Week
6
Characteris*cs
(response)
of
instruments
Sta*c
Response
This
describes
the
behavior
of
the
instrument
when
it
a7ains
steady
state
(
i.e.
has
been
allowed
enough
1me
to
se4le
down
to
a
steady
reading)
Can
also
be
the
response
to
a
steady
input.
Dynamic
Response
This
relates
instrument
behavior
to
a
varying
input
Or
instrument
behavior
a?er
a
sudden
change
in
input
value
(e.g.
applica1on
of
a
step
input
or
an
impulse
input).
Type
of
inputs
i. Ramp
input
Signal
amplitude
changes
linearly
with
Dme
amplitude
ramp
f(t)
=
At;
t
>
0
=
0;
t
<
0
Dme
ii. Step/steady
input
amplitude
A
f(t)
=
Au(t)
u(t)
=
1;
t
>
0
=
0;
t
<
0
Dme
u (t ) : unit step function
iii. Impulse
-
amplitude
(t ) = 0; t 0
(t ) : function
(t )dt = 1
f (t )(t )dt = f ()
Dme
iv. Step/ramp
-
amplitude
f
(t)
=
At;
t
>
0
=
A
;t
=
0
Dme
v. The
sinusoid
f (t ) = A sin t
vi. Random
_
f (t ) = ?
Sta*c
characteris*cs
accuracy
:
How
close
the
output
reading
of
the
instrument
is
to
the
correct
value.
Percentage
of
the
full-scale
(f.s.)
reading
precision:
Instruments
degree
of
freedom
from
random
errors.
Accuracy
and
precision
Results
of
tests
on
the
three
industrial
robots
programmed
to
place
components
at
a
parDcular
point
on
the
table.
sensiDvity
:
Change
of
an
instrument
output
per
unit
change
in
input.
SensiDvity
=
scale deflection
value of measurand causing the deflection
(slope
of
output
/
input
characterisDc
or
transfer
funcDon)
SensiDvity
to
Disturbacne
:
ambient
condiDons
are
a
source
of
this
disturbance
and
the
eects
are
in
two
ways:
i. Zero
dri?
:
zero
reading
is
modied
by
ambient
condiDons.
ii. SensiDvity
dri?
:
This
denes
the
amount
modied
by
changes
in
ambient
condiDons.
(a)
Zero
dri?,
(b)
SensiDvity
dri?
(
c)
Zero
+
sensiDvity
dri?
Hysteresis
Eects
The
noncoincidence
between
loading
and
unloading
curves
Dynamics
CharacterisDcs
an
empirical
relaDonship
between
input
and
output
:
n
n 1
d qo
d qo
dqo
an n + an1 n1 + ....... + a1
+ a0 qo =
dt
dt
dt
m
m 1
d qi
d qi
dqi
bm m + bm1 m1 + ....... + b1
+ b0 qi
dt
dt
dt
Contd
The
right
hand
side
assumes
use
of
known
inputs.
For
a
step
input
qi
=
x0
for
t
>
0
=
xr
for
ramp
input
=
xssint
The
qs
are
funcDons
of
Dme,
and
the
as
and
bs
are
constants.
Contd
1st
assume
only
step
input.
The
1st
and
higher
order
terms
on
the
right
hand
side
reduce
to
zero.
i.e.:
n
d qo
dqo
an
+ ......... + a1
+ ao qo = b0 qi
n
dt
dt
Zero
order
instrument
2nd
assumpDon
Then
an ,........, a1 = 0
bo
qo = qi = Kqi
ao
The
expression
describes
a
zero
order
instrument
and
K
is
the
staDc
sensiDvity.
Zero-order
instrument
characterisDcs
First
order
instrument
If
all
second
and
higher
order
terms
are
assumed
to
be
zero
and
iniDal
condiDons
are
such
that
q
o
=
0
at
t
=
0
(no
bias)
dqo
Then:
a1
dt
Let
D
=
d/dt
+ ao qo = bo qi
Then
:
a1 Dqo + a0 qo = b0 qi
qo (a1 D + a0 ) = b0 qi
a1
qo D + 1 = b0 qi
a0
b0
qi
a0
qo =
a1
1+ D
a0
kqi
qo =
1 + D
a1
=
a0
Therefore:
Where:
The
soluDon
to
the
above
equaDon
is:
qo = qi qi e
t /
An
instrument
saDsfying
the
above
condiDons
is
a
rst
-
order
instrument.
63%
Dme
constant
A
typical
rst
order
instrument
(or
part
of
an
instrument
system)
is
a
thermocouple.
The
Dme
it
takes
the
output
to
reach
63%
of
nal
value
is
called
the
Dme
constant.
Second
-
order
instrument
AssumpDons:
i. all
third
order
coecients
and
above
are
zero.
[Link]
condiDons
are
such
that
output
is
zero
at
t
=
0.
[Link]
original
equaDon
becomes:
2
a2 D qo + a1 D + a0 qo = b0 qi
Let
staDc
sensiDvity
b0
K=
a0
Let
un-damped
natural
frequency
a1
And
damping
raDo
=
2a2
a0
=
a2
then:
qo
k
= 2
qi D / + 2 D / + 1
Any
instrument
which
obeys
the
above
equaDon
is
a
second-order
instrument.
Dynamic
behavior
depends
on
the
value
of
the
damping
raDo.
Response
of
2nd
order
Instrument
IllustraDon
for
dierent
value
of
damping
raDo
=0
o
=
System
oscillates
at
the
un-damped
natural
frequency
But
small
output
overshoots
with
oscillaDons
that
gradually
die
down
0.707 The
system
is
said
to
be
criDcally
damped
and
its
behavior
resembles
a
1st
order
instrument
2nd
order
instruments
Commercial
second-order
instruments,
of
which
the
accelerometer
is
a
common
example,
are
generally
designed
to
have
a
damping
raDo
()
somewhere
in
the
range
of
0.60.8