Introduction to Spectroscopy (Chapter 6)
Electromagnetic radiation (wave) description:
Electric Field Strength
Wavelength
Velocity v
Amplitude A
0
Time t or Distance x
Period p
time for 1 to pass fixed point
Frequency
# of passing per s =
Wavenumber
# of per cm =
Velocity v
Distance point on wave travels per
second
v =
In a vacuum: v vacuum = c
= 2.99782x108 m / s
A set of waves with identical (a) freqency (b) phase are called
coherent .
CEM 333 page 2.1
Frequency is always fixed but velocity can vary!
Waves slow down in medium (gas, liquid, solid) so v<c
v =
Implies decreases in medium
Refractive index =
c
v
1.00
Equation for Wave
E = A sin( t + ) where = 2
electric field
frequency
amplitude
phase
angular frequency
time
Wave description explains certain EM radiation phenomena:
transmission
reflection and refraction
diffraction
interference
scattering
polarization
CEM 333 page 2.2
Particle Description of Light:
Based on quantum mechanics
Energy of EM photon: E = h =
hc
Planck's Constant=6.626x10-34 Js
Postulates of QM:
1.
Atoms, ions and molecules exist in discrete energy states
only
E 0 = ground state
E 1 , E 2 , E 3 ... = excited states
Excitation can be electronic, vibrational or rotational
Energy levels for atoms, ions or molecules different.
Measuring energy levels gives means of identification spectroscopy
2.
When an atom, ion or molecule changes energy state, it
absorbs or emits energy equal to the energy difference
E = E 1 E 0
3.
The wavelength or frequency of radiation absorbed or
emitted during a transition proportional to E
E = h =
CEM 333 page 2.3
h c
Emission Spectra
Plot of emission intensity vs. or called emission spectrum
Atom:
Atomic
Excitation
Atomic
Emission
E2
Lifetime~1-100 ns
E1
Energy
E0
line emission spectra
E=202.8 14
kJ/mol
=5.08x10 Hz
=590 nm
E=362.5 14
kJ/mol
=9.08x10 Hz
=330 nm
Inner shell (core) electrons (1s2p) - x-rays photons
Outer shell (valence) electrons (3d4p) - UV/vis photons
Molecule:
Molecular
Excitation
Molecular
Emission
E2
R 10
E1
Energy
E0
Band 1
Band 2
V3
V2
V1
V0
R0
Lifetime
1-100 fs
vibrational and rotational transitions - band emission spectra
CEM 333 page 2.4
Emission spectrum of brine (Fig. 6-15):
CEM 333 page 2.5
Ballpark Energy Level Spacings:
E (Electronic) >100 MJ/mol (x-ray) to <100 kJ/mol (UV-vis)
E (Vibrational) <1 to <100 kJ/mol (IR)
E (Rotational) 10-100 J/mol (microwave)
Continuum Spectra:
Very broad band spectra in emission from solids
Produced by blackbody radiation - thermal excitation and relaxation
of many vibrational (and rotational) levels.
Blackbody Spectrum (Fig 6-18)
CEM 333 page 2.6
Absorption Spectra
Plot of Absorbance vs. or called absorption spectrum
Just as in emisson spectra an atom, ion or molecule can only absorb
radiation if energy matches separation between two energy states
Atoms:
No vibrational or rotational energy levels - sharp line spectra with
few features
For example:
Na 3s3p 589.0, 589.6 nm (yellow)
Na 3s5p 285.0, 285.1 nm (UV)
Visible enough energy for valence (bonding) excitations
UV and x-ray enough energy for core (inner) excitations
Molecules:
Electronic, vibrational and rotational energy levels - broad band
spectra with many features
E = E electronic + E vibrational + E rotational
For each electronic state - many vibrational states
For each vibrational state - many rotational states
many features
Absorption spectra affected by
(1) number of atoms in molecule
more features
(2) solvent molecules
blurred features
CEM 333 page 2.7
Effect of Chemical State (Fig 6-19):
CEM 333 page 2.8
Relaxation Processes:
Lifetime of excited state is short (fsms) - relaxational processes
return excited species to ground state
Nonradiative relaxation
many small collisional relaxations
tiny temperature rise of surrounding species
Radiative relaxation (emission)
fluorescence (<10-5 s) and phosphorescence (>10-5 s)
Resonance fluorescence
produces emission at same energy/frequency/wavelength
as absorption
common for atoms (no V or R levels)
Non-resonance fluorescence
produces emission at lower energy (lower frequency/longer
wavelength) than absorption (Stokes shift)
common in molecules - vibrational relaxation occurs
before fluorescence
Phosphorescence
Produced by long-lived electronic state (up to hours)
CEM 333 page 2.9
Absorption
Nonradiative
relaxation
Fluorescence
E2
Resonance
UV
Vis
Non-resonance
E1
IR
E0
Excitation methods:
(i)
EM radiation
(ii)
spark/discharge/arc
(iii)
particle bombardment (electrons, ions... )
(iv)
chemiluminescence (exothermic chemical reaction
generates excited products)
CEM 333 page 2.10