ((w) (Gs))/(1+e)
m = ((w) (Gs)(1+ ))/(1+e)
Dry unit weight:
Moist unit weight:
Saturated unit weight:
Verifying Compaction
Determine the in-place unit weight (dry density) and
compare it to a sample compacted under consistent
laboratory conditions
Proctor Test
Start with dry soil samples
Add some water and compact the soil in a mold
of known value with a consistent amount of
energy and measure the dry unit weight
Repeat the process incrementally adding water
and plot the dry density vs. moisture content
MDD = Maximum Dry Density = Dry Unit
Weight at the peak of the curve
OMC = Optimum Moisture Content =
moisture content corresponding to MDD
In-place Density Determination
Methods
Drive Sleeve Method
Sand Cone Method
Nuclear Gauge
Procedure
Measure the in-place total density and moisture
Calculate the in-place dry density
Compare the in-place dry density with the MDD
Determine if specified % density has been met
(90%, 95% etc.)
In-place Density Report
Permeability and Groundwater
Flow
Flow Net Rules
Flow Velocity Through Porous Media
Face Velocity; v = Q/A = ki (also known as Darcy Velocity, Hydraulic Velocity or Specific Discharge
Seepage Velocity; vs = v/n (n = porosity)
Shallow Foundations 1
Bearing Capacity
The Purpose of Foundations
P
P = foundation load (lbs)
B
qs = soil pressure (lbs/ft2)
Individual Column Footing
Continuous Wall Footing
qs = soil pressure = P/Af
qs = soil pressure = W/B
P = Concentrated foundation load,
point load (Kilopounds = 1000
pounds, Kips)
W = Continuous foundation load,
wall/strip load (Kips/lineal foot)
B = Width of footing (ft)
Af = Area of footing (ft2, B x L)
P = 100 K
B = 5 ft, L = 5ft, Af = 5 x 5 = 25 sq. ft.
qs = 100 K 25 sq. ft. = 4 K/sq. ft.
W = 9 kip/lin. ft. = 9 K/ft
B = 3 ft
qs = 9 K/ft 3 ft = 3 K/sq. ft.
Pressure from Point Loads (Boussinesqs Equation)
Pressure from Applied Distributed Loads
The 60 degree Method
Pressure from Applied Distributed Loads
0.28
Applied Stress from Uniform
Circular Load
Pressure from Applied Distributed Loads
Applied Stress from Uniform
Infinite and Square Footings
Reaction of Soil Under Load
1. Shear Failure (bearing capacity)
Based on soil strength
2. Settlement (compression/consolidation)
Based on soil compressibility
Stress- strain
Strength Parameters Cohesionless Soils
Cohesionless soil strength based on
intergranular friction
Particles must slip over each other (two pieces
of coarse sandpaper)
Strength Parameters Cohesive Soils
Strength based on inter-granular attraction
(stickiness), like two pieces of plastic wrap
The strength parameter for cohesive soil is
Cohesion, C, lbs/ft2
Cohesion is determined in the laboratory
(unconfined compressive strength)
C = q; q = unconfined compressive strength
Soils can have strength from both C and
S = C + tan
Bearing Capacity Failure
P
B
B
Rotational failure
Soil along the failure surface resists failure
Types of Bearing Capacity Shear
General Shear
Sudden failure, medium dense soil
Local shear
Not as sudden, irregular, loose soil
Punching shear
Not rotational, but vertical
Very loose soil
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2011 Cengage Learning Engineering. All
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Terzaghi Meyerhoff Bearing Capacity
Equation
To determine the ultimate bearing capacity (continuous footing,
general shear)
qu = CNc + qNq + 0.4 BN where;
C = Cohesion
q = Soil stress at footing level = Df ;
Df = depth of footing, = unit weight of soil
Nc, Nq, N = Bearing capacity factors based on
Equation is similar for square footings
For individual column footings (square or round), apply shape
factors to Nc and N
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2011 Cengage Learning Engineering. All
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Principles of Foundation Engineering
2011 Cengage Learning Engineering. All
Rights Reserved.
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Water Table Effects
Case 2
If 0 < d < B . . . make
1 modification to
equation
In 3rd factor, =
= b + d/B x (m - b)
Case 1
If 0 < D1 < Df . . . make
2 modifications to equation
Case 3
If d B . . . no modifications
q = D1m + D2b
Water table is at a depth greater
than or equal to the footing width.
No effect on failure zone
In 3rd factor, = b
Consolidation and Foundation
Settlement
Why do Footings Settle?
1. Loaded foundation causes increase in stress
within underlying soils (pavg)
2. Soil reacts to increased stress by compressing
3. As soil compresses, the ground above
deflects and the footing settles
Two Modes of Settlement
1. Consolidation (long term) settlement
Applicable to cohesive soils (clay and silt)
Primary mechanism is dissipation of pore water
pressure (plastic settlement)
Void ratio decreases as pressure increases
Since soil has very low permeability, water
escapes very slowly, thus compression (and
settlement) occurs very slowly (long term)
Consolidation States
Normally consolidated
Soil element is currently at the highest pressure
that it has ever been at (p0 = pc, where pc is preconsolidation pressure)
Over consolidated
Soil element has, in the past, experienced a higher
pressure than it has currently (pc > p0)
Two Modes of Settlement
(continued)
2. Immediate (short term) settlement
Applicable to cohesionless soils (sand)
Primary mechanism is reorganization of soil
particles
High permeability, soil drains quickly; little or no
soil water pressure
Soil is modeled as an elastic medium (spring) with
an elastic soil modulus (Es)
Consolidation Test
Consolidation Equation
(Normally Consolidated)
Sc = Cc Hc
1+e0
p0 + pavg
log
p0
Sc = Calculated settlement
Cc = Compression index (virgin curve)
Hc = Thickness of soil layer
e0 = Void ratio before load is applied
P0 = Average in-situ soil pressure
pavg = Average pressure increase from load
Consolidation Equation
Over-consolidated where p0 + pavg < pc
Sc = CR Hc
p0 + pavg
(eq. 5.82)
log
1+e0
p0
Over-consolidated where p0 < pc < p0 + pavg
Sc = CR Hc
pc Cc Hc
p0 + pavg
log
log
+
1+e0
p0 1+e0
pc
CR = Swelling or Recompression Index
pc = Pre-consolidation pressure
Virgin Curve
Approximation
Recompression Curve
Approximation
Combined Stress and Mohrs
Circle
Lateral Earth Pressure and
Retaining Walls
Vertical Stress (Pressure)
P
Lateral Pressure
Lateral Earth Pressure; Typical Applications
Basements
Retaining Walls
Sea Walls
Three Soil States
1. At Rest state
2. Active state
3. Passive state
At Rest State
Soil is not moving . . . at rest
v (pv)
h (ph)
h = vK0
m = 110 lbs/ft3
= 30o
10
Rigid Pipe
Calc. lateral earth pressure on pipe
K0 = 1 sin =1- sin 30 o = 0.50
K0 = Coefficient of Earth v = pv = md = (110pcf)(10) = 1100 psf
pressure at rest
h = ph = v K0 = (1100psf)(0.5)
= 550 psf
For cohesionless soil;
K0 = 1 sin
Lateral Stresses on Walls
Vertical and horizontal stresses
increase with depth
z
@ z=0, v = (m)(0) h = (K0)(0) = 0
d
@ z=d/2, v = (m)(d/2) h = (K0)(m)(d/2)
@ z=d, v = (m)(d) h = (K0)(m)(d)
Unyielding, Smooth Wall
Lateral Stress Diagram
Horizontal stress varies linearly with
depth creating a triangle stress
diagram
h
P
h @ z=h
b
h/3
The total force P (per lineal foot of
wall) equals the area of the
diagram; P = (b)(h)
Where; h = depth of the wall
b = h at bottom of wall
b = (K0)(m)(h)
P = (K0)(m)(h)(h)
= (K0)(m)(h2)
P acts at the centroid of the stress
Diagram (1/3)(h)
Example
m = 110lbs/ft3
sat = 120 lbs/ft3
b = 57.6 lbs/ft3
10
P
h/3
h @ 10
K0 = 0.45
Calc. lateral soil force against the
unyielding wall
h @ 10 = (v @ 10)(K0)
= (m)(10ft)(K0)
= (110 pcf)(10)(0.45) = 495 psf
P = bh (area of diagram)
P = (495 psf)(10 ft) = 2,475 lbs
(per lineal foot of wall)
A Wrinkle in the Example (water table @ 3 ft.)
3
10
h @ 0 = v @ 0 = 0
h @ 3 = v @ 3 (K0) = 110 pcf(3)(0.45) = 149 psf
h @ 10 = v @ 10 (K0) = {(3)(110)+(57.6)(7)}(.45) = 330
psf
h @ 3 = 149 psf
h @ 10 = 330 psf
Water pressure
10 = 7(62.4 pcf)
= 437 psf
Total lateral force, Ptot = area of both stress diagrams
3
P1
149 psf
P2
7
330 psf
P3
437 psf
P1 = (149 psf)(3) = 224 lbs/ft of wall (fow)
P2 = (149 psf + 330 psf)(7) = 1676 lbs/fow
Total lateral soil force = P1 + P2 = 224 + 1676 = 1900 lbs/fow
P3 = (437 psf)(7) = 1530 lbs/fow
Total lateral force = P1 + P2 + P3 = 1900 + 1530 = 3430 lbs/fow
Compare with no WT case, Ptot = 2475 lbs/fow (nearly 40% higher)
Common Stress States for Wall Design
Active
Passive
Soil
Soil
Wall moves away from soil
(soil is a causing force)
Wall moves toward soil
(soil is a resisting force)
Active State
Failure Wedge
45o + /2
Ka = coefficient of active earth pressure = tan2 (45o - /2)
Calculate lateral pressure the same as for At Rest state,
but substitute Ka into the analysis
Passive State
Failure Wedge
45o - /2
Kp = coefficient of passive earth pressure = tan2 (45o + /2)
Calculate lateral pressure the same as for At Rest and
Active states, but substitute Kp into the analysis
Example
m = 110 lbs/ft2
= 30 degrees
H1 = 10ft
H2 = 3ft
Will wall translate to the left
(failure)
Pp > Pa not to fail
Ka = tan2 (45o /2) = 0.33
Kp = tan2 (45o + /2) = 3.0
Generally, active pressure will work to cause failure
while passive pressure works to prevent failure
Pressure Diagrams
Pa
Pp
p @ 3 = v @ 3 (Kp)
= 110 pcf(3)(3.0) = 990 psf
a @ 10 = v @ 10 (Ka)
= 110 pcf(10)(0.33) = 363 psf
Pp = (990)(3) = 1485 lbs/fow
Pa = (363)(10) = 1815 lbs/fow
Pa > Pp
Causing force is greater then resisting force and wall will fail
Slope Stability
Rshear = SL = cL
Rfriction = W (cos ) (tan )
Tff = Rtotal = cL + W (cos ) (tan )
Tmob = W (sin )
Rshear = SL = cL
Rfriction = W (cos ) (tan )
Tff = Rtotal = cL + W (cos ) (tan )
Tmob = W (sin )
Rshear = SL = cL
Rfriction = W (cos ) (tan )
Tff = Rtotal = cL + W (cos ) (tan )
Tmob = W (sin )
Acknowledgements
Some information presented in this review has
been obtained from sources noted within and
also from;
Foundation Engineering, Braja M. Das, 7th Edition
Test Masters Review
Learn Civil Engineering
All information included herein is used strictly
for academic purposes
