Study Guide - Topology I

Curtis Toupin
Fall 2015

CONTENTS

1 Metric Spaces

2 Topological Spaces

3 Subspaces

10

4 Continuous Functions

11

5 Product Spaces

13

6 Quotient Spaces

15

7 Sequences and Nets

17

8 Separation Axioms

21

9 Regularity and Complete Regularity

25

10 Normal Spaces

27

11 Countability

29

12 Compact Spaces

31

13 Filters and Ultranets and Shit

34

14 Locally Compact Spaces

36

15 Connectedness

37

16 The Homotopy Relation

42

17 The Fundamental Group

45

SECTION

1
METRIC SPACES

1.1

Definition

A metric on a set M is a function : M M R such that

a) (x, y) = 0 x = y
b) (x, y) = (y, x) x, y M
c) (x, z) (x, y) + (y, z) x, y, z M
Note that some include a fourth condition (x, y) 0 for all x, y M , but this is made unnecessary
by the other three, as
0 = (x, x) (x, y) + (y, x) = 2(x, y)

1.2

(x, y) 0 x, y M

Definition

If (M, ) and (N, ) are metrix spaces, a function f : M N is continuous at x if M if and only
if for each > 0, > 0 uch that (f (x), f (y)) < whenever (x, y) < .

1.3

Definition

Let (M, ) be a metric space, x M . For > 0, we define

U (x, ) = {y M | (x, y) < }
called the -disk about x.

1.4

Definition

A set E in a metric space M is open if and only if for each x E, > 0 such that U (x, ) E.
A set is closed if and only if it is the complement of an open set.
1

1.5. THEOREM

1.5

SECTION 1. METRIC SPACES

Theorem

If (M, ) and (N, ) are metric spaces, a function f : M N is continuous at x0 M if and only
if for each open set V in N containing f (x0 ), there is an open set U in M containing x0 such that
f (U ) V .

SECTION

2
TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

2.1

Definition

A topology on a set X is a collection of subsets of X called the open sets, satisfying

1) , X
2) is closed under arbitrary unions
3) is closed under finite intersection

2.2

Definition

If X is a topological space and E X, we say E is closed if and only if E c = E \ X is open (that

is, E c ).

2.3

Theorem

If F is the collection of closed sets in a topological space X, then

F-a) , X F
F-b) F is closed under arbitrary intersections
F-c) F is closed under finite unions
Moreover, any collection of sets satisfying the above 3 axioms determines a unique topology on X.

2.4

Definition

If X is a topological space and E X, the closure of E in X is the smallest closed set containing
E, constructed as
\
E = cl(E) = {K X | K is closed and E K}
3

2.5. LEMMA

2.5

SECTION 2. TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

Lemma

If A B then A B.
Proof:
Since B B and A B, A B. Since B is a closed set containing A, it must also contain the
smallest closed set containing A, whence A B.

2.6

Theorem

The operation A 7 A in a topological space has the following properties

K-a) E E
K-b) (E) = E
K-c) A B = A B
K-d) =
K-e) E is closed in X if and only if E = E
Moreover, a mapping A 7 A satisfying K a through K d defines a unique topology where the
closed sets are exactly those described in K e. The closure operation of this topology will be the
operation A 7 A which we began with.
Proof:
Suppose X is a topological space. A B is closed and contains A B. Thus it must contain
A B. On the other hand, A A B A B, and so A A B. A similar argument shows
B A B as well, and so A B A B, whence A B = A B, verifying K c. K a holds
by definition. K b holds since by K a, we have E E E (E), and Moreover (E) is
contained in all closed sets containing E. Since E is a closed set containing E, we have (E) E,
and so (E) = E. K d and K e follow trivially from the definition.
Now, suppose A 7 A is a mapping satisfying K a through K d, and let
F = {A X | A = A}
First note that if A B, then B = A B \ A = A B \ A A B.
T
T
Now
suppose
{F
}
is
some
collection
of
sets
in
F.
Then
F

FT

by K a. And since
T
T
T
T
T
F F for all , F F for all . Thus F F = F , so F F.
If A, B F, then A = A and B = B, so A B = A B = A B, so A B F.
By K d, = , and by K a, X X X = X, so , X F.
Thus F does determine a topology, it remains to show that the closure operation of this topology
4

2.7. DEFINITION

SECTION 2. TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

is A 7 A. By K b, E F for all E, so if A X and K F such that A K, then A K = K,

thus A is the smallest closed set containing A, as required.
Note that an operation satisfying K a through K d is called a Kuratowski closure operation.

2.7

Definition

If X is a topological space and E X, the interior of E in X is thet set

[
E = int(E) = {G X | G is open and G E}
Note that
X \ E = X \ E

2.8

and

X \ E = (X \ E)

Lemma

If A B then A B .

2.9

Theorem

The interior operation A 7 A in a topological space has the following properties:

I -a) A A
I -b) (A ) = A
I -c) (A B) = A B
I -d) X = X
I -e) G is open if and only if G = G
Conversely, given any map A 7 A satisfying I a through I d determines a unique topology,
where the open sets are exactly those described by I e. Moreover the resulting interior operation
is A 7 A .
Proof:
Similar to proof for closure operation.

2.10

Definition

If X is a topological space and E X, the boundary or frontier of E is

E = E X \ E
5

2.11. THEOREM

2.11

SECTION 2. TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

Theorem

For any subset E of a topological space X,

a) E = E E
b) E = E \ E
c) X = E E (X \ E)
Proof:
a)


E E = E E X \ E = (E E) (E X \ E) = E X = E
b)
E E = E (E X \ E) = (E \ E) (E \ X \ E) = E \ X \ E = E
c) Since E (X \ E) = X \ E, and since X \ E = X \ E,
X = E X \ E = E E (X \ E)

2.12

Definition

If X is a topological space and x X, a neighbourhood of x is a set U which contains an open

set V containing x. Thus U is a neighbourhood of x if and only if x U . The collection Ux of all
neighbourhoods of x is the neighbourhood system at x.

2.13

Theorem

The neighbourhood system Ux at x X has the following properties:

N-a) If U Ux , then x U .
N-b) If U, V Ux , then U V Ux .
N-c) If U Ux , then V Ux such that U Uy for each y V .
N-d) If U Ux and U V , then V Ux .
N-e) G X is open if and only if G contains a neighbourhood for each of its points.
Moreover, if Ux is a nonempty collection of subsets of a set X for each x X satisfying N a
through N d, then these define a unique topology on X where the open sets are exactly those
described by N e, and Ux is the neighbourhood system at x for each x X.
Proof:
a) Trivial
6

2.14. DEFINITION

SECTION 2. TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

b) If U, V Ux , then x U and V U , so x U V = (U V ) U V , so U V Ux .
c) If U Ux , then for each y U , U Uy .
d) U Ux , so x U U V , so V Ux .
e) If G is open, then G = G is a neighbourhood of eachSof its points. On the other hand, if G
contains a neighbourhood Vx of each x G, then G =
Vx is a union of open sets, and hence
xG

open.

2.14

Definition

A neighbourhood base at x in the topological space X is a subcollection Bx taken from the

neighbourhood system Ux having the property that each U Ux contains some V Bx . That is,
Ux must be determined by Bx as follows:
Ux = {U X | V U for some V Bx }
The elements of a neighbourhood base are called basic neighbourhoods.

2.15

Theorem

Let X be a topological space and for each x X, let Bx be a neighbourhood base at x. Then
V-a) If V Bx , then x V
V-b) If V1 , V2 Bx , then there is some V3 Bx such that V3 V1 V2
V-c) If V Bx , there is some V0 Bx such that if y V0 , then there is some W By with
W V.
V-d) G X is open if and only if G contains a basic neighbourhood at each of its points.
Conversely, in a set X, if a collection of Bx of subsets of X is assigned to each x X so as to
satisfy V a, V b, and V c, and if we define open by V d, the result is a topology on X
in which Bx is a neighbourhood base a x for each x X.
Proof:
Define a set for each x X
Ux = {U X | B U for some B Bx }
and show that Ux is a neighbourhood system at x.

2.16. THEOREM

2.16

SECTION 2. TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

Theorem

Let X be a topological space and suppose a neighbourhood base has been fixed at each x X.
Then
a) G X is open if and only if G contains a basic neighbourhood at each of its points
b) F X is closed if and only if each point x 6 F has a basic neighbourhood disjoint from F .
c) E = {x X | each basic neighbourhood of x meets E}
d) E = {x X | some basice neighbourhood of x is contained in E}
e) E = {x X | each basic neighbourhood of x meets both E and X \ E}
Proof:
a) Trivial by definition
b) Trivial by a)
c) Recall that E = {K X | K is closed and E K}. If some neighbourhood U of x does not
meet E, then x U and E X \ U , which is closed. Thus E X \ U , hence x 6 E. On
the other hand, if x 6 E, then X \ E is an open set containing x, and hence contains a basic
neighbourhood of x which does not meet E.
d) Follows from c) by deMorgans Law.
e) Follows from c) and the definition E = E X \ E.

2.17

Theorem - Haussdorf Criterion

For each x X, let Bx1 be a neighbourhood base at x for a topology 1 on X, and let Bx2 be a
neighbourhood base at x for a topology 2 on X. Then 1 2 if and only if at each x X, given
B1 Bx1 , there is some B2 Bx2 such that B2 B1 .
Proof:
Suppose 1 2 , and let B1 Bx1 . Then since B 1 is a neighbourhood of x in (X, 1 ), x is contained in some element B of 1 which is contained in B1 . But if B 1 , then B 2 , so B is a
neighbourhood of x in (X, 2 ). It follows that B2 B for some B2 Bx2 , so B2 B1 .
Conversely, if B 1 , then B contains some B1 Bx1 for each x B, hence B contains a
corresponding element B2 Bx2 for each x B, thus B 2 .

2.18

Definition

An accumulation point (cluster point) of a set A in a topological space X is a point x X such

that each neighbourhood (basic neighbourhood if you prefer) of x contains some point of A other
than x. The set A0 of all cluster points of A is called the derived set of A.
8

2.19. THEOREM

2.19

SECTION 2. TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

Theorem

A = A A0
Proof:A0 A by an earlier theorem, so AA0 A. Further, if x A, then every neighbourhood of
x meets A, and so either x A, or every neighbourhood of x meets A \ {x}, in which case x A0 ,
so A A A0 .

2.20

Definition

If (X, ) is a topological space, a base of is a collection B such that


n[
o

=
B  CB
BC

2.21

Theorem

B is a base for a topology on X if and only if

S
a) X =
B
BB

b) whenever B1 , B2 B with p B1 B2 , there is some B3 B with p B3 B1 B2 .

2.22

Theorem

If B is a collection of open sets in X, B is a base for X if and only if for each x X, the collection
Bx = {B B | x B} is a neighbourhood base at x.

2.23

Definition

If (X, ) is a topological space, a subbase for is a coolection C such that the collection of all
finite intersections of elements from C forms a base for .

2.24

Theorem

Any collection of subsets of a set X is a subbase for some topology on X.

SECTION

3
SUBSPACES

3.1

Definition

If (X, ) is a topological space and A X, the collection 0 = {G A | G } is a topology for

A, called the relative topology for A. A is called a subspace of X.

3.2

Theorem

If A is a subspace of a topological space X, then

a) H A is open in A if and only if H = G A where G is open in X
b) F A is closed in A if and only if F = K A where K is closed in X
c) If E A, then clA (E) = A clX (E).
d) If x A, then V is a neighbourhood of x in A if and only if V = U A for some neighbourhood U
of x in X.
e) If x A and if Bx is a neighbourhood base at x X, then {B A | B Bx } is a
neighbourhood base at x A.
f) If B is a base for X, then {B A | B B} is a base for A.

10

SECTION

4
CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

4.1

Definition

Let X and H be topological spaces, and let f : X Y . Then f is continuous at x0 X if and

only if for each neighbourhood V of f (x0 ) in Y , there is a neighbourhood U of x0 in X such that
f (U ) V . We say f is continuous on X if and only if f is continuous at each x0 X.

4.2

Theorem

If X and Y are topological spaces and f : X Y , then the following are equivalent.
a) f is continuous
b) For each open set H in Y , f 1 (H) is open in X.
c) For each closed set K in Y , f 1 (K) is closed in X.
d) For each E X, f (clX (E)) clY (E).

4.3

Theorem

If X, Y, Z are topological spaces and f : X Y and g : Y Z are continuous, then g f : X Z

is continuous.

4.4

Theorem

If A X and f : X Y is continuous, then f |A : A Y is continuous.

4.5

Theorem

If X = A B where A and B are both open or both closed in X, and if f : X Y is a function

such that both f |A and f |B are continuous, then f is continuous.
11

4.6. THEOREM

4.6

SECTION 4. CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

Theorem

Suppose Y Z and f : X Y . Then f is continuous as a map from X to Y if and only if it is

continuous as a map from X to Z.

4.7

Definition

If X and Y are topological spaces, a function f from X to Y is a homeomorphism if and only if it

is injective, surjective, continuous, and has continuous inverse. In this case, we say X and Y are
homeomorphic. If f is everything but surjective, we say f is an embedding of X into Y .

4.8

Theorem

If X and Y are topological spaces, and f : X Y is injective and surjective, then the following
are equivalent.
a) f is a homeomorphism
b) If G X, then f (G) is open in Y if and only if G is open in X
c) If F X, then f (F ) is closed in Y if and only if F is closed in X.
d) If E X, then f (clX (E)) = clY (f (E)).

12

SECTION

5
PRODUCT SPACES

5.1

Definition

Let X be a set for each A. The Cartesian product of the sets X is the set
Y
[
X = {x : A
X | x() X for each A}
A

The space X is called the th factor space.

5.2

Definition

Q
Q
The map : X X is defined by (x) = x is called the projection map of X on X ,
or more simply, the th projection map.

5.3

Definition

The Tychonoff topology (orQproduct topology) on

open sets, sets of the form U where

X is obtained by taking as a base for the

P-a) U is open in X for each A

P-b) For all but finitely many , U = X .
Alternatively, P a)0 , U B where for each , B is a fixed base for the topology on X .
The product topology is precisely that topology which has for a subbase the collection
{1 (U ) | A, U is open in X }
In the case where the indexing set A is finite, the product topology coincides with the box topology.

13

5.4. DEFINITION

5.4

SECTION 5. PRODUCT SPACES

Definition

If X and Y are both topological spaces and f : X Y , we call f an open (closed) map if and
only if for each open (closed) set A in X, f (A) is an open (closed) set in Y . If f is injective and
surjective, then f is open f is closed f 1 is continuous. Thus a bijection f is a
homeomorphism if and only if it is continuous and open it is continuous and closed.

5.5

Theorem

For each , :

5.6

X X is continuous and open, but need not be closed.

Theorem

The Tychonoff topology on

X is the weakest topology which makes each continuous.

Proof:
If is any topology on the product in which each projection is continuous, then for each if U is
open in X , 1 (U ) . Consequently, the members of a subbase for the Tychonoff topology all
belong to , and hence the Tychonoff topology is contained in .

5.7

Theorem

A map f : X

X is continuous if and only if f is continuous for all A.

Proof:
If f is continuous then f is continuous being the composition of continuous functions.
If each
continuous, then let U be open in X and consider 1 (U ), which is open
Q f is 1
in X . Then f (1 (U )) = (a f )1 (UQ
) which is open by the continuity of f . As the
1
sets of the form (U ) form a subbase for X , we have that f is continuous.

5.8

Definition

Let X be a set and X a topological space with f : X X , for each A. The weak
topology induced on X by the collection {f | A} of functions is the smallest topology on X
making each f continuous. It is that topology for which the sets f1 (U ) for A and U open
in X form a subbase. The Tychonoff topology is the weak topology induced by the projections.

5.9

Theorem

If X has the weak topology induced by a collection of functions {f }, f : X X , then f : Y

X is continuous if and only if each f f : Y X is continuous.

14

SECTION

6
QUOTIENT SPACES

6.1

Definition

If X is a topological space, Y is a set, and g : X Y is a surjection, then the collection of subsets

of Y defined by
g = {G Y | f 1 (G) is open in X}
is a topology on Y , called the quotient topology induced on Y by g. Y is called the quotient space
and g is called the quotient map. The quotient topology on Y is the largest topology making g
continuous.

6.2

Theorem

If X and Y are topological spaces and f : X Y is continuous and either open or closed, then
the topology on Y is the quotient topology f .
Proof:
If f is continuous and open, then f , as f is the largest topology making f continuous.
Now if U f , then f 1 (U ) X is open, as f is continuous with respect to f by definition.
But then f (f 1 (U )) = U as f is open with respect to . Thus f as well.

6.3

Theorem

Let Y have the quotient topology induced by a map f of X onto Y . Then an arbitrary map
g : Y Z is continuous if and only if g f : X Z is continuous.

6.4

Definition

let X be a topological space. A decomposition D of X is a collection of disjoint subsets of X whose

union isSX. If a decomposition D is endowed with the topology in which F D is open if and
only if {F | F F} is open in X, then D is referred to as a decomposition space of X.
15

6.5. DEFINITION

6.5

SECTION 6. QUOTIENT SPACES

Definition

If is an equivalence relation on the topological space X, then the identification space X/ is

defined to be the decomposition space D whose elements are the equivalence classes for .

16

SECTION

7
SEQUENCES AND NETS

7.1

Definition

A sequence (xn ) in a topological space X is said to converge to x X and we write xn x if and

only if for each neighbourhood U of x, N N such that n N , xn U . In this case we say
(xn ) is eventually in U .

7.2

Definition

A topological space X is first countable if and only if each x X has a countable neighbourhood base.

7.3

Theorem

If X is a first countable space and E X, then x E if and only if there is a sequence (xn )
contained in E which converges to X.
Proof:
If x E, pick a countable neighbourhood base {Un | n = 1, 2, 3, . . . } at x X. Replacing Un by
n
T
Uk where necessary, we have without loss of generality that
k=1

U1 U2 U3
Since x E, Ui E 6= for each i, so we can pick xn Un E. The result is the desired sequence.
The converse is obvious.

7.4

Corollary

Let X and Y be first countable spaces. Then

a) U X is open if and only if whenever xn x U , then (xn ) is eventually in U .

17

7.5. DEFINITION

SECTION 7. SEQUENCES AND NETS

b) F X is closed if and only if whenever (xn ) F and xn x, then x F .

c) f : X Y is continuous if and only if whenever xn x in X, then f (xn ) f (x) in Y .

7.5

Definition

A set is a directed set if there is a relation on satisfying

-a) for each .
-b) If 1 2 , and 2 3 , then 1 3
-c) If 1 , 2 , then 3 with 1 3 and 2 3 .

7.6

Example

Reverse inclusion of neighbourhoods of a point x X, U1 U2 U2 U1 is a directed set.

7.7

Definition

A net in a set X is a function P : X where is some directed set. The point P () is usually
denoted x , and we often speak of (x ) .
A subnet of a net P : X is the composition P where : M is an increasing
cofinal function from a directed set M to . That is,
a) (1 ) (2 ) whenever 1 2 ( is increasing)
b) for each , M such that () ( is cofinal in )
For M the point P () is often written x

7.8

Definition

Let (x ) be a net in a space X. Then (x ) converges to x X (written x x) provided for

each neighbourhood U of x, there is some 0 such that 0 implies x U . Thus x x
if and only if each neighbourhood of x contains a tail of x , sometimes said (x ) is residually or
eventually in each neighbourhood of x.

7.9

Example

Let X be a topological space, x X, and any fixed neighbourhood base at x X. Then the
order relation U1 U2 if and only if U2 U1 (i.e. reverse inclusion) directs . hence if we pick
xU U for each U , the result is a net (xU ) in X. Moreover, xU x, as for any given
neighbourhood V of x, we have U0 V for some U0 . Then U U0 implies U U0 , so that
xU U V .
18

7.10. THEOREM

SECTION 7. SEQUENCES AND NETS

If x x, then every subnet of (x ) converges to x.

If x = x for each , then x x.

7.10

Theorem

A net has y as a cluster point if and only if it has a subnet which converges to y.
Proof:
Let y be a cluster point of (x ). Define
M = {(, U ) | , U a neighbourhood of y such that x U }
and order M by (1 , U1 ) (2 , U2 ) if and only if 1 2 and U2 U1 . This is a direction on M .
Define : M by (, U ) = . Then is increasing and cofinal in , so defines a subnet of
(x ). Let U0 be any neighbourhood of y and find 0 such that x0 U0 . Then (0 , U0 ) M ,
and moreover (, U ) (0 , U0 ) U U0 , so that x U U0 . It follows that the subnet defined
by converges to y.
Now suppose that : M defines a subnet of (x ) which converges to y. Then for each
neighbourhood U of y, there is some uU in M such that u uU implies x(u) U . Suppose a
neighbourhood U of y and a point 0 are given. Since (M ) is cofinal in , there is some
u0 M such that (u0 ) 0 . But there is also some uU M such that u uU implies x(u) U .
Pick u M such that u u0 and u uU . Then (u ) = 0 , since (u ) (u0 ), and
x = x(u ) U , sence u uU . Thus for any neighbourhood U of y and any 0 , there is
some 0 with x U . It follows that y is a cluster point of (x ).

7.11

Corollary

If a subnet of (x ) has y as a cluster point, so does (xl ).

Proof:
A subnet of a subnet of (x ) is a subnet of (x ).

7.12

Theorem

If E X, then x E if and only if there is a net (x ) in E with x x.

Proof:
If x E, then each neighbourhood U of x meets E in at least one point xU . Then (xU ) is a net
contained in E which converges to x.
Conversely, if (x ) converges to x X, and x E for all , then for each neighbourhood U
of x, (x ) is eventually in U , so U E 6= , so x E.
19

7.13. THEOREM

7.13

SECTION 7. SEQUENCES AND NETS

Theorem

Let f : X Y . Then f is continuous at x0 X if and only if whenever x x0 in X, then

f (x ) f (x0 ) in Y .
Proof:
Suppose f is continuous at x0 X and that x x0 . Then for each neighbourhood V of f (x0 )
in Y , U = f 1 (V o ) f 1 (V ) is open and contains x0 , and so it is a neighbourhood of x0 . Thus
for some 0 , x U for all 0 , and so f (x ) f (U ) = V o V , so f (x ) is residually in
V , whence f (x ) f (x).
If f is not continuous at x0 , then for some neighbourhood V of f (x0 ), f (U ) 6 V for any
neighbourhood U of x0 . Thus for each neighbourhood U of x0 , we can pick xU U such that
f (xU ) 6 V . But then (xU ) is a net in X and xU x0 , while f (xU ) 6 f (x0 ).

7.14

Theorem

A net (x ) in a product space X =

(x ) (x) in X .

Xa converges to x if and only if for each A,

Proof:
Q
If x x in X , then since is continuous, (x ) (x) by the previous theorem for each .
Suppose on the other hand that (x ) (x) for each A. Let
11 (U1 ) 1n (Un )
be a basic neighbourhood of x in the product space. Then for each i 1, . . . , n, there is a i such
that whenever i , i (xi ) Ui . Thus if 0 is picked greater than all of 1 , . . . , n , we have
i (x ) Ui for each i, for all 0 . It follows that for 0 , x 1i (Ui ) and hence that
x x in the product.

7.15

Definition

A net (x ) in a set X is an ultranet (universal net) if an only if for each subset E of X, (x ) is

either residually in E or residually in X \ E. It follows from this definition that if an ultranet is
frequently in E, then it is residually in E. In particular, an ultranet in a topological space must
converge to each of its cluster points.

7.16

Theorem

If (x ) is an ultranet in X and f : X Y , then (f (x )) is an ultranet in Y .

20

SECTION

8
SEPARATION AXIOMS

8.1

Definitions

1. A topological space is a T0 space if and only if whenever x, y X such that x 6= y, there is

an open set in X containing one and not the other.
2. A topological space is a T1 space if and only if whenever x, y X such that x 6= y, there are
open sets U, V in X with x U and y 6 U , and y V and x 6 V .
3. A topological space is T2 or Hausdorff if and only if whenever x, y X such that x 6= y,
there are open sets U, V in X such that x U , y V , and U V = .

8.2

Examples

The trivial topology on a non-singleton set X is not T0 .

The Sierpinksi topology on the set X = {a, b} (i.e. = {, {a}, X}) is T0 but not T1 .
The cofinite topology on an infinite set x is T1 , but not T2 .
Any metric space is T2

8.3

Theorem

A pseudometric on X is a metric if and only if the topology it generates is T0 .

Proof:
If the topology generated by is T0 , then whenever x 6= y X, there is some open set and hence
some -ball about one, not containing the other. Then (x, y) > 0, showing that is a metric.
Conversely, if is a metric, then it is trivial to show that the topology it generates is T0 .

21

8.4. THEOREM

8.4

SECTION 8. SEPARATION AXIOMS

Theorem

For a topological space X, the following are equivalent:

a) X is T1
b) each one point set in X is closed
c) each subset of X is the intersection of the open sets containing it.
Proof:
If X is T1 and x X, then each y 6= x has a neighbourhood disjoint from {x}, so X \ {x} is an
open set, and thus {x} is closed.
If A X and each singleton in X is closed, then A =

X \ {x}, and each X \ {x} is open.

x6A

If c) holds, then {x} is the intersection of its open neighbourhoods, and hence for any y 6= x,
there is an open set containing x and not y.

8.5

Corollary

Subspaces and products of T1 spaces are T1 .

8.6

Theorem

T2 T1 T0

8.7

Theorem

For a topological space X, the following are equivalent:

a) X is Hausdorff
b) limits in X are unique
c) the diagonal = {(x, x) | x X} is closed in X X.
Proof:
Suppose X is T2 , and let (x ) be a net converging to x X. If y X and x 6= y, then there are
neighbourhoods U of x and V of y such that U V = . Thus, as (x ) is residually in U , we
cannot have (x ) be residually in V , so (x ) does not converge to y.
If limits in X are unique, and (z ) = ((x , x )) is a net in which converges to z = (x, y) X X,
then we have that x x and x y. As limits are unique, x = y, and so z , whence is
closed.
If is closed in X X, and let x 6= y in X. Then (x, y) 6 , and hence there is a basic
neighbourhood U V of (x, y) in X X which does not meet . Hence, for all (x, y) U V ,
x 6= y, and so U V = , whence X is Hausdorff.
22

8.8. THEOREM

8.8

SECTION 8. SEPARATION AXIOMS

Theorem

a) Every subspace of a T2 space is T2

b) A nonempty product space is T2 if and only if each factor is T2
c) Quotients of T2 spaces need not be T2 .
Proof:
a) If X is T2 , and A is a subspace of X, distinct points a and b in A have disjoint neighbourhoods U
and V in X, and so U A and U B are disjoint neighbourhoods of a and b in A.
Q
b) If X is a T2 space for each A and x 6= y X , then for some , x 6= y So disjoint
neighbourhoods U of x and Q
V of y exist in X . Thus 1 (U ) and 1 (V ) are disjoint
neighbourhoods of x and y in X .
Q
Conversely if
X is a nonempty T2 space, pick a fixed point b X for each A.
Then the subspace
Y
B = {x
X | x = b unless = }
is T2 by part a), and is homeomorphic to X under the restriction to B of the projection map.
Thus X is T2 for each .
c) For example, the continuous open image of a Hausdorff space need not be Hausdorff. Let X
be the union of the lines y = 0 and y = 1 in R2 , and let Y be the quotient of X obtained
by identifying (x, 0) with (x, 1) for x 6= 0. Then the resulting projection map p : X Y is
continuous and open, but p((0, 0)) and p((0, 1)) are distinct points of Y which do not have
disjoint neighbourhoods .

8.9

Theorem

If f : X Y is continuous and Y is Hausdorff, then {(x1 , x2 ) | f (x1 ) = f (x1 )} is a closed subset

of X X.
Proof:
Let A be the set defined above. If (x1 , x2 6 A, then f (x1 ) and f (x0 2) are distinct and hence
have disjoint neighbourhoods U and V in Y . Then since f is continuous, f 1 (U ) and f 1 (V ) are
neighbourhoods of x1 and x2 respectively, and so f 1 (U ) f 1 (V ) is a neighbourhood of (x1 , x2 ).
Obviously, this neighbourhood cannot meet A, so A is closed.

8.10

Theorem

If f is an open map of X onto Y and the set {(x1 , x2 ) | f (x1 ) = f (x2 )} is closed in X X, then
Y is Hausdorff.
Proof:
Let A be the above set and suppose f (x1 ) and f (x2 ) are distinct points in Y . Then (x1 , x2 ) 6 A,
so there are open neighbourhoods U of x1 and V of x2 such that (U V ) A = . Then since f is
open, f (U ) and f (V ) are neighbourhoods of f (x1 ) and f (x2 ), respectively, and f (U ) f (V ) = .
23

8.11. THEOREM

8.11

SECTION 8. SEPARATION AXIOMS

Theorem

If f is a continuous open map of X onto Y , then Y is Hausdorff if and only if {(x1 , x2 ) | f (x1 ) =
f (x2 )} is a closed subset of X X.

8.12

Theorem

If f, g : X Y are continuous and Y is Hausdorff, then {x | f (x) = g(x)} is closed in X.

Proof:
Let A be the above set. If (x ) is a net in A and x x, then by continuity, we have both
f (x ) f (x) and g(x ) g(x). Since f (x ) = g(x ) for all and limits are unique in Y as it is
T2 , we must have f (x) = g(x). Thus x A and A is closed.

24

SECTION

9
REGULARITY AND COMPLETE REGULARITY

9.1

Definition

A topological space is regular if for any closed set A X and x 6 A, U, V X open such that
x U , A V , and U V = .

9.2

Definition

A T3 space is a space which is regular and T1 .

9.3

Theorem

The following are equivalent:

X is regular
If U is open in X and x U , then there is an open set V such that x V V U .
Each x X has a neighbourhood base consisting of closed sets.

9.4

Theorem

Every subspace of a regular space (T3 space) is regular (T3 ).

A nonempty product space is regular (T3 ) if and only if each factor space is regular (T3 ).
Quotients of T3 spaces need not be regular.

9.5

Theorem

If X is T3 and f is continuous, open and closed map of X onto Y , then Y is T2 .

25

9.6. THEOREM

9.6

SECTION 9. REGULARITY AND COMPLETE REGULARITY

Theorem

If X is T3 and Y is obtained from X by identifying a single closed set A in X with a point, then
Y is T2 .

9.7

Definition

A topological space X is completely regular if whenever A is a closed set in X and x 6 A, there is

a continuous function f : X I such that f (x) = 0 and f (A) = 1. It is enough to fine a function
f : X R such that f (x) = b, f (A) = a, and b 6= a. Such a function is said to separate x and A.

9.8

Definition

A Tychonoff space is a completely regular T1 space.

9.9

Theorem

Subspaces preserve complete regularity and Tychonoff.

A nonempty product space is completely regular (Tychonoff) if and only if each factor space
is.
Quotients of Tychonoff spaces need not be completely regular or T2 .

26

SECTION

10
NORMAL SPACES

10.1

Definition

A space is said to be normal if for any closed A, B X such that A B = , there are open
U, V X such that A U , B V , and U V =

10.2

Definition

A T4 space is a normal T1 space.

10.3

Lemma

If X contains a dense set D and a closed, relatively discrete subspace S with |S| 2|D| , then X is
not normal.

10.4

Theorem

Closed subspaces of normal (T4 ) spaces are normal (T4 )

Products of normal spaces need not be normal.
The closed continuous image of a normal (or T4 ) space is normal (T4 ).

10.5

Urysohns Lemma

A space X is normal if and only if whenever A and B are disjoint closed sets in X, there is a
continuous function f : X [0, 1] with f (A) = 0 and f (B) = 1.

10.6

Corollary

Every T4 space is Tychonoff.

27

10.7. TIETZES EXTENSION THEOREM

10.7

SECTION 10. NORMAL SPACES

Tietzes Extension Theorem

X is normal if and only if whenever A is a closed subset of x and f : A R is continuous, there

is an extension of f to all of X. That is, there is a continuous map F : X R such that F |A = f .

10.8

Definition

A cover of a space X is a collection C of subsets of X whose union is all of X. A subcover of a

cover C is a subcollection C 0 of C which is also a cover. An open cover of X is a cover consisting
of open sets.

28

SECTION

11
COUNTABILITY

11.1

Definition

X is second countable if its topology has a countable base.

11.2

Theorem

The continuous open image of a second countable space is second countable.

Subspaces of second countable spaces are second countable.
A product of Hausdorrf spaces is second countable if and only if each factor is second countable and all but countably many factors have the trivial topology.

11.3

Definition

A space X is separable if X has a countable dense subset. Note a discrete space is separable if
and only if it is countable.

11.4

Theorem

The continuous image of a separable space is separable.

Subspaces of separable spaces need not be separable. However an open subspace of a separable space is separable.
A product of nontrivial Hausdorff spaces is separable if and only if each factor is separable
and there are 1 = |R| factors.

11.5

Definition

X is Lindelof if every open cover of X has a countable subcover.

29

11.6. THEOREM

11.6

SECTION 11. COUNTABILITY

Theorem

The continuous image of a Lindelof space is Lindelof .

Closed subspaces of Lindelof spaces are Lindelof ; arbitrary subspaces of Lindelof spaces need
not be.
Products of (even two) Lindelof spaces need not be Lindelof

11.7

Theorem

A regular, Lindelof space is normal.

11.8

Theorem

If X is second countable, then X is

Lindelof
Separable

11.9

Theorem

For a (pseudo)metric space X, The following are equivalent

X is second countable
X is Lindelof
X is separable

30

SECTION

12
COMPACT SPACES

12.1

Definition

A space is compact if every open cover of X has a finite subcover.

12.2

Definition

A space is countably compact if every countable open cover has a finite subcover.

12.3

Definition

A family E of subsets of X has the finite intersection property if the intersection of any finite
subcollection of E is nonempty.

12.4

Theorem

The following are equivalent:

X is compact
each family E of closed subsets of X with the finite intersection property has nonempty
intersection
each net in X has a cluster point
each ultranet in X converges.

12.5

Theorem

Every closed subset of a compact space is compact.

A compact subset of a Hausdorff space is closed.
31

12.6. THEOREM

12.6

SECTION 12. COMPACT SPACES

Theorem

Disjoint compact subsets of a Hausdorff space can be separated by disjoint open sets.
A compact set and a disjoint closed set in a regular space can be separated by disjoint open
sets.
If A B is a compact subset of a product space X Y contained in an open set W in X Y ,
then there are open sets U X and V Y such that A B U V W .

12.7

Theorem

The continuous image of a compact space is compact.

12.8

Remark

Let f : X Y be continuous where X is compact and Y is Hausdorff. Then f is a closed map.

12.9

Corollary

A continuous bijection of a compact space X onto a Hausdorff space Y is a homeomorphism

12.10

Theorem

Let f : X R be continuous where X is compact. Then x, x X such that x X, f (x)

f (x) f (x). That is, f attains a maximum and a minimum value on X.

12.11

Theorem

If A1 , . . . , An are compact subsets of a topological space X, then

n
S

Ai is compact.

i=1

12.12

Definition

A topological space X is called sequentially compact if every sequence in X has a convergent

subsequence.

12.13

Remark

A first countable compact space is sequentially compact.

32

12.14. LEMMA

12.14

SECTION 12. COMPACT SPACES

Lemma

Let (M, ) be a sequentially compact pseudometric space. Then > 0 x1 , . . . , xn M such that
n
S
M=
U (xi , ).
i=1

12.15

Corollary

Every sequentially compact pseudometric space is separable.

12.16

Theorem

A pseudometric space (M, ) is compact if and only if it is sequentially compact.

12.17

Tychonoff s Theorem

A nonempty product space is compact if and only if each factor space is compact.

12.18

Theorem

A compact Hausdorff space X is a T4 space.

12.19

Remark

A compact subset of a metric space is closed and bounded.

33

SECTION

13
FILTERS AND ULTRANETS AND SHIT

13.1

Definition

A net (x ) in a set X is called an ultranet if E X, either (x ) is residually in E or E c .

13.2

Definition

A filter in a set X is a nonempty collection F of nonempty subsets of x such that

F1 , F2 F, F1 F2 F
F, F 0 X, if F F and F F 0 , then F 0 F.
For example, for x X the neighbourhood system Ux is a filter.

13.3

Definition

A filter F in X is called an ultrafilter if there does not exist a filter F 0 in X such that F F 0 and
F 6= F 0 . For example, for x X, take F = {A X | x A}. Then F is an ultrafilter.

13.4

Proposition

A filter F is an ultrafilter of X if and only if E X, either E F or E c F.

13.5

Definition

Let (A, ) be a partially ordered set.

A subset B of A is called a chain if x, y B, either x y or y x.
An uppter bound for a subset B A is an element a A such that b a b B.
A maximal element in A is an element m A such that x A, if m x, then m = x.
34

13.6. ZORNS LEMMA

13.6

SECTION 13. FILTERS AND ULTRANETS AND SHIT

Zorns Lemma

Let (A, ) be a partially ordered set with an upper bound. Then A has a maximal element.

13.7

Lemma

Every filter is contained in an ultrafilter.

13.8

Proposition

Every net (x ) has a subnet which is an ultranet.

35

SECTION

14
LOCALLY COMPACT SPACES

14.1

Definition

A space X is locally compact if each point in X has a neighbourhood base consisting of compact
sets.

14.2

Theorem

A Hausdorff space X is locally compact if and only if each point in X has a compact neighbourhood .

14.3

Theorem

In a locally compact Hausdorff space, the intersection of an open set with a closed set is locally
compact. Conversely, a locally compact subset of a Hausdorff space is the intersection of an open
set and a closed set.

36

SECTION

15
CONNECTEDNESS

15.1

Definition

A topological space X is called disconnected if there are disjoint, open, nonempty sets H, K X
such that X = H K. X is called connected if it is not disconnected.

15.2

Theorem

The following are equivalent:

X is connected.
if A X is both closed and open, then A = or A = X.
If A X and A = , then A = or A = X.

15.3

Definition

Subsets H, K of a topological space X are called mutually separated in X if H K = H K = .

15.4

Theorem

A subspace E of X is disconnected if and only if there exist nonempty mutually separated sets
H, K in X with E = H K.

15.5

Corollary

If H, K are mutually separated in X and E is connected subset of H K then E H or E K.

37

15.6. THEOREM

15.6

SECTION 15. CONNECTEDNESS

Theorem

If E is a connected subset of X and E A E, then A is connected (in particular, the closure

of a connected set is connected).

15.7

Theorem

If X =

X where each X is a (path) connected subspace of X and 0 A such that

A, X X0 6= , then X is (path) connected.

If X =

N
S

Xn where N and each Xn is a (path) connected subspace of X and n < N ,

n=1

Xn Xn+1 6= , then X is (path) connected.

If x0 X such that x X, a (path) connected set Ex with x0 , x E, then X is (path)
connected.

15.8

Theorem

A subset E R is (path) connected if and only if E is an interval.

15.9

Theorem

The continuous image of a (path) connected space is (path) connected.

15.10

Definition

A function f : X R is said to have the intermediate value property if a, b X, y R, if

f (a) y f (b), then y = f (c) for some c X.

15.11

Theorem

X is connected if and only if every continuous function f : X R has the intermediate value
property.

15.12

Theorem

A nonempty product space X =

connected.

X is (path) connected if and only if each X is (path)

38

15.13. COMPONENTS

15.13

Components

15.14

Definition

SECTION 15. CONNECTEDNESS

When x X where X is a topological space, the component Cx of x is

[
Cx = {C X | x C and C is connected}

15.15

Remark

Cx is connected.
Cx is the largest connected subset of X containing x.
x, y X, either Cx = Cy or Cx Cy = .
S

Cx = X
xX

Cx is closed x X
The relation on X defined by x y a connected set C with x, y C is an
equivalence relation and the equivalence class of x is Cx .

15.16

Definition

A topological space X is called totally disconnected if x X, Cx = {x}.

15.17

Remark

Every subspace of a totally disconnected space is totally disconnected.

15.18

Definition

A continuous function f : [0, 1] X such that f (0) = x and f (1) = y is called a path in X from
x to y.

15.19

Definition

A topological space X is called path connected if x, y X, there is a path in X from x to y.

15.20

Theorem

Every path connected space is connected.

39

15.21. REMARK

15.21

SECTION 15. CONNECTEDNESS

Remark

Connected 6 path connected

The closure of a path connected set need not be path connected.

15.22

Remark

Now define a relation on a topological space X by a b a path from a to b. Equivalence

classes of are called path components. The path component Px of x X is the largest path
connected set containing x. Path components are contained in components (i.e. Px Cx ). Path
components need not be closed.

15.23

Definition

A topological space X is called locally path connected if each point has a neighbourhood base
consisting of path connected sets.

15.24

Theorem

Every path component of a locally path connected space X is both closed and open.

15.25

Theorem

A locally path connected space is path connected if and only if it is connected.

15.26

Corollary

If X is locally path connected, then x X, Cx = Px .

15.27

Definition

A topological space is locally connected if each point x X has a neighbourhood base consisting
of connected sets.

15.28

Remark

Locally path connected locally connected, but locally connected 6 locally path connected.

15.29

Theorem

X is locally compact if and only if each (path) component of each open set is open.

40

15.30. COROLLARY

15.30

SECTION 15. CONNECTEDNESS

Corollary

Every component of a locally connected space is clopen.

15.31

Theorem

Every quotient space of a locally (path) connected space is locally (path) connected.

15.32

Theorem

Q
A nonempty product space X = X is locally (path) connected if and only if each X is locally
(path) connected and all but finitely many factors X are (path) connected.

41

SECTION

16
THE HOMOTOPY RELATION

16.1

Definition

Denote C(X, Y ) = {f : X Y | f is continuous }

16.2

Definition

Given f, g C(X, Y ) we say f is homotopic to g and write f ' g if H C(X I, Y ) such that
H(x, 0) = f (x) and H(x, 1) = g(x) for all x X. H is called a homotopy between f and g and
we write H : f ' g.

16.3

Theorem

' is an equivalent relation on C(X, Y ).

Proof:

f 'f
f ' g H : f ' g. Let H 0 (x, t) = H(x, 1 t), then H 0 : g ' f , so g ' f
If f ' g and g ' h, we have H1 : f ' g and H2 : g ' h. Define H(x, t) by
(
H1 (x, 2t),
t [0, 21 ], x X
H(x, t) =
H2 (x, 2t 1), t ( 21 , 1], x X
Then H : f ' h, so f ' h.

16.4

Theorem

Let f1 , g1 C(X, Y ) and f2 , g2 C(Y, Z). If f1 ' g1 and f2 ' g2 , then f2 f1 ' g2 g1 .

42

16.5. DEFINITION

16.5

SECTION 16. THE HOMOTOPY RELATION

Definition

A topological space is called contractible if the identity map idX : X X is homotopic to some
constant function c : X X.

16.6

Theorem

X is contractible if and only if for any topological space T , any two maps f, g C(T, X) are
homotopic .

16.7

Definition

Two topological spaces X, Y are said to be homotopically equivalent if there exists a continuous function
f C(X, Y ) and g C(X, Y ) such that f g ' idY and g f ' idX . The maps f and g are called
homotopy equivalences and g is called a homotopy inverse of f (and vice versa).

16.8

Remark

Homotopy equivalence is an equivalence relation in the class of topological spaces.

16.9

Theorem

X is contractible if and only if X is homotopy equivalent to a singleton.

16.10

Definition

Let f, g C(X, Y ) and let A X. We say that f ' g rel A or f ' g[A] if ther eis a homotopy H :
f ' g such that H(x, t) = f (x) = g(x) x A, t I. Then H is called a homotopy between f
and g relative to A. We write H : f ' g [A].

16.11

Remarks

f ' g [] f ' g
f ' g [X] f = g
f ' g [A] f ' g and f |A = g|A (note the converse does not always hold)

16.12

Theorem

' [A] is an equivalence class on C(X, Y ).

43

16.13. THEOREM

16.13

SECTION 16. THE HOMOTOPY RELATION

Theorem

Let f1 , g1 C(X, Y ), f2 , g2 C(Y, Z), A X ,B Y . If f1 ' g1 [A], f2 ' g2 [B] and f1 (A) B,
then f2 f1 ' g2 g1 [A].

44

SECTION

17
THE FUNDAMENTAL GROUP

17.1

Definition

Given a topological space X and x1 , x2 X, let (X, x1 , x2 ) denote the set of paths from x1 to x2
in X. Given , (X, x1 , x2 ), we write a 'p for ' [{0, 1}] and when this holds, we will
say that and are path homotopic .

17.2

Remark

If (X, x1 , x2 ), (X, x2 , x3 ), define = by

(
(2t),
t [0, 12 ]
( )(t) =
(2t 1), t ( 12 , 1]
Then = (X, x1 , x3 ).

17.3

Remark

If (X, x1 , x2 ), then the function (t) = (1 t), t I is in (X, x2 , x1 ).

17.4

Definition

Given x0 X, let x0 denote the constant path x0 (t) = x0 t I.

17.5

Proposition

If 1 , 2 (X, x1 , x2 ), and 1 , 2 (X, x2 , x3 ) such that 1 'p 2 and 1 'p 2 , then

1 1 'p 2 2 .
If 1 , 2 (X, x1 , x2 ) and 1 'p 2 then 1 'p 2 .
45

17.6. DEFINITION

SECTION 17. THE FUNDAMENTAL GROUP

If (X, x1 , x2 ), (X, x2 , x3 ), (x3 , x4 ), then ( ) 'p ( ) and

( ) = .
If (X, x1 , x2 ), then 'p x1 , 'p x2 , and x2 'p 'p x1
Proof:

s [0, 12 ]
(2s),
a(2s),
s [0, 12 ]
( )(s) =
= (4s 2), s ( 21 , 34 ]
(2s 1), s ( 12 , 1]

(4s 3), s ( 43 , 1]

(4s),
s [0, 41 ]

1
(2s), s [0, 2 ]
( ) (s) =
= (4s 1), s ( 14 , 12 ]
(2s 1) s ( 12 , 1]

(2s 1), s ( 12 , 1]
 
4s

0 s t+1
,t I

4
t+1 ,
Take H(s, t) = (4s t 1), t+1
s t+2
,t I
4
4



t+2
4st2 ,
s1
2t

Then H : ( ) 'p ( )
And
(
(
(2 2t),
1 t [0, 12 ]
(1 2t), t [0, 21 ]
( )(t) = (1 t) =
=
(2 2t 1), 1 t [ 21 , 1]
(2 2t), t [ 12 , 1]
while
(
(
(2t),
t [0, 12 ]
(1 2t),
t [0, 12 ]
(t) =
=
= ( )(t)
(2t 1), t [ 12 , 1]
(1 (2t 1)), t [ 12 , 1]
(
(2s(1 t)),
0 s 12 , t I
If H(s, t) =
((2 2s)(1 t)), 21 s 1, t I

17.6

Definition

Given x0 X, let (X, x0 ) = (X, x0 , x0 ) and call elements of (X, x0 ) loops based at x0 . Let
1 (X, x0 ) denote the set of equivalence classes of 'p in (X, x0 ). Let [] denote the equivalence
class of in (X, x0 ).

17.7

Remark

There is a binary operation on 1 (X, x0 ) such that [] [] = [ ] , (X, x0 ) since

' 0 and ' 0 ' 0 0 .
46

17.8. THEOREM

17.8


SECTION 17. THE FUNDAMENTAL GROUP

Theorem


1 (X, x0 ), is a group with identity [x0 ]. Moreover, []1 = [] (X, x0 ).

17.9

Definition

1 (X, x0 ) is called the fundamental group of X relative to the base point x0 or based at x0 .

17.10

Theorem

Let x0 , x1 X and let (X, x0 , x1 ). Then a group isomorphism h : 1 (X, x0 ) 1 (X, x1 )

such that h ([]) = [ ( )] (X, x0 ).

17.11

Corollary

If X is path connected, then x, y X, 1 (X, x)

= 1 (X, y). That is, the fundamental group is
unique up to isomorphism.

17.12

Theorem

Let f C(X, Y ), x0 X. Then a homomorphism f # : 1 (X, x0 ) 1 (Y, f (x0 )) such that

f # ([]) = [f ], (X, x0 ).

17.13

Theorem

#
#
Let f C(X, y), g C(Y, Z), and x0 X. Then (g f )#
x0 = gf (x0 ) fx0 .

17.14

Corollary

If f is a homemorphism of X onto Y and x0 X then fx#0 is an isomorphism of 1 (X, x0 ) onto

1 (Y, f (x0 )).

17.15

Theorem

Let f, g C(X, Y ), x0 X. If f ' g [{x0 }], then fx#0 ' gx#0 .

17.16

Theorem

Suppose that f, g C(X, Y ) are homotopic maps and let H : f ' g. Let x0 X and define
(s) = H(x0 , s), s I. Then (Y, f (x0 ), g(x0 )) and gx#0 = h fx#0 where h : 1 (Y, f (x0 ))

47

17.17. THEOREM

SECTION 17. THE FUNDAMENTAL GROUP

1 (Y, g(x0 )) is given by h ([]) = [ ( )]. That is, the following diagram commutes
1 (X, x0 )
fx#0

gx#0

1 (Y, f (x0 ))

17.17

(
/ 1 (Y, g(x0 ))

Theorem

If f is a homotopy equivalence from X to Y , then x0 X, fx#0 is an isomorphism of 1 (X, x0 )

onto 1 (Y, f (x0 )).

48