HowLarge?

We are now prepared to determine the proper size of a

passive system. "Size" almost always refers to square footage
of all glazed surfaces facing the sun, within 30 degrees east or
west of due south. Other dimensions, such as the thickness of
a solar wall or the floor area of a greenhouse, are fairly
standard, and we have already covered them. The size of a
system is the net square footage of glazed surface after
subtracting the framing and trim. A wall of solar windows 8
feet high and 20 feet long (160 square feet may be as much as
40 percent framing and 60 percent glazing, leaving but 96
square feet of window to catch the sun. It is possible, but
difficult, to minimize framing to 5 or 10 percent of the surface
area.

There are many ways to size a passive system. As with

active systems several years ago, engineers and scientists are
producing dozens of documents crammed full with charts,
graphs, and tables for determining the precise optimal size and
performance of passive systems. This detailed information has
its uses, but do not feel obligated to use it or to rely on it.
Remember that Nature is forgiving and does not require
nearly the precision that our computers tell us we do! Instead,
review again some of the earlier pages that discuss size, and
you will have a good "feel" for the surface area you need.
The first question you should answer is this: How large do
you want the system to be? Believe it or not, answering this
question is by far the most common, direct, and useful method
of determining size. Most people want their system to be as
large as possible to save as much energy as possible. In
general, this is an excellent approach to take, and you may
want to determine how to cover the entire south side of your
house with passive devices. Many people do, just as the size
of the roof often determines the size of active solar heating
collectors.
You need hot go to this extent, of course. A superinsulated
house can be 50 percent solar heated with only slightly
oversized south windows. But if you desire to reduce fuel bills
to a minimum, large systems are generally in order. The trick
is to design them right so that you save as much energy as
possible with the least expense, and so that you are pleased
with the appearance and comfort of your home.

Generally speaking, an optimal size for a passive system is

that which supplies the same portion of heat as the
" average percent of the time that the sun shines during the
winter. For example, if your heating season is October
through April, determine your local average winter sunshine
from the u.s. monthly sunshine maps in Appendix 3. This
percentage, say 55 percent for much of the country, is the
portion of your heating load that can be supplied by a passive
system in a well-insulated house with good assurance that the
design can look beautiful, perform well, and be cost
effective.
This is not to say that you should not try for larger
percentages to be supplied by solar. But the design gets
trickier, so consider obtaining additional advice from a
II

Oil, Electricity, Gas

A gallon of oil would supply 135,000 to 140,000
Btus if your furnace burned at 100 percent
efficiency. It doesn't. Most furnaces, in fact, burn
at between 40 and 70 percent annual efficiency,
supplying the house with between 56,000 and
100,000 Btus per gallon burned. A useful
average to use is 70,000.

One kwh of electricity is equivalent to 3400

Btus. Most electric resistance heating is 100
percent efficient (although three to four times
more energy is expended at a power plant than
what finally enters your house as electricity).
Thus, 20 kwhs (68,000 Btus) of electric
resistance heating supplies the heat obtainable
from one gallon of oil (70,000 Btus). A proper
application of an electric heat pump can supply
twice as much energy per kwh as resistance
heating.
One cubic foot of gas contains 1000 Btus of
heat. One hundred cubic feet(1 ccf) contain
100,000 Btus (1000 cubic feet is represented
by 1 mcf). At 60 percent annual furnace efficiency, each ccf of gas supplies 60,000 Btus,
close to that of one gallon of oil or 20 kwh of
electric resistance heating. For comparison, 1
gallon of oil may cost $1.25,20 kwh of electricity $1.20 (6/kwh), and 1 ccf of gas $0.50.

local" expert," a workshop, or more books. The resources at

the back of the book can provide some helpful hints on where
to look next.
The next step is to determine your annual fuel consumption
in gallons of oil, kilowatt hours (kwh) of electricity, or
hundreds of cubic feet of gas (cd). For an existing house, look
at fuel bills. For new houses, calculate heat loss (get help or
consult books-it's easy!). It's not unusual for an old, rambling
Victorian house during a cold winter to use several thousand
gallons of oil, 40,000 kwhs of electricity, or several hundred
thousand cubic feet of gas. But a compact, super-insulated
house may use as little as one fifth this amount-before the
addition of passive.
The next step is to determine the energy output of the
system. This is usually considered the hardest step,
requiring the charts and graphs we mentioned earlier.
However, it need not be difficult. In fact, it can be relatively
easy.
Each square foot of a design that is appropriate for the
climate (for example, a design that has the proper number of
glazing layers), will supply the heat obtainable from roughly
one gallon of oil (60,000Btus). In cloudy climates, such as
Buffalo, the amount can be half that. In the sunny Southwest,
the output can double.
Thus, a house with an annual heat loss of 500 gallons in a
climate of average (50%) sunshine will require 250 square
feet of passive system to cut its fuel bill in half.
When selecting among the various passive applications,
review the previous chapter for their appropriateness to your
climate. In general, start with windows as the basic system
and add other systems as needed or desired. In the previous
example, the home may be designed for 100 square feet of
south windows. * They will replace 100 gallons of oil or 20%
of the total 500 gallon load. As discussed in earlier chapters,
no special effort needs to be taken to add thermal mass since
conventional construction usually provides adequate storage
for solar windows, which supply 20 percent or less of the
heat.
The next 150 square feet, supplying the next 50 percent of
the load, might, for example, consist of a greenhouse, a solar
wall, or a combination of the two. Remember to take into
account the trim and framing when determining square
footage.

What Does Passive Cost?

It seems that many people are willing to spend far more
money on solar than on energy conservation (buying more
energy rather than using less!). Conservation and solar are
both important, and both can reduce your fuel bills
enormously. But if you are willing to spend $3,000 on solar
to save $200 of fuel per year, you should be willing to spend
$2,000 on energy conservation measures to annually save
$200 of fuel. Conversely, if you spent $1,000 for insulation
and saved $200 last year on fuel, then think about spending
$1,000 on solar to save $200 more next year.
Don't be fooled by the glamour of solar energy. Energy
conservation, perhaps less glamorous, can go a long way
toward solving our energy problems. We can economically
super-insulate homes so that they use as little as 20 percent of
the energy that conventional homes use, without significant
use of solar energy. In moderately cold climates, walls and
roofs should have R-values of at least 25 and 40,
respectively. Use triple glazed windows, and caulk and
weather strip. In cold climates, increase these R-values of the
walls and roofs by 50 percent and add movable insulation
over the windows. If you do anything less than these
measures, you should restrict your expenditures on solar to
$1,500. If you meet these measures, go all out with passive
solar. However, you probably won't need to spend more than
$5,000.
From a practical point of view, energy conservation
measures are necessary in most of the U.S. climate to keep
the required solar heat collection area small enough so that it
can be easily and economically added to the average house.
Properly-designed solar glazing totaling 20 to 40 percent of
the floor area of your house (depending on the climate), will
provide 50 to 80 percent of the heat. This is for a wellinsulated house with adequate thermal mass for heat storage.
(Super-insulated houses need less southern exposure to
achieve this.) Thus, the collection glazing can cover much of
the south-facing walls (or roof). Poorly insulated houses
cannot normally obtain a large percentage of heat from the
sun except in mild climates.
In cold, cloudy climates, energy conservation measures are
usually more cost effective than are solar heating devices, at
least until heating loads of a house are reduced by 40 to 60
percent compared with previous heating bills.

But the house is still a "conventional" and compared with

super-insulated houses. In mild, sunny climates, solar heating
and cooling may be a more cast effective means of reducing
fuel bills than energy conservation since the climate permits
passive systems to. have fewer layers of glazing.
Passive system casts can vary enormously} depending an
size} design} materials, and construction methods} and
passive system type. Keep the sizes manageable. For
example, a 15 foot-high wall of glass is harder to build than
an 8-foot-high wall. Dan}t make the design complicated.
Keep it simple! An occasional fan to. help move air from and
part of the house to. another-far example, from the south side
to. the north or from upstairs to. downstairs can keep floor
plans from becoming contorted and passive systems from
becoming crude contrivances.
Use basic, easy-to-handle materials, preferably locally
produced. Build the systems yourself} if passable. This can
save 40 to. 60 percent of the cast. Contractor-built systems are
mast cast effective an new housing rather than an existing.
However} additions and major remodeling are excellent
opportunities for improving the cast effectiveness of
contractor-built systems for existing houses.
Which of the various passive system types you choose also.
affects cast. Solar windows cost nothing if what would have
been a north window is instead placed facing south. Solar
windows can also be inexpensive if you are willing to have
some of them fixed in place, non-operable. Fixed glass can
be one third the cost of operable windows.
If you intend to build of heavy materials regardless of
using solar, your thermal mass comes free. On the other
hand, concrete floor slabs or brick partitions added to.
conventional wood-framed construction can add to. the cast.
In mild climates, the windows need have only two.
layers. In severe climates, triple glazing and movable
insulation are usually necessary (and cast effective!).
Shades or awnings may add to the cast in southern
climates.
Solar windows, then, can cast nothing or as much as $20
per square foot.

116 Putting the Pieces Together

If you are able to easily convert your south wall to a solar

chimney by simply adding a single layer of glazing, the
materials will cost but a few dollars per square foot. If you
buy a solar collector and hire someone to install it, the final
cost could well be three to four times more. Either way, if the
collectors are large enough to provide only 15 to 20 percent of
the heat, no new thermal mass will be needed. The cost of
making your south wall into a solar chimney, then, will be
primarily that of just the collector or glazing. When more than
20 percent heating is obtained, however, thermal mass must
be added to accommodate the heat. This makes solar
chimneys a whole new ball game, and, of course, costs
increase.
The cost of building a solar wall is less when the south
wall would have been built of concrete block, brick, stone, or
adobe anyway. Keep in mind that stronger foundations are
needed to support the weight and that extra floor area may be
needed to accommodate the thicker-than-normal wall. In mild
climates, only single glazing may be needed, while in cold
climates, as many as three layers of glass or movable
insulation may be necessary. Thus, solar walls may cost only
a few dollars per square foot for the glazing or up to $25 per
square foot.
Cost estimates for solar roofs are more elusive. A strong
support structure, the water ponds, and the movable
insulating covers can be costly. On the other hand, Harold
Hay's "Skytherm" house in Atascadero, California, if built in
large numbers, might cost no more than conventional housing
since, in that climate, it requires no back up heating or
cooling systems. According to Mr. Hay, these cost savings
completely pay for the passive system. In fact, the
conventional heating and cooling system can be greatly
reduced in size and complexity, or can be eliminated entirely
from many energy-conserving, passive solar homes
throughout much of the country, saving several thousand
dollars in first cost and hundreds of dollars in maintenance
costs. Small space heaters or wood burning stoves often
suffice in the winter, and fans or modest-sized window air
conditioners or evaporative coolers do the job in the summer.
A single glazed solar room can cost only a few dollars if
the frame is built of used lumber and covered with a thin
sheet of plastic. Commercially sold greenhouses, however,
can cost thousands of dollars. Solar rooms

The Hard Choices of Cost 117

reduce the cost of other building components. For

example, when protected by a solar room, walls that
would otherwise be exposed to the weather can be
simplified and reduced in cost.
Whatever system or combination of systems you choose,
"shop around" fully. Seek advice and look for the best prices.
Pay attention to detail and use passive systems to enhance the
beauty of your house.
Will you be satisfied with the fuel savings resulting from
your expenditures for passive systems? The easy answer is
"Yes!" However, everyone's expectations and needs are
different. For example, some people require that passive pay
for itself in five years (say a fuel savings of $100 per year on a
first cost of $500). Others can afford to be more far-sighted
and can view conservation and solar costs as investments in
the future. Such people realize that shortsightedness got us
into our energy mess, and longer term investments of 15 to 25
years can help get us out. Keep in mind that energy prices
keep doubling every few years, and as they do, your
"minimum energy dwelling" is perceived as more and more
valuable by your friends, neighbors, ... and the next buyer.
As a matter of fact, you can disregard the energy savings
from many passive systems in determining whether they are
good investments. Instead, they can be viewed as an integral
part of your house, increasing in value along with the whole
house. Thus, when the value of a house inflates by 50 per cent
in say, five years, so will its solar greenhouse! If the house is
then sold, the owner receives back his entire investment in the
greenhouse and then some ... plus, five years of lower energy
bills, too.
In this sense, solar energy is indeed free. But passive solar
is also convincing on the basis of dollars spent for the energy
saved.
A conventional house may use $1,500 of fuel per year, and
perhaps twice that in a few years as energy prices rise. For the
many solar and conservation measures recommended in this
book, an expenditure up to $10,000 may be necessary,
depending on climate, the size of the house, and which
conservation and solar features are selected. The result will be
fuel bills reduced by 70 to 90 per cent, or $1,350 per year,
and as much as $2,700 when prices double. Even if you must
spend $10,000-and most

people will spend less than $ 7,000- your annual mortgage

payment will increase about $1,000 ($85 monthly) for the
solar/conservation investment, but the energy savings more
than compensates. Federal energy tax credits of 15 per cent
for conservation measures and up to 40 per cent for solar, will
offset the extra down payment you need as a result of the
somewhat higher cost of the low energy house due to its
energy-saving measures.
Thus, your cash flow is positive and the annual cost of
owning an energy-conserving, passive solar home is less
than owning a conventional one.

Afterword
You have now reached the end of the book and are at least 7
percent smarter than you were when you started it. Now it's
time to put all your new-found knowledge to work. The
things you've learned are of great value for they can affect not
only your pocketbook, your comfort, and your way of life,
but global politics, environmental quality, and the value of
the dollar as well. We are in a great period of transition-from
the fossil-fuel age to the solar age. Standing right up close to
that transition, it's sometimes hard to sense the magnitude of
the changes now taking place. But each day brings a bit more
perspective to
our view of the revolution. Each day makes solar energy
systems look better and the nuclear nightmare look worse.
Each step we take in the direction of a solar civilization will
have untold benefits to us, to our children, and to all the
generations to come, not to mention the benefits to all the
other creatures of the world, whose fate is so inextricably
tied, now, to ours.

Photo Section
The houses in the photographs on the following pages are
representative of the thousands of passive solar homes being
built or retrofitted throughout the country. The variety of
approaches is truly astounding; proof that solar offers new
opportunities for innovation, creativity, and beauty.