CHAPTER 1: SEQUENCES AND SERIES
1.0
Sequence
1.1
Definition
A sequence can be thought of as a list of number written in a definite order:
a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ,
, an ,
The numbers in a sequence are called the terms of the sequences.
Notation:
The sequence a1 , a2 , a3 ,
is also denoted by:
an or an n1 .
Sequence can be classified into 2 groups:
a) Finite sequence a sequence that contains finite number of terms.
an n1
nk
For examples:
a1 , a2 , a3 ,
ak
2n4n1 2 ,4, 6, 8
b) Infinite sequence a sequence that contains infinite number of terms.
an n1
a1 , a2 , a3 ,
For example: 2nn1 2 ,4, 6,........
1.2
2
n1
1 2 3
n
12 , 2 2 , 3 2 ,.....
, , ,......... ..
n 1n1 2 3 4
Limit of the sequence
Let an n1 be a sequence. Limit of a sequence is the limit of an as n becomes larger
and larger. i.e n approaching to infinity.
lim an
limit of a sequence may or may not exists
Definition : A sequence an n 1
lim a n
is said to converge to limit L iff lim a n L (limit exist) . If
n
(limit does not exist) , then the sequence an n 1
is said to diverge.
Theorem: Suppose that the sequence an and bn converge to L and M respectively,
and c is a constant, then
ii.
i.
lim k k
lim k an k L
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iii.
iv.
lim an bn lim an lim bn L M
v.
lim an bn lim an lim bn L M
lim a
an n n
L
if M 0
lim
lim bn M
n b n
n
Example 1: Determine whether the following sequence converge or diverge.
n
b)
n 1
n 2
a)
n 1
Solution:
n
n
lim
lim lim 1 1
n n 1 n n
n
Solution:
n2
n2
lim
lim
lim n
n n 1 n n
n
n 2
Therefore
is diverge.
n 1
2
c)
n
n
Therefore
is converge.
n 1
d)
2n 1
Solution:
lim 2n 1
Solution:
2
lim 0
n
n
Therefore 2n 1is diverge.
2
Therefore is converge.
n
Theorem : Let r n be a sequence
a) lim r n 0 if r 1
b) lim r n if r 1
Example 2: Determine whether the following sequence converge or diverge.
2 n
a)
5
Solution:
b)
1.07
n
Solution:
n
2
2
r 1 lim 0
n 5
5
2 n
converges to 0
5
r 1.07 1 lim 1.07
n
1.07
diverges
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1 n
c)
4
n
Solution:
1
1
r 1 lim 0
n 4
4
1 n
converges to 0
4
1.3
7 n
d)
3
Solution:
n
7
7
1 lim
n
3
3
n
7
diverges
3
r
Monotonic Sequence
Definition:
A sequence an is called :
Increasing if an an1 a1 a2 a3 .....an an1 ...
Non increasing if a1 a2 a3 .....an an1 ...
Decreasing if an an1 a1 a2 a3 .....an an1 ...
Non decreasing if a1 a2 a3 .....an an1 ...
A sequence that is either non decreasing or non increasing is called monotone. A
sequence that is increasing or decreasing is called strictly monotone.
For example:
1 2 3
n
, , ,......... .,
,......... .. increasing
2 3 4
n 1
1 1 1
1
1, , , ,......... ., ,......... .. decreasing
2 3 4
n
non increasing
1,1, 2, 2, 3, 3,.......... .....
1 1 1 1
1,1, , , , ,.......... .... non decreasing
2 2 3 3
2n
Example 3: Show that
is an increasing sequence
3n 1
Solution:
2 n 1
2n 2
2n
an1
3 n 1 1 3n 4
3n 1
Take the ratio,
an1 2n 2 3n 1 6n2 8n 2
an
3n 4 2n
6n2 8n
an
an1
1
an
an1 an
We can also take the difference
2
2n 2 2n
an1 an
0
3n 4 3n 1 3n 4 3n 1
an1 an 0 increa sin g
increa sin g
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Example 4: Determine whether the following sequence is increasing or decreasing
2
a)
n
Solution:
2
2
an1
an
n 1
n
Take the ratio,
an1 2 n
2n
1
an
n 1 2 2n 2
10 n
b)
2n!
Solution:
10 n1
10 n
an1
an
2n 2!
2n!
Take the ratio,
an1 10 n1 2n
10
1
n
an
2n 2 ! 10 2n 2 2n 1
an1
1
an
an1
1
an
an1 an
decrea sin g
an1 an
increa sin g
EXERCISES 1
1. Determine whether each of the following sequence is increasing or decreasing.
2
n
n 1
n 2
a)
b)
d)
c) 3
n
2n 1
3n 1
n 1
3n
1
n 2
5 n
e)
f)
g)
h)
5n
2n 1
2n 1
n !
2. Determine whether each of the following sequence is converging or diverging.
3 5n2
a)
n n2
n2
n2
e)
2n 1 2n 1
1.4
n
b)
1 n
f)
2n 1
c)
n 1 n
d)
2n 2 1
g)
n 2 n1
3n 1
h)
2 n1
SERIES
A series is a sum of sequence.
Definition: An infinite series is a summation of terms in an infinite sequence, i.e
a
k 1
a1 a2 a3
ak
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where a1 , a2 , a3 ,
are the terms of the series.
S n is a summation of n terms (partial sum of series) and Sn is the sequence of partial
sum of the series, then:
S1 a1
S2 a1 a2
S3 a1 a2 a3
n
Sn ak a1 a2 a3
k 1
an
The sequence S1, S2 , S3 ,...., Sn ,.... is called sequence of partial sum. It can be denoted by
Sn n1.
Definition: Given a series
sequence
Sn n1
n1
n1
an and let Sn denote its n th partial sum; an Sn . If the
is convergent and lim Sn S exists as a real number, then the series
n
an is called convergent and we write as
an S . The value S is called the sum of
n1
n1
the series or the convergent value. If lim Sn does not exist, then
n
an is divergent. A
n1
divergent series has no sum.
Past year question
Let
a n be the infinite series whose nth partial sum is given by S n
n 1
whether
converges or diverges. If
n 1
3 e n 2
en
. Determine
converges, find its sum. (ans: Conv,
n 1
Sum=3)
1.5
Geometric Series
A geometric series
ar
n 1
a ar ar 2 ar 3
ar k 1 ... where a 0
n 1
a) Converges if r 1 , that is lim S n lim
n
ar
n 1
n 1
a
n 1 - r
lim
b) Diverges if r 1
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Note: Have common ratio, r
Example 5: Determine whether the following series converges or diverges.
a)
n
n 1 10
b)
2n
n 1 6
3
c)
k 1 5
4
d)
k 1 3
k 1
Past year questions
Determine whether the following series is converges or diverges.
1.
k 1
2.
n 1
1.6
3 k 1
(ans: div)
2k
n 8n
ans: div
5n
Harmonic Series
A harmonic series :
1 1
k 1 2 3 4
is a diverge series.
k 1
1.7
P-Series
P-Series is also known as Hyperharmonic series which is an infinite series of the form:
P-Series:
k
k 1
1
1 1
p p
p
2
3 4
kp
where p>0.
a) Converges if p 1
b) Diverges if 0 p 1
Example 6: Determine whether the following series converges or diverges.
a)
b)
k 1
k
k 1
c)
k 1
1
3
k
d)
k 1
1
5
k6
Past year question
For the following two values of p, determine whether the series
( 1)n
p
n 1 n
converges
absolutely, converges conditionally or diverges?
i. p 5
ii. p
2
3
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1.8
Telescoping Series
A summation of terms that can becomes shorter when some terms in between are
eliminated.
1.
n 13 n3 2 3 13 3 3 2 3 4 3 3 3 ...n3 n 13 n 13 n3 n 13 1
n1
2.
k k 1
k 1
1
A
B
k k 1 k k 1
1 A(k 1) Bk
(A B)k A
A 1 B 1
n
k 1
k k 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
k k 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 .... n 1 n n n 1
k 1
1
n 1
Note: The telescoping series often occur when we want to find Sn .
Example 7: Determine whether the series converges or diverges. If it converges, find its
sum.
a)
Solution:
n
1
k 1 k k 1
k k 1
k 1
n
1
1
k k 1
k 1
n
1
1
1
Sn
1
k 1
n 1
k 1 k
1
lim Sn lim 1
1
n
n
n 1
Since lim Sn exists, therefore
n
k k 1
k 1
is convergent. It sum is 1.
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n 1 n 2
n1
b)
Solution:
Since lim Sn exists, therefore
n
A
B
n 1 n 2 n 1 n 2
1 A(n 2) Bn 1
when n 1 1 A(1 2) A 1
when n 2 1 B(2 1) B 1
n
n 1 n 2
n1
is convergent. It sum is
1
.
2
n 1 n 2 n 1 n 2
n1
k 1
Sn
n 1 n 2
k 1
1 1
1
1 1 1 1
1
....
2 3 3 4
n n 1 n 1 n 2
1
1
2 n2
1
1
1
lim Sn lim
n
n 2
n2 2
Example 8: Determine whether each following series converges or diverges. If its
converges, find its sum.
a)
c)
n2 1
n2
n
b)
n 1n 2
d)
n2
1.9
n 3n 4
n2
n
n2 4
n2
Algebraic Properties of Infinite Series
Theorem: If
an and
n 1
c is a constant),
n 1
a)
ca
n 1
bn are convergent series, then so are the series
n 1
bn and
a
n 1
ca
n 1
(where
bn , and
c an
n 1
b)
a
n 1
n 1
n 1
bn an bn
Note:
a) Converges Converges Converges
b) Converges Diverges Diverges
c) Diverges Converges Diverges
d) Diverges Diverges No conclusion
8|Page
Example 9: Determine whether the following series converges or diverges.
a)
k 1 k
b)
n 1
1
n3
c)
3
k 1
k 1
d)
3 k
2
k
k 1
2
n
1
1
e) n 1 2
3
n 1
5
Theorem: If lim an does not exist or if lim an 0 Series
n
lim an 0 Series
n
a
n 1
a
n 1
divergences. If
might converges or diverge. No conclusion and try
another test.
Note: If the series
a
n 1
convergent, then lim an 0 . Contra positive to the
n
theorem above is called The Divergence Test.
Example 10: Use the divergence test to show that the following series diverge.
a)
n 1
n 1 n 2
b)
ek
k 1 k
c)
k 1 ln k 1
d)
n2 1
2
n 1 n 3
Past year questions
Use the Divergence Test to determine if the following series is convergent or
divergent.
1.
k 1
2.
k
k 2
(ans: div)
3.
k
(ans: div)
k 1 ln(k 1)
2k(k 1)
(ans: div by DT)
4
k
1
k 1
4.
23
k 1
e2
(ans: div)
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1.10
Convergence Test
There are 4 convergence tests:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The Integral Test
The Comparison Test
The Limit Comparison Test
The Ratio Test
The Integral Test
Let
an be a series with positive terms, and let f(x) be the function that results when n is
n1
replaced by x in the formula for an . If f(x) is decreasing and continuous on the interval
[a, ], then
an and
n1
where
f(x)dx both converge or both diverge.
f x dx lim f x dx , converge if limit exist
t
Note: It is not necessary to start n 1 . For example:
n4
n 3
we use
x 3
4
dx
Example 11: Use the integral test to determine the convergence of
a)
d)
n 1 n 2
n 1 ln n 1
n 1
2
n 1 n 1
ln n
e)
n 1 n
b)
c)
k 1
2
k 1
Past year questions
Use the integral test to determine whether the following series is converges or diverges.
1.
2.
k 1
k 1
2 ek
e
4.
(ans: div)
k 1
1
1
k (ans: conv)
3.
k2
k 1
(ans: div)
k
3/2
k 1 ( 2k 1)
ans: conv
5.
n 1
n
2
ans: Conv
The Comparison Test
Let
i) If
ii) If
an and
n 1
n 1
be series with non-negatives terms.
bn converges and an bn for all n
also converges
also diverges
n 1
n 1
diverges and an bn for all n
n 1
n 1
Example 12: Use the comparison test to determine whether the following series
converges or not.
a)
2n 3
b)
7k3
n1
n1
Solution:
a) Take
2n
bn
n1
as a comparison series.
n1
2 3
1
2
2n is a convergent
n1
geometric series since r
1
1
1.
2
for all n. Since the bigger series
2n
converges, then the
n1
smaller series
2n 3
also converges.
n1
b) Take
n1
n1
bn k
divergent.
3
7
k3
the bigger series
as a comparison series.
is harmonic series,
n1
3
3
for all k. Since the smaller series
diverges, then
k
k
n1
7k3
also diverges.
n1
Past year questions
Use the Comparison Test to determine if the following series is convergent or
divergent.
1.
k
k 1 k 1
(ans: conv)
1
2.
(ans: con)
k
k 1 k(3 )
3.
k2
k 3 1 (ans: conv )
K 1
The Limit Comparison Test
Theorem: Let
ak and
k 1
b
k 1
lim
where
be series with positive terms such that:
ak
bk
ak is the series to be studied and
k 1
b
k 1
is the series chosen for
comparison.
If 0 , then both series converges or both diverges.
Example 13: Use the limit comparison test to determine whether the following
series converges or not.
a)
K 1
1
k 1
k
d) 2
k 1 k 1
b)
e)
2
k 1 2k k
n 1
c)
3n3 2n 2 4
7
3
n 1 n n 2
2n 2 3n
5 n5
Past year questions
Use the Limit Comparison Test to determine if the following series is
convergent or divergent.
1.
3k k
k
k 1 2 2k
2k 1
2. 2
K 1 3k 2
(ans: div)
3.
K 1
1 2k
1 k 2 k 5
(ans: conv
)
(ans: div)
4.
5k 2 k
3k 4 k
k 1
ans : Div
The Ratio Test
Theorem: Let
a
k 1
be a series with positive terms such that
lim
ak 1
ak
i) If 1 , the series converges
ii) If 1 or then the series diverges
iii) If 1 , no conclusion can be made. (Try another test)
Note: The test is used when ak involves factorials or kth power.
Example 14: Use the ratio test to determine whether the following series converges or
diverges.
4 k 1 !
1
2k
6k (k 1)
a)
b)
d)
c) k
k3
2k
k 1 2k !
k 1
k 3
7 k 1
e)
2 ln k
k
k 1 e
f)
k 1
2k !
k
g)
k3
k 1
Past year questions
Use the Ratio Test to determine if the following series is convergent or divergent.
1.
2.
(2k )!
k
k 1 2
(ans: div)
(k 3)!
3! k ! 3
k 1
(ans: Conv)
10k
5.
(ans: con)
k 1 (3k 2)!
6.
3.
(k 1)!
(ans: div)
2
k
k 1
4.
k ! 2 2k (ans: conv)
(2k 1)!
k 1
5k (k! )2
(ans: div)
k 1 ( 2k )!
7.
ek
(ans: con)
k 1 ( 2k 1)!
8.
(k 1)!
(ans: div)
k 2
k 1 2 k
9.
2k 1
3 (k 1) (ans: conv)
k 0
12.
k!
10.
(ans: conv)
k 1 ( 2 k 1)!
11.
(k 2)!
k! 4 k
13.
3 9
3n
...
2 8
n! 2n
k 1
5 2 k 3 k !
ans: Conv
ans : Conv
(ans: conv)
k 1
1.11
Alternating Series Test (A.S.T)
Alternating series are series that contain alternately positive and negative terms.
Examples of such series are given below:
a)
k 1
k2
b)
n 1
n 1
1
n!
Theorem: The series of the form
a)
1
k 1
Converges if:
i) a1 a2 a3
ak
b)
1
k 1
i.e. ak ak 1
k 1
ak
ii) lim ak 0 ,otherwise the series is diverges.
k
Example 15: Determine whether the following series converges or diverges.
a)
n 1
n 1
d)
n 1
3
2n
1
n!
b)
n 1
1 n
n 1
e)
n 1
3n
4n 1
c)
1
k 1
k 3
k2
( 1)k
2
f) k 1 (k 1)(k 3)
(ans: con)
1.12
Absolute Convergence or Conditional Convergence
STEPS TO DETERMINE ABSOLUTE OR CONDITIONAL CONVERGENCE
k 1
k 1
ak
ak
converge
k 1
ak
Converge Absolutely
diverge
converge
Alternating Series Test
k 1
ak
Converge Conditionally
diverge
1
k 1
ak
Diverge
Example 16: Determine whether the following series converge absolutely, converge
conditionally or diverges.
a)
n 1
d)
1
n
n 1
1
k 1
b)
n 1
k 1
k
2
2k 1
e)
n 1
1k
k 1
c)
2k 2
1
k 1
2
k 1
2
Past year questions
Determine whether the following series is absolutely convergent, conditionally
convergent, or divergent.
1.
( 1)k 1
( 1)k
k 1
2.
k 1
3.
k(k 1)
k 1
( 1)
k 1
4.
(ans: cond con)
k2
(ans: cond con)
k3 1
1k 2k 1 (ans: div)
k
k 1
5.
2k
(ans: abs con)
k!
k 1
( 1)k
ek
k2
(ans: div)
6.
( 1)k 1
(ans: cond con)
(k 2)
( 1)k 1 k
( ans: cond con)
(k 5)
k 1
7.
k 1
8.
k 1
1k k
k 2 4
Ans: Conv Abs
Reference: Calculus 6th Edition, James Stewart, 2009 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
1.13
Convergence or Divergence of Power Series
A power series is of the form
a x
n 1
The interval of convergence (convergence interval) of a power series is the value of
x which the power series converges.
For example
nx
n 1
x 1
x2
x 3
The convergence interval can be obtained by first using the ratio test for absolute
convergence and supplemented by other test for the end point of the convergence
interval.
Theorem : (Ratio test for absolute convergence)
Let
a
k 1
lim
be a series with non-negative terms and suppose that
ak 1
ak
i) If 1
a
k 1
converge absolutely, therefore convergence
ii) If 1 or
k 1
diverges
iii) If 1 No conclusion
Radius of convergence:
There is a positive number R such that the series converges if x a R and
diverges if x a R .
The number R is called the radius of convergence.
Example 17: Find the radius of convergence and the interval of convergence of
the power series.
a)
xn
n
n 1
d)
3n x n
n
n 1 n 4
b)
n 1
e)
n 0
x 3
x 4
c) 1
2
k 0
k 1
n
n x2
xn
f)
n 1
n 0
3n 1
Past year questions
Determine the interval of convergence for the following power series.
( x 1)2k
1. ( 1)
(ans: -3<x<1)
4k 1
k 1
( 2)k (2x 1)k
3.
(ans: -3/4 x -1/4)
k2
k 1
( x 4)k
2. ( 1)
(ans: 3x5)
(k 1)2
k 0
4.
( 1)k ( x 1)k
(ans: -2 < x 4 )
k 3k
k 1
5.
( 4 2 x )k
( 2)k ( x 2)k
k 1
6.
k2
k 1
7.
(ans: 3/2x5/2)
(ans: 3/2<x<5/2)
(3) k 1(x 1)
k
(ans: 2/3<x<4/3)
k 1
8.
n 1
9.
( 2)n
n
( x 3)n
(2)k 1
ans: -7/2<x-5/2
4k (k 1 )( x 1 )k
Ans: -1<x 3
k 1
10. Show that the power series
( 1)k x 2k
2k 2 converges for all values of x.
k 1 2 (k! )