Process Dynamics and Control
Chapter 8
FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS
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Process Dynamics and Control
Chapter Objectives
End of this chapter, you should be able to:
1.
Explain the concept of feedback control
2.
Explain P, I and D controllers
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Process Dynamics and Control
Historical Perspective:
1930s Commercial Three-mode controllers with
proportional, integral and derivative
(PID) feedback control action
1940s Widespread acceptance of pneumatic
PID controllers
1950s Electronic counterparts in the market
1960s Computer applications
1980s Use of digital hardware
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Introduction
Consider the following blending process (Fig. 8.1).
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Control system
Control objective:
To keep the tank exit composition x at the
desired setpoint by adjusting w2.
Measurement : Composition AnalyzerTransmitter (AT)
Feedback controller (AC): Automatic Controller
Final control element: Pneumatic control valve
Current-to-pneumatic (I/P) transducer
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Block Diagram
Figs. 8.2 & 8.3: Flow control system/loop (top) and its
block diagram (bottom).
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Block Diagram
Fig. 11.8: Standard block diagram for a feedback
control system.
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Proportional, Integral and Derivative
THREE MODE CONTROLLER
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Feedback Control Error
In feedback control, the objective is to reduce the
error signal to zero.
Define an error signal, e, by
e(t ) y SP (t ) y m (t )
(6.1)
where y sp = set point
ym = measured value of the controlled variable
(or equivalent signal from transmitter)
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For proportional control, the controller output is
proportional to the error signal
p(t) p K c e(t)
where
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(6.2)
p(t) = controller output
p = bias value (adjustable, manual reset)
Kc = controller gain (dimensionless, adjustable,
tuning)
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Process Dynamics and Control
Function of proportional term
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Process Dynamics and Control
Proportional Band, PB:
Definition :
100%
PB
Kc
(6.3)
Applies when Kc is dimensionless
Small (narrow) PB corresponds to large Kc
Large (wide) PB corresponds to small Kc
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Process Dynamics and Control
Proportional controller
In order to derive the transfer function for an ideal
proportional controller, define a deviation variable
as
p(t ) p(t ) p
(6.4)
Then (6.2) can be written as
p(t ) K c e(t )
(6.5)
Taking Laplace transform of (6.5) and rearranging
we get
P ( s)
Kc
(6.6)
E ( s)
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Process Dynamics and Control
Remarks
An inherent limitation of proportional controller is
that a steady-state error (offset) occurs after a setpoint change or a sustained disturbance.
Offset can be eliminated by manually resetting
either the set-point or bias after an offset occurs
impractical.
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Ideal vs. actual
Ideal controller does not
include physical limits
A controller saturates
when its output reaches a
physical limit, either pmax
or pmin.
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Process Dynamics and Control
Reverse or Direct Acting Controller
Kc can be made positive or negative
Reverse-Acting (Kc > 0)
controller output (p)
increases as input (ym)
decreases
p p Kc e p Kc ( ySP ym )
Direct-Acting (Kc < 0)
controller output (p)
increases as input (ym)
increases
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Process Dynamics and Control
Integral Control
(reset control, floating control)
For integral action, the controller output depends
on the integral of the error signal over time,
1
p(t) p
I
e(t)dt
0
(6.7)
where I is an adjustable parameter and referred to
as the integral time constant or reset time, has units
of time.
The transfer
function:
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P(s)
1
E(s) I s
(6.8)
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Process Dynamics and Control
Integral Control
An important practical advantage: Eliminates offset.
For the process being controlled to be at steady state, the
controller output p must be constant so that the manipulated
variable is also constant.
Eq. (6.7) implies that p changes with time unless e(t) = 0.
This desirable situation occurs unless the controller output
or the final control element saturates.
The control action by the integral controller is very little
until the error signal has persisted for sometime.
On the other hand, proportional controller takes immediate
corrective action as soon as an error is detected.
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Function of integral term
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PI Controller
Integral control is used in conjunction with
proportional control as the proportional-integral (PI)
controller:
t
1
p(t ) p K c e(t ) e(t )dt
I 0
(6.9)
The corresponding transfer function is:
P(s)
1
K c 1
E(s)
Is
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(6.10)
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Process Dynamics and Control
PI Controller
The response of the PI controller to a unit step
change in e(t) is shown in Fig.
1/ I
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- repeats per minute, aka, reset rate.
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Process Dynamics and Control
PI Controller
Disadvantages:
Produces oscillatory response
Reset windup
When a sustained error occurs, the integral term becomes
quite large and the controller output eventually saturates
reset windup or integral windup.
Antireset windup: Temporarily halting the integral action
whenever the control output saturates.
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Reset windup
SP=setpoint
PV=process
variable to
control
Valve
movement
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Anti wind-up
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Derivative control
(Rate action, pre-act, anticipatory control )
Anticipate the future error by considering its rate of
change.
For ideal derivative action,
p(t ) p D
de(t )
dt
(6.11)
where D is the derivative time, and has units of time.
As long as the error is constant de/dt = 0, the controller
output is equal to p .
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Derivative control
Derivative action is never used alone.
Always used in conjunction with P or PI control.
PD controller has the transfer function
P(s)
K c 1 D s
E(s)
(6.12)
The derivative control action tends to stabilize the
controlled process.
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PID Controller
PID control algorithm is given by
t
1
de
p(t ) p K c e(t ) e(t )dt D
I 0
dt
(6.13)
Transfer function of an ideal controller (parallel form)
P(s)
1
K c 1
D s
E(s)
Is
(6.14)
Transfer function actual (Series form)
s 1 D s 1
P(s)
K c I
E(s)
1
I D
= [0.05, 0.2]
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(6.15)
Derivative filter
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Process Dynamics and Control
ON-OFF controllers
(two-position or bang-bang controllers)
Ideal controller
More practical controller
(Dead band)
Special case of proportional controller with very high gain.
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Typical responses of Feedback
control systems
Consider response of a controlled system after a sustained
disturbance occurs (e.g. step change in load variable)
No control
New steady state is reached
P control
Offset reduced
PI control
Offset eliminated
Oscillatory response
PID control
Oscillations reduced
Response time reduced
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Too small a value of Kc
Process Dynamics and Control
Sluggish response
Larger deviation
Too large a value of Kc
Exhibit oscillatory or unstable behavior
Intermediate values of Kc is desirable
Increasing D tends to improve the
response by reducing the maximum
deviation, response time, and degree
of oscillation
If D is too large, measurement noise
is amplified and the response may
become oscillatory.
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Increasing I makes the controller more sluggish.
Offset will be eliminated for all values of I.
For large values of I, it takes very long time to return to
the set-point.
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Summary
1. Two Position (On-Off):
Inexpensive
Extremely simple
2. Proportional:
Simple
Inherently stable when properly tuned
Easy to tune
Experiences offset at steady state
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3. Proportional + Integral:
No offset
Better dynamic response than reset alone
Possibilities exist for instability due to lag introduced
4. Proportional + Derivative:
Stable
Less offset than proportional alone (use of higher gain
possible).
Faster response time.
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5. Proportional + Integral + Derivative :
Most complex
Rapid response
No offset
Difficult to tune
Best control if properly tuned.
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Conclusion
Concept of feedback control
P, I, D controller modes
ON-OFF as a special case of P-controller
Advantages and disadvantages
Motivation for additional modes
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