Soldering

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(De)soldering a contact from a wire.

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Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and
flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a relatively low melting point. Soft
soldering is characterized by the melting point of the filler metal, which is below 400 C
(752 F).[1] The filler metal used in the process is called solder.
Soldering is distinguished from brazing by use of a lower melting-temperature filler metal; it is
distinguished from welding by the base metals not being melted during the joining process. In a
soldering process, heat is applied to the parts to be joined, causing the solder to melt and be
drawn into the joint by capillary action and to bond to the materials to be joined by wetting
action. After the metal cools, the resulting joints are not as strong as the base metal, but have
adequate strength, electrical conductivity, and water-tightness for many uses. Soldering is an
ancient technique mentioned in the Bible[2] and there is evidence that it was employed up to 5000
years ago in Mesopotamia.[3]

Contents
[hide]

1 Applications

2 Solders

3 Flux

4 Basic soldering techniques

o 4.1 Methods
o 4.2 Electronic components (PCBs)
o 4.3 Pipe soldering
o 4.4 Mechanical and aluminium soldering
o 4.5 Stained glass soldering

5 Desoldering and resoldering

6 Lead-free electronic soldering

7 Soldering defects

8 Tools

9 See also

10 References

11 External links

[edit] Applications

Small figurine being created by soldering

One of the most frequent applications of soldering is assembling electronic components to
printed circuit boards (PCBs). Another common application is making permanent but reversible
connections between copper pipes in plumbing systems. Joints in sheet metal objects such as

food cans, roof flashing, rain gutters and automobile radiators have also historically been
soldered, and occasionally still are. Jewelry components are assembled and repaired by
soldering. Small mechanical parts are often soldered as well. Soldering is also used to join lead
came and copper foil in stained glass work. Soldering can also be used to effect a semipermanent patch for a leak in a container cooking vessel.
Guidelines to consider when soldering is that since soldering temperatures are so low a soldered
joint has limited service at elevated temperatures. Solders generally do not have much strength
so the process should not be used for load bearing members.
Some examples of solder types and their applications are tin-lead (general purpose), tin-zinc for
joining aluminium, lead-silver for strength at higher than room temperature, cadmium-silver for
strength at high temperatures, zinc-aluminium for aluminium and corrosion resistance, and tinsilver and tin-bismuth for electronics.

[edit] Solders
Main article: Solder
Soldering filler materials are available in many different alloys for differing applications. In
electronics assembly, the eutectic alloy of 63% tin and 37% lead (or 60/40, which is almost
identical in performance to the eutectic) has been the alloy of choice. Other alloys are used for
plumbing, mechanical assembly, and other applications.
A eutectic formulation has several advantages for soldering; chief among these is the coincidence
of the liquidus and solidus temperatures, i.e. the absence of a plastic phase. This allows for
quicker wetting out as the solder heats up, and quicker setup as the solder cools. A non-eutectic
formulation must remain still as the temperature drops through the liquidus and solidus
temperatures. Any differential movement during the plastic phase may result in cracks, giving an
unreliable joint. Additionally, a eutectic formulation has the lowest possible melting point, which
minimizes heat stress on electronic components during soldering.
Common solder alloys are mixtures of tin and lead, respectively:

63/37: melts at 183 C (361 F) (eutectic: the only mixture that melts at a point, instead
of over a range)

60/40: melts between 183190 C (361374 F)

50/50: melts between 185215 C (365419 F)

Lead-free solders are suggested anywhere children may come into contact with (since children
are likely to place things into their mouths), or for outdoor use where rain and other precipitation
may wash the lead into the groundwater.

Lead-free solder alloys melt around 250 C (482 F), depending on their composition.
For environmental reasons, 'no-lead' solders are becoming more widely used. Unfortunately most
'no-lead' solders are not eutectic formulations, making it more difficult to create reliable joints
with them. See complete discussion below; see also RoHS.
Other common solders include low-temperature formulations (often containing bismuth), which
are often used to join previously-soldered assemblies without un-soldering earlier connections,
and high-temperature formulations (usually containing silver) which are used for hightemperature operation or for first assembly of items which must not become unsoldered during
subsequent operations.
Alloying silver with other metals changes the melting point, adhesion and wetting characteristics,
and tensile strength. Of all the brazing alloys, the silver solders have the greatest strength and the
broadest applications.[4]
Specialty alloys are available with properties such as higher strength, better electrical
conductivity and higher corrosion resistance.

[edit] Flux
Main article: flux (metallurgy)
In high-temperature metal joining processes (welding, brazing and soldering), the primary
purpose of flux is to prevent oxidation of the base and filler materials. Tin-lead solder, for
example, attaches very well to copper, but poorly to the various oxides of copper, which form
quickly at soldering temperatures. Flux is a substance which is nearly inert at room temperature,
but which becomes strongly reducing at elevated temperatures, preventing the formation of metal
oxides. Secondarily, flux acts as a wetting agent in the soldering process, reducing the surface
tension of the molten solder and causing it to better wet out the parts to be joined.
Fluxes currently available include water-soluble fluxes (no VOC's required for removal) and 'noclean' fluxes which are mild enough to not require removal at all. Performance of the flux needs
to be carefully evaluated; a very mild 'no-clean' flux might be perfectly acceptable for production
equipment, but not give adequate performance for a poorly-controlled hand-soldering operation.
Traditional rosin fluxes are available in non-activated (R), mildly activated (RMA) and activated
(RA) formulations. RA and RMA fluxes contain rosin combined with an activating agent,
typically an acid, which increases the wettability of metals to which it is applied by removing
existing oxides. The residue resulting from the use of RA flux is corrosive and must be cleaned
off the piece being soldered. RMA flux is formulated to result in a residue which is not
significantly corrosive, with cleaning being preferred but optional.

[edit] Basic soldering techniques

[edit] Methods
Soldering operations can be performed with hand tools, one joint at a time, or en masse on a
production line. Hand soldering is typically performed with a soldering iron, soldering gun, or a
torch, or occasionally a hot-air pencil. Sheetmetal work was traditionally done with "soldering
coppers" directly heated by a flame, with sufficient stored heat in the mass of the soldering
copper to complete a joint; torches or electrically-heated soldering irons are more convenient. All
soldered joints require the same elements of cleaning of the metal parts to be joined, fitting up
the joint, heating the parts, applying flux, applying the filler, removing heat and holding the
assembly still until the filler metal has completely solidified. Depending on the nature of flux
material used, cleaning of the joints may be required after they have cooled.
The distinction between soldering and brazing is arbitrary, based on the melting temperature of
the filler material. A temperature of 450 C is usually used as a practical cut-off. Different
equipment and/or fixturing is usually required since (for instance) a soldering iron generally
cannot achieve high enough temperatures for brazing. Practically speaking there is a significant
difference between the two processes brazing fillers have far more structural strength than
solders, and are formulated for this as opposed to maximum electrical conductivity. Brazed
connections are often as strong or nearly as strong as the parts they connect,[citation needed] even at
elevated temperatures.[citation needed]
"Hard soldering" or "silver soldering" (performed with high-temperature solder containing up to
40% silver) is also often a form of brazing, since it involves filler materials with melting points
in the vicinity of, or in excess of, 450 C. Although the term "silver soldering" is used much
more often than "silver brazing", it may be technically incorrect depending on the exact melting
point of the filler in use. In silver soldering ("hard soldering"), the goal is generally to give a
beautiful, structurally sound joint, especially in the field of jewelry. Thus, the temperatures
involved, and the usual use of a torch rather than an iron, would seem to indicate that the process
should be referred to as "brazing" rather than "soldering", but the endurance of the "soldering"
appellation serves to indicate the arbitrary nature of the distinction (and the level of confusion)
between the two processes.
Induction soldering is a process which is similar to brazing. The source of heat in induction
soldering is induction heating by high-frequency AC current. Generally copper coils are used for
the induction heating. This induces currents in the part being soldered. The coils are usually
made of copper or a copper base alloy. The copper rings can be made to fit the part needed to be
soldered for precision in the work piece. Induction soldering is a process in which a filler metal
(solder) is placed between the faying surfaces of (to be joined) metals. The filler metal in this
process is melted at a fairly low temperature. Fluxes are a common use in induction soldering.
This is a process which is particularly suitable for soldering continuously. The process is usually
done with coils that wrap around a cylinder/pipe that needs to be soldered. Some metals are
easier to solder than others. Copper, silver, and gold are easy. Iron and nickel are found to be
more difficult. Because of their thin, strong oxide films, stainless steel and aluminium are a little
more difficult. Titanium, magnesium, cast irons, steels, ceramics, and graphite can be soldered
but it involves a process similar to joining carbides. They are first plated with a suitable metallic
element that induces interfacial bonding.

[edit] Electronic components (PCBs)

A tube of multicore electronics solder used for manual soldering

Currently, mass-production printed circuit boards (PCBs) are mostly wave soldered or reflow
soldered, though hand soldering of production electronics is also still standard practice for many
tasks. In wave soldering, parts are temporarily adhered to the PCB with small dabs of adhesive,
then the assembly is passed over flowing solder in a bulk container. Reflow soldering is a
process in which a solder paste (a sticky mixture of powdered solder and flux) is used to stick the
components to their attachment pads, after which the assembly is heated by an infrared lamp, or
(more commonly) by passing it through a carefully-controlled oven, or soldering with a hot air
pencil. Since different components can be best assembled by different techniques, it is common
to use two or more processes for a given PCB; the surface mounted parts may be reflow
soldered, followed by a wave soldering process for the through-hole mounted components, with
some of the bulkier parts hand-soldered on last.
For hand soldering of electronic components, the heat source tool should be selected to provide
adequate heat for the size of joint to be completed. A 100 watt soldering iron may provide too
much heat for printed circuit boards, while a 25 watt iron will not provide enough heat for large
electrical connectors, joining copper roof flashing, or large stained-glass lead came. Using a tool
with too high a temperature can damage sensitive components, but protracted heating by a tool
that is too cool or under powered can also cause extensive heat damage.
Hand-soldering techniques require a great deal of skill to use on the finest pitch chip packages.
In particular ball grid array (BGA) devices are notoriously difficult if not impossible to rework
by hand.
For attachment of electronic components to a PCB, proper selection and use of flux helps prevent
oxidation during soldering, which is essential for good wetting and heat transfer. The soldering
iron tip must be clean and pre-tinned with solder to ensure rapid heat transfer. Components
which dissipate large amounts of heat during operation are sometimes elevated above the PCB to
avoid PCB overheating. After inserting a through-hole mounted component, the excess lead is
cut off, leaving a length of about the radius of the pad. Plastic or metal mounting clips or holders
may be used with large devices to aid heat dissipation and reduce joint stresses.

A heat sink may be used on the leads of heat sensitive components to reduce heat transfer to the
component. This is especially applicable to germanium parts. (Note the heat sink will mean the
use of more heat to complete the joint.) If all metal surfaces are not properly fluxed and brought
above the melting temperature of the solder in use, the result will be an unreliable cold solder
joint.
To simplify soldering, beginners are usually advised to apply the soldering iron and the solder
separately to the joint, rather than the solder being applied direct to the iron. When sufficient
solder is applied, the solder wire is removed. When the surfaces are adequately heated, the solder
will flow around the joint. The iron is then removed from the joint.
Since non-eutectic solder alloys have a small plastic range, the joint must not be moved until the
solder has cooled down through both the liquidus and solidus temperatures. Visually, a good
solder joint will appear smooth and shiny, with the outline of the soldered wire clearly visible. A
matte gray surface is a good indicator of a joint that was moved during soldering. Too little
solder will result in a dry and unreliable joint; too much solder (the 'solder blob' very familiar to
beginners) is not necessarily unsound, but tends to mean poor wetting. With some fluxes, flux
residue remaining on the joint may need to be removed, using water, alcohol or other solvents
compatible with the process. Excess solder and unconsumed flux and residue is sometimes wiped
from the soldering iron tip between joints. The tip of the iron is kept wetted with solder
("tinned") when hot to minimize oxidation and corrosion of the tip itself.
Environmental legislation in many countries, and the whole of the European Community area,
has led to a change in formulation of both solders and fluxes. Water soluble non-rosin based
fluxes have been increasingly used since the 1980s so that soldered boards can be cleaned with
water or water based cleaners. This eliminates hazardous solvents from the production
environment, and effluent.

[edit] Pipe soldering

soldered copper pipes

Since copper is an outstanding conductor of heat, and has a high heat capacity as well, large
copper items like plumbing pipes and fittings require far more heat to solder effectively than an
iron or gun can provide. The best choice for most plumbing jobs is a propane torch, though for
large jobs MAPP gas or an acetylene torch is often used.

As with all solder joints, all parts to be joined must be clean and oxide free. Internal and external
wire brushes are available for the common pipe and fitting sizes; emery cloth and wire-wool are
frequently used as well.
Because of the size of the parts involved, and the high activity and contaminating tendency of the
flame, plumbing fluxes are typically much more chemically active, and more acidic, than
electronic fluxes. Because plumbing joints may be done at any angle, even upside down,
plumbing fluxes are generally formulated as pastes which stay in place better than liquids. Flux
should be applied to all surfaces of the joint, inside and out. Flux residues should be removed
after the joint is complete or they can, eventually, erode through the copper substrates and cause
failure of the joint.
Many plumbing solder formulations are available, with different characteristics such as higher or
lower melting temperature, depending on the specific requirements of the job. Building codes
currently almost universally require the use of lead-free solder for potable water piping, though
traditional tin-lead solder is still available. Studies have shown that lead-soldered plumbing pipes
can result in elevated levels of lead in drinking water.[5][6] As with most heavy metals, lead
poisoning is cumulative and can build up over many years.
Since copper pipe quickly conduct heat away from a joint, great care must be taken to ensure that
the joint is properly heated through to obtain a good joint. After the joint is properly cleaned,
fluxed and dry-fitted, the torch flame is applied to the thickest part of the joint, typically the
fitting with the pipe inside it, with the solder applied on the opposite end of the joint. Dripping
solder and flux, and hot parts, present a burn hazard to installers. When all the parts are heated
through, the solder will melt and flow into the joint by capillary action. The torch may need to be
moved around the joint to ensure all areas are wetted out. However, the installer must take care
to not overheat the areas being soldered. If the piping begins to discolor it means that the piping
has been over heated and is beginning to oxidize, stopping the flow of the solder and causing the
soldered joint not to seal properly. Before oxidation the molten solder will follow the heat of the
torch around the joint. When the joint is properly wetted out, the solder and then the heat are
removed, and while the joint is still very hot, it is usually wiped with a dry rag. This removes
excess solder as well as flux residue before it cools down and hardens.
Copper is only one material that is soldered in this manner. Brass fittings are often used for
valves or as a connection fitting between copper and other metals. Brass piping is soldered in this
manner in the making of trombones.
Pipes should be well flushed before drinking the water, to ensure that any flux residue from the
inside of the joint has been removed.

[edit] Mechanical and aluminium soldering

A number of solder materials, primarily zinc alloys, are used for soldering aluminium metal and
alloys and to some lesser extent steel and zinc. This mechanical soldering is similar to a low
temperature brazing operation, in that the mechanical characteristics of the joint are reasonably
good and it can be used for structural repairs of those materials.

The American welding society defines brazing as using filler metals with melting points over
450 C (842 F) or, by the traditional definition in the United States, above 800 F (427 C).
Aluminium soldering alloys generally have melting temperatures around 730 F (388 C).[7] This
soldering / brazing operation can use a propane torch heat source.[8]
These materials are often advertised as "aluminium welding", but the process does not involve
melting the base metal, and therefore is not properly a weld.
United States Military Standard or MIL-SPEC specification MIL-R-4208 defines one standard
for these zinc-based brazing/soldering alloys.[9] A number of products meet this specification.[8][10]
[11]
or very similar performance standards.[7]

[edit] Stained glass soldering

Historically, stained glass soldering tips were copper, heated by being placed in a charcoalburning brazier. Multiple tips were used; when one tip cooled down from use, it was placed back
in the brazier of charcoal and the next tip was used.
More recently, electrically heated soldering irons are used. These are heated by a coil or ceramic
heating element inside the tip of the iron. Different power ratings are available, and temperature
can be controlled electronically. These characteristics allow longer beads to be run without
interrupting the work to change tips. Soldering irons designed for electronic use are often
effective though they are sometimes underpowered for the heavy copper and lead came used in
stained glass work.
Tiffany type stainglass is made by gluing copper foil around the edges of the pieces of glass and
then soldering them together. This method makes it possible to do three dimensional stainglass
pieces such as tiffany lamps.

[edit] Desoldering and resoldering

Main article: Desoldering
Used solder contains some of the dissolved base metals and is unsuitable for reuse in making
new joints. Once the solder's capacity for the base metal has been achieved it will no longer
properly bond with the base metal, usually resulting in a brittle cold solder joint with a
crystalline appearance.
It is good practice to remove solder from a joint prior to resolderingdesoldering braids or
vacuum desoldering equipment (solder suckers) can be used. Desoldering wicks contain plenty
of flux that will lift the contamination from the copper trace and any device leads that are
present. This will leave a bright, shiny, clean junction to be resoldered.
The lower melting point of solder means it can be melted away from the base metal, leaving it
mostly intact, though the outer layer will be "tinned" with solder. Flux will remain which can
easily be removed by abrasive or chemical processes. This tinned layer will allow solder to flow

into a new joint, resulting in a new joint, as well as making the new solder flow very quickly and
easily.

[edit] Lead-free electronic soldering

More recently environmental legislation has specifically targeted the wide use of lead in the
electronics industry. The RoHS directives in Europe require many new electronic circuit boards
to be lead free by 1 July 2006, mostly in the consumer goods industry, but in some others as well.
Many new technical challenges have arisen with this endeavor. For instance, traditional lead-free
solders have a significantly higher melting point than lead-based solders, which renders them
unsuitable for use with heat-sensitive electronic components and their plastic packaging. (Here,
"packaging" is a term for the body of a component, not the container it is shipped in.) To
overcome this problem, solder alloys with a high silver content and no lead have been developed
with a melting point slightly lower than many lead-free solders, but still much higher than
traditional tin/lead solders.
Lead-free construction has also extended to components, pins, and connectors. Most of these
pins used copper frames, and either lead, tin, gold or other finishes. Tin finishes are the most
popular of lead-free finishes. Nevertheless, this brings up the issue of how to deal with tin
whiskers. The current movement brings the electronics industry back to the problems solved in
the 1960s by adding lead. JEDEC has created a classification system to help lead-free electronic
manufacturers decide what provisions to take against whiskers, depending upon their application.

[edit] Soldering defects

Various problems may arise in the soldering process which lead to joints which are non
functional either immediately or after a period of use.
The most common defect when hand-soldering results from the parts being joined not exceeding
the solder's liquidus temperature, resulting in a "cold solder" joint. This is usually the result of
the soldering iron being used to heat the solder directly, rather than the parts themselves.
Properly done, the iron heats the parts to be connected, which in turn melt the solder,
guaranteeing adequate heat in the joined parts for thorough wetting. In 'electronic' hand soldering
solder the flux is embedded in the solder. Therefore heating the solder first may cause the flux to
evaporate before it cleans the surfaces (pcb pad and component connection) being soldered.
An improperly selected or applied flux can cause joint failure, or if not properly cleaned off the
joint, may corrode the metals in the joint over time and cause eventual joint failure. Without flux
the joint may not be clean, or may be oxidized, resulting in an unsound joint.
In electronics non-corrosive fluxes are often used. Therefore cleaning flux off may merely be a
matter of aesthetics or to make visual inspection of joints easier in specialised 'mission critical'
applications such as medical devices, military and aerospace ie. satellites. For satellites also to
reduce weight slightly but usefully. In some conditions ie. high humidity, even non-corrosive

flux might remain slightly active, therefore the flux may be removed to absolutely negate the
possibility of corrosion over time. In some applications, the PCB might also be coated in some
form of protective material such as a lacquer to protect it and/or exposed solder joints from the
environment.
Movement of metals being soldered before the solder has cooled will cause a highly unreliable
cracked joint. In electronics' soldering terminology this is known as a 'dry' joint. It has a
characteristically dull or grainy appearance immediately after the joint is made, rather than being
smooth, bright and shiny. This appearance is caused by crystallization of the liquid solder. A dry
joint is weak mechanically and a poor conductor electrically.
In general a good looking soldered joint is a good joint. As mentioned it should be smooth, bright
and shiny. If not smooth ie. lumps or balls of otherwise shiny solder the metal has not 'wetted'
properly. Not being bright and shiny suggests a weak 'dry' joint.
In electronics a 'concave' fillet is ideal. This indicates good wetting and minimal use of solder
(therefore minimal heating of heat sensitive components). A joint may be good, but if a large
amount of unnecessary solder is used then more heating is obviously required. Excessive heating
of a PCB may result in 'delamination', the copper track may actually lift off the board,
particularly on single sided PCBs without 'through hole' plating.

[edit] Tools
Hand-soldering tools include the electric soldering iron, which has a variety of tips available
ranging from blunt to very fine to chisel heads for hot-cutting plastics, and the soldering gun,
which typically provides more power, giving faster heat-up and allowing larger parts to be
soldered. Hot-air guns and pencils allow rework of component packages which cannot easily be
performed with electric irons and guns.
Soldering torches are a type of soldering device that uses a flame rather than a soldering iron tip
to heat solder. Soldering torches are often powered by butane[12] and are available in sizes
ranging from very small butane/oxygen units suitable for very fine but high-temperature jewelry
work, to full-size oxy-fuel torches suitable for much larger work such as copper piping. Common
multipurpose propane torches, the same kind used for heat-stripping paint and thawing pipes, can
be used for soldering pipes and other fairly large objects (but not electronics,) either with or
without a soldering tip attachment; pipes are generally soldered with a torch by directly applying
the open flame.
A soldering copper is a tool with a large copper head and a long handle which is heated in a
blacksmith's forge fire and used to apply heat to sheet metal for soldering. Typical soldering
coppers have heads weighing between one and four pounds. The head provides a thermal mass,
which can store enough heat for soldering large areas between re-heating the copper in the fire.
The larger the head, the longer the working time it affords. Historically, soldering coppers were a
standard tool used in auto bodywork, although body solder has been mostly superseded by spot
welding for mechanical connection and non-metallic fillers for contouring.

Toaster ovens and hand held infrared lights have been used to reproduce production soldering
processes on a much smaller scale.
Bristle brushes are usually used to apply plumbing paste flux. For electronic work, flux-core
solder is generally used, but additional flux may be used from a flux pen or dispensed from a
small bottle with a syringe-like needle.
Wire brush, wire wool and emery cloth are commonly used to prepare plumbing joints for
connection. Electronic joints rarely require mechanical cleaning, though copper traces with a
dark layer of oxide passivation (due to aging), as on a new prototyping board that has been on
the shelf for about a year or more, may need to be polished to a shine with steel wool before
being soldered.
For PCB assembly and rework, alcohol and acetone (one or the other) are commonly used with
cotton swabs or bristle brushes to remove flux residue. A heavy rag is usually used to remove
flux from a plumbing joint before it cools and hardens. A fiberglass brush can also be used. Some
fluxes for electronics are designed to be stable and inactive when cool and do not need to be
cleaned off, though they still can be if desired, while other fluxes are acidic and must be removed
after soldering to prevent corrosion of the circuits.
A heat sink, such as a crocodile clip, can be used to prevent damaging heat-sensitive components
while soldering. The heat sink limits the temperature of the component body by absorbing and
dissipating heat (reducing the thermal resistance between the component and the air), while the
thermal resistance of the leads maintains the temperature difference between the part of the leads
being soldered and the component body so that the leads become hot enough to melt the solder
while the component body remains cooler