Casting Processes

Two Categories of Metal Casting Processes

Expendable mould processes - mould is sacrificed to remove part
Advantage: more complex shapes possible
Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time to make mould
rather than casting itself
Permanent mould processes - mould is made of metal and can be
used to make many castings
Advantage: higher production rates
Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open mould

The Pattern: A full-sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to

account for shrinkage and machining allowances in the
casting
Pattern materials: Wood - common material because it is
easy to work, but it warps
Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much longer
Plastic - compromise between wood and metal.

Types of patterns used in sand casting:

(a) solid pattern
(b) split pattern
(c) match-plate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern

Core:Full-scale model of interior surfaces of part. It is inserted into the

mould cavity prior to pouring. The molten metal flows and solidifies
between the mould cavity and the core to form the casting's external and
internal surfaces.

(a) Core held in place in the mould cavity by chaplets.

(b) Possible chaplet design
(c) casting with internal cavity
Desirable Mould Properties and Characteristics
Strength - to maintain shape and resist erosion
Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to pass through voids in sand
Thermal stability - to resist cracking on contact with molten metal
Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow casting to shrink without
cracking the casting
2

 Reusability - can sand from broken mould be reused to make other

moulds?

INTRODUCTION
In casting, the liquid material is poured into a cavity (die or mould)
corresponding to the desired geometry. The shape obtained in the liquid
material is now stabilized, usually by solidification, and can be removed
from the cavity as a solid component.
The main stages, which are not confined to metallic materials alone but are
also applicable to some plastics, porcelain, and so on, are: production of a
suitable mould cavity; the melting of the material; pouring the liquid
material into the cavity; stabilization of the shape by solidification, chemical
hardening, evaporation, and so on; removal or extraction of the solid
component from the mould; and cleaning the component.
In principle, no limits exist regarding the size
or geometry of the parts that can be produced by
casting. The limitations are set primarily by the
material properties, the melting temperatures, the
properties of the mould material (mechanical,
chemical, thermal), and the material's production
characteristics (i.e., whether it is used only
once or many times).
Normally, the term" casting" is applied to metals, but in general,
the principal stages and many of the characteristic problems are
the same for most materials which can be shaped from the liquid
state. The term casting should be treated more broadly,
allowing the carryover of new ideas from one field to another
(foundry industry, glass industry, plastic industry, etc.).

The differences between the many casting processes are due mainly to the
mechanical and thermal properties of the work and mould material, the
acceptable working temperature of the mould, the cooling method and
cooling rate of the workpiece, the radiation of heat from the work and the
mould material, the chemical reactions between the molten metal and the
mould, the solubility of gas in the work material, and the functional
requirements of the component.
Casting processes are important and extensively used manufacturing
methods, enabling the production of very complex or intricate parts in nearly
all types of metals with high production rates, average to good tolerances and
surface roughness, and good material properties.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CASTING PROCESSES
Casting processes can be broken down into a few fundamental
operations or stages [next slide] which are common for all casting
processes and independent of the work material and of how the
mould is produced.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CASTING PROCESSES

Figure 10. 1 shows schematically the principal operations or stages

in the production of components from the liquid state.
From the specifications of the desired component (geometry,
tolerances, type of material, final material properties, number of
components, etc.), the raw material can be chosen.
The raw material is melted and the composition controlled and
eventually corrected.
Depending on the specifications, the casting process can be selected
and, consequently, the mould production (mould material and
shaping method) can be identified.
The molten and refined work material is now poured into the mould. The shape
obtained is stabilized by solidification; a process that is dependant on the work
material, the mould and the external conditions.
After solidification, the component is extracted or removed from the mould. A
component is finally cleaned and inspected.
If approved, machining, heat treatment, and other processes can then be
carried out. Each stage or operation listed in Fig. 10.1 can now be analyzed
according to the principles described in Chapter 1 (i. e., material flow, energy
flow, and information flow).
In this context, only the stages double-lined in Fig. 10.1 will be discussed:
melting, mould production, pouring, and solidification.
6

As mentioned previously, the casting processes can be characterized either by

the type of mould, the mould material, or the pouring principle, which makes it
difficult to describe mould production, pouring, and solidification without
relating these to specific processes. Melting can be described in a general
section covering all casting processes.
Therefore, in this presentation the melting methods are described first and then
a short introduction to the primary characteristics of mould production,
pouring, and solidification is given. After this, the casting processes are
discussed, including descriptions of moulding, pouring, and solidification. In a
final section, general design rules and comparisons of the casting processes
are presented.
MELTING AND CONTROL OF COMPOSITION
When selecting the melting process (i. e., the furnace equipment) to
fulfil the casting specifications and the production requirements,
several factors or characteristic features must be considered. Among
these are the metal chemistry or the metallurgy, the temperature of
the melt, and the melting capacity, including the delivery rate. Before
the melting processes are described these factors will be discussed
briefly.
Metal Chemistry (Metallurgy)
To be able to fulfil the requirements concerning material properties and to
produce a sound casting, the molten metal must have the right composition,
with a limited content of metallic and non-metallic contaminations, including
gases. Depending on the raw material (i.e., the metal fed into the furnace), a
refining process or correction of the composition of the melt might be
necessary. This can involve the removal or addition of elements, the removal
of dissolved gases, and so on. When a considerable proportion of
uncontrolled scrap is used in the raw material, impurities and contaminants
are introduced and the need for a refining process increases.
Concerning gaseous contaminations, it should be mentioned that the molten
metal can dissolve these in greater amounts than the solid material;
consequently, during freezing, gas is precipitated, causing porosity in the
casting. Another effect of the particular gases nitrogen and hydrogen is that
they can reduce the ductility of the final casting (i.e., they promote
brittleness).
7

Thus, the final composition of the melt depends on the raw material
and all the changes that occur during and after the melting process.
The melting procedures can be divided into two categories: (1)
melting without refining and (2) melting with refining.
In the first category, the raw material and the minor changes
caused by the specific melting process determine the final
composition of the material. However, small corrections to the
compositions can be carried out just before pouring. Examples of
the application of this procedure include the melting of alloys
with low melting temperatures, the melting of light metals, and
the vacuum melting of alloys with high melting points.

In the second category, melting is followed by a refining phase

to obtain the desired composition; in other words, significant
corrections are made to the composition of the material. For
example, in steel the carbon content as well as the content

of other elements are changed during melting either by

deoxidation from the atmosphere or by reactions caused by
the slag protecting the melt. The oxygen content in the melt
must be adjusted frequently by the addition of deoxidation
materials.

Temperature of the Melt

To be able to cast complicated shapes, the molten metal must be
maintained at high temperatures. If pouring is carried out at too low a
temperature, the metal may start to freeze before the mould is filled,
causing misruns and other defects.

If pouring is carried out at too high a temperature, the metal may react
with the mould material, causing gaseous inclusions in the casting. The
high thermal loading may also cause detrimental deterioration of the
mould in the latter case. The pouring or tapping temperature must be
chosen so that these problems are avoided.
To assist in specifying the correct tapping temperature, various fluidity
tests have been developed, for example, the sand-cast fluidity spiral
and the suction-tube method. In the spiral test, the length of the spiral
obtained at a given tapping temperature provides an index of relative
fluidity. The maximum tapping temperature obtainable from the
furnace can be decisive for the selection of the melting process.

Melting Capacity and Delivery Rate

Two factors are of importance here: the rate of the
delivery and the mode of delivery. A rate of 5 Mg/h,
for example, can be obtained from a batch or a
continuous melt.
In casting large components, the batch melting
processes are normally preferred, as it may take too
long a time to accumulate the necessary amount of
metal from a continuous-type furnace. In addition, a
large furnace is required to maintain the molten
metal at the required high temperature.
In the production of small castings, the continuous
type of furnace is normally preferred. When selecting
melting equipment, both the capital costs and the
operating costs must be considered.

Melting Processes/Furnaces
To be able to obtain a sound casting, molten metal of the
right composition and temperature must be produced. The
furnaces must prevent contamination of the metal and allow
corrections of the composition to be made.
Since melting takes place at high temperatures, it is necessary
to line the furnace with a refractory material. To protect the
molten metal against oxidation, dissolution of gases, to limit or
reduce the content of other undesired elements, and so on, it
is necessary to cover the melt with a layer of slag.
Depending on the type of furnace lining, the melting process can be classified
as acid or basic. In the acid process, the lining consists of fire clay and quartz
sand. In the basic process, a lining of magnesite is used. The acid process is
often preferred to the basic, as the lining is strong and cheap, giving a lower
energy consumption and a slightly higher production.
In general, acid linings are used when no refining is necessary and a small
quantity of sulfur can be tolerated. The basic process provides low-sulfur iron
and allows for carburizing to give higher carbon contents.
The lining and the slag must be of the same type, both acid or
both basic. In the acid slag, quartz sand (FeO, MnO, etc.) is
used, and in the basic slag, limestone is used. After establishing
the melting process, the sources of contaminations must be
minimized. Typical sources are:
The atmosphere (O2, N2, H2O, CO2), for example in unprotected
electrical furnaces.
Combustion products (CO2, CO, H2O, SO2) in furnaces fired by
oil, gas, coal, coke, and so on. Where solid firing materials are
used, the sulfur and phosphorus content often contaminates the
melt.
The lining may contribute to the contamination if it is not
completely inactive. Both metallic and non-metallic impurities (e,
g., AI, Si, O2, H2) may be introduced.

10

Classification of Some of the Most Frequently Used Industrial

Melting Furnaces
Type of energy
Furnace
Application
Chemical
Solid
Cupola
Cast iron, sometimes Cu alloys
Granular (coal dust)
Open-hearth furnace
Steel
Liquid (oil)
Rotary furnace
Cast iron, steel, Cu alloys, light metals
Gaseous (gas)
Crucible furnace (gas or oil)
Nonferrous
metals
and
alloys
Electrical
Arc
Arc furnace
Steel, cast iron
Direct/ Indirect
Induction
Induction
High frequency
Steel, cast iron
Low frequency
Copper, aluminium alloys
Resistance
Resistance furnace
Alloyed steel, sometimes cast
iron,
aluminium and copper alloys

Classification of Some of the Most Frequently Used Industrial Melting Furnaces

Type of energy

Furnace

Application

Chemical
Solid
Cupola
Granular (coal dust)
Open-hearth furnace
Liquid (oil)
Rotary furnace
Gaseous (gas)
Crucible furnace (gas or oil)

Cast iron, sometimes Cu alloys

Steel
Cast iron, steel, Cu alloys, light metals
Nonferrous metals and alloys

Electrical
Arc

Steel, cast iron

Induction
Resistance

Arc furnace
Direct/ Indirect
Induction, High frequency
Low frequency
Resistance furnace

Steel, cast iron

Copper, aluminium alloys
Alloyed steel, sometimes cast iron,
aluminium and copper alloys

MOULD PRODUCTION, POURING & SOLIDIFICATION

Mould Production
11

The next step is the manufacture of a suitable mould. The

mould cavity must be such that the final component has the
desired properties.

Figure 10.4 [previous slide] illustrates how the requirements of

the mould can be determined. The component specifications
lead to specifications of the input material (i. e., the molten
metal). Based on this and a fundamental knowledge of
metallurgy, melting and solidification, heat transfer, fluid
mechanics, materials, and so on, the general requirements of
the mould system can be determined. This is, of course, an
interactive process.
When the requirements have been defined, the principles of
mould design, including selection of mould material and
method of mould manufacture, can be analyzed. Here the
morphological approach described in Chapter 1 can be
utilized.
Three factors have a major influence on mould design and
manufacture:
- Type of mould
* Permanent
(nonexpendable)
* Nonpermanent
(expendable-used once)
12

- Category of pattern

* Permanent
* Nonpermanent
- Pouring principle
* High pressure
*Low pressure *Gravity
This is illustrated in Table 10.3, where three basic production
methods can be identified: I, II, III in the left-hand column.

13

 Method 1. The mould is permanent and the mould material solid

(i. e. , metal, graphite, etc.). The cavity, which is a negative of the
desired part, is produced by machining, pressing, and so on. To
be able to use the mould, a suitable parting line must be
available. This line marks where the two halves of the mould
meet.
Method II. The mould is nonpermanent, the material granular
(sand, plaster, ceramics, etc.), and a pattern that can be used
several times is employed. The two halves of the mould are
formed around the pattern. The moulds are separated at the
parting line and the pattern removed. After reassembly the
mould is ready for use. Thus, the basic requirement is that the
pattern can be removed.
Method III. The mould is nonpermanent, the material granular
(sand, plaster, ceramics, etc.), and the pattern nonpermanent.
The pattern is melted, dissolved, or otherwise removed if
sufficiently elastic (e. g., rubber patterns) leaving a cavity which
can have a complicated shape. The mould is not split into 2
halves.

These three fundamental methods cover the major methods of mould

design used today.
Patterns
The mould cavity is not a true negative of the desired component,
since it must compensate for some or all of the following:
- Shrinkage
* Contraction from casting
temperature to solidification temperature
* Contraction during
solidification
* Contraction in the solid
state
- Machining to final dimensions, if necessary
- The draft necessary to remove the pattern from the mould or the
component from a permanent mould
Considering Table 10.3, it can be seen that these allowances must be
contained either in the mould (for permanent moulds) or in the
pattern (for nonpermanent or expendable moulds).
Patterns, in general, play an important role in casting processes and
the principles are described briefly below. The requirements or
specifications for the desired component lead to the selection of a
casting process. If a casting process employing nonpermanent or
14

expendable moulds is selected, the next question concerns the

manufacture of the pattern necessary to produce the mould. Table
10.4 [next] shows a classification of patterns according to category
(permanent, nonpermanent), type, and material.
The quality of the pattern depends on the number of castings and the
casting process. If only a few castings are to be made soft wood may
be employed; for a larger number, hard wood; and for very large
numbers, metal will be used.
Patterns can thus be divided into different types, according to how
they are employed in mould production.

Loose patterns, which are normally used in the casting of up to 100

components, are made as one solid piece (like the desired component with
allowances) or split along a plane or irregular surface to facilitate extraction
from the mould halves.
Gated patterns are, in principle, loose patterns with attached gates and
runners. Because of their higher cost, they are used only for small castings
and when the number of castings is high (~1000).
Match-plate patterns are split patterns mounted on opposite sides of a
wooden or metal plate (known as a match plate) giving the parting surface
(see Fig. 10.5b). Gates and runners are also mounted on the plate. Locating
pins provide an accurate location of the plate between the upper (cope) and
lower (drag) flask.

Patterns
The match plate is used in machine moulding, allowing the cope and
drag mould halves to be made around the plate. Because of the high
15

cost of match plates, they are used only when a large number of
castings is required.
Cope and drag patterns are split patterns mounted on separate plates
(the cope plate and the drag plate), allowing the production of the
mould halves on different machines (see Fig. 10.5a).

As discussed previously, the pattern must include allowances for draft,

shrinkage, and machining
Draft: Draft is provided to enable the pattern to be removed from the mould
(see Fig. 10.6a). Normally, split patterns are used, so that half of the pattern is
in the cope flask and half in the drag flask.
The draft is often in the range 1-2. In many cases, the castings are hollow,
which necessitates the use of cores (Fig. 10. 6b).
The pattern gives the external shape of the casting, and the core the internal
shape. Cores are produced by a number of special methods and placed in the
cavity when the pattern has been removed. In sand casting, the cores are made
of baked sand and can be handled.

16

Shrinkage Allowance
To compensate for the shrinkage of the casting during cooling from the
casting temperature to room temperature, a shrink rule is used to transfer
measurements to the pattern. The linear contraction or shrinkage here must
not be confused with the volume shrinkage, which to some extent is
compensated for by the application of risers.
Machining Allowance
On those surfaces where casting is to be machined, the pattern must be
provided with a reasonable machining allowance, varying between 2 10 mm
for cast iron, depending on the wall thickness and the tolerances.
Selection of pattern material depends on the casting process, the number of
castings, the tolerances, and other factors.
If disposable patterns made of polystyrene or Styrofoam are used, they are
not removed from the mould. When pouring the liquid metal into the mould,
they evaporate or burn. If wax is used as the pattern material, heating of the
mould results in the removal of the wax before the molten metal is poured into
the cavity.
Figure 10.7 shows examples of moulds for sand casting.

17

The production of a casting without defects depends on many factors. One of

the important factors is the way in which the metal is poured into the mould
cavity. This pouring process can be characterized by the filling or pouring
pressure and the gating system (channels for delivering the metal). As
mentioned previously, the pouring pressure can be classified as high (2-15
Mpa), low (0. 12-0.30 MPa) or gravity. The higher pressures permit the

casting of thinner sections, higher quality, and so on, but at the same time,
there is a requirement for higher-strength mould material. High or low pouring
pressures normally require permanent metal moulds, but other materials,
such as graphite, can be used for the lower pressures.

The general objective of the gating system is to allow liquid metal to

be supplied to the mould cavity at the proper rate and
temperature. A poorly designed gating system may cause excessive
heat loss (i. e., require too high a pouring temperature influencing the
grain structure, porosity, etc.), turbulence in the fluid stream,
entrapping of gases, slag, heavy erosion, and so on. The actual gating
system depends primarily on the moulding method, the mould
material, the metal, the geometry, and the pouring or injection
pressure. The main elements in the gating system are the same for
most casting processes. Thus, the gating systems for sand casting will
be described to illustrate these main elements, since this process involves most of the problems met in other casting processes.
A gating system for sand casting (Fig. 10.8) generally includes a pouring
basin, a sprue, a runner, and a gate. The liquid metal is poured first into a
pouring basin to avoid too heavy erosion at the bottom of the sprue and to
prevent slag from entering the cavity. The pouring basin is especially
important with large moulds. In pressure casting, the basin is replaced by an
injection system. From the pouring basin, the metal flows through the sprue,
which should be filled constantly during pouring. The sprue is tapered about
18

2, so a higher velocity occurs at the bottom and does not cause aspiration of
air through the mould.

It is sometimes necessary to place a special well or splash core at the sprue

bottom. If more than one gate is necessary, the metal is distributed to these
through a runner. The final flow into the mould cavity takes place in the
gate(s).
Figure 10.9 shows a few typical gating systems.

In the designs of gating systems, the cross-sectional area of the sprue is

made about 20% larger than the total area of the gates, to obtain filling of
19

the runner from the beginning. The cross-sectional area of the runner is
decreased after each branching gate.
Summarizing, the most important requirements for a well-engineered gating
system are:
- Prevention of slag and oxides from entering the mould cavity.
- Prevention of the inclusion of air or gases.
- Prevention of mould and core erosion.
- Decreasing the requirements for a high pouring temperature
- Leading the liquid metal into the mould at the right place and at the
correct rate, resulting in castings with minimized shrinkage voids and
distortion.
- Minimizing the amount of metal used in the gating system.
Gating Systems
When the gating system has been designed, attention must be given to the
avoidance of shrinkage voids. As mentioned, the total contraction or shrinkage
during cooling from the pouring temperature to room temperature is made up of
the following three contributions:
1. Contraction during cooling from the pouring temperature to the solidification
temperature (carbon steel ~1.6%)
2. Contraction during solidification (carbon steel ~ 3%)
3. Contraction during cooling from the solidification temperature to room
temperature (carbon steel ~ 7.2%)
For carbon steel, the solidification shrinkage is in the range 2.5-3%, for aluminium
6-7%, and for cast iron from 1. 9% to an expansion of 2.5%, depending on the
carbon content.
To compensate for the shrinkage taking place during cooling from the pouring
temperature to solidification, a reservoir of molten metal should be attached or
connected with the component. To supply liquid metal to compensate for the
shrinkage, the reservoir or riser must solidify after the component has solidified. The
size and placement of the risers are thus of utmost importance. [see fig. 10.10]

20

Stages of casting

Solidification
The mould design and mould material have a significant influence
on the solidification pattern. Solidification in sand and shell moulds is
relatively slow, and a directional solidification is desired, starting at
the lowest parts of the casting and continuing up through the mould.
The possibilities of obtaining a directional solidification depend on the
design of the component.
With permanent moulds, solidification starts even before the mould is
completely filled and terminates shortly after. This means that thin
sections may close to prevent further feeding to other sections.
Consequently, the requirement of uniform sections is very important
here.
In die casting (permanent metal moulds), feeding is supplied by the
high pressure acting through the gating system. Modifications to the
component geometry may be necessary to obtain a sound casting.
21

CASTING PROCESSES
Sand Casting
Sand casting of cast iron, steel, and metals is extensively used in
industry. In this description, moulding materials, mould production,
and applications are discussed.
Moulding Sand
Sand is the most extensively used mould material. To produce a
casting of 1000 kg, it is necessary to employ 4000-5000 kg of
moulding sand; in other words, large amounts of moulding sand must
be handled and maintained. The fundamental requirements of the
moulding sand are: temperature resistance, strength to retain a
given shape and to withstand the mechanical loading from the
liquid metal, permeability (to permit the escape of gases), and
collapsibility (to permit shrinkage).
The fulfillment of these requirements is obtained in moulding sand
from the following ingredients:
The sand (giving temperature resistance and permeability) The
binder (giving strength) Additives (giving collapsibility) Water (to
activate the binder).
The most widespread type of sand used in foundries is silica (SiO2) or
quartz sand. It is readily available and cheap. However, because of its
harmful effects on the lungs, it is being replaced to some extent by
olivine sand (especially for steel casting). Zircon sand can also be
used, but it is more expensive. In most countries, natural sand is
being replaced by synthetic sand, which has a specified type of grain
and grain-size distribution. The compounding elements are added in
the foundries. The binder, which together with water gives strength
and formability, can be:
* Clay
* Cement
* Sodium silicate (CO2
process)
* Oils
* Resins

In moulding sand, clay is generally used as the primary binder. The types of
clay are bentonite, kaolinite, or illite. The amounts vary between 5 and 20% of
the sand. Cement (portland) can be used as a binder when strong moulds are
desired. Sodium silicate and oils are used primarily in core production. These,

22

together with the additives, give high strength. The resins are used as primary
binders, in both moulds (shell moulding) and cores.
The water content in moulding sand is usually 4-8% when clay is used as the
primary binder. A moulding sand based on sand, clay, and water, perhaps
with some additives, is called green sand.
If a sand mould is baked in an oven (at 100-300C) for several hours, a dry
sand mould is obtained. When using dry sand moulds, usually 1-2% of cereal
flour and 1-2% of pitch are added. Dry sand moulds reduce gas holes, blows,
or porosity in the casting.
The moulding sand must be maintained very carefully and
tested
frequently
to
control
the
properties.
The
production of sand moulds can be analyzed using the
morphological approach (Chapter 1), so the moulding
processes must be considered in the same category as
other shaping processes. The shape of the mould is
determined by the tool and the pattern of motions. The
surface creation principle is generally total forming.
The tool, determining the shape of the cavity, is called
a pattern.
Mould Production
When the pattern has been made, the mould can be
produced. The moulds are produced in flasks (i. e., foursided metal frames), usually consisting of a top flask
[cope] and a bottom [drag].

The flasks are supplied with handles and guide pins for accurate location of
the mould halves. To facilitate mould production, many different moulding
machines have been developed, to facilitate compressing the moulding sand
to a suitable strength at a high rate. These machines can, for example, be
activated by a compression punch combined with a shaking or vibration
motion to obtain uniform strength.
Much effort has been put into the development of flaskless moulding.
methods. Figure 10.11 shows two different principles in the
arrangement of flaskless moulds.

23

Applications
Shell Mould Casting
In shell mould casting, which is a variant of sand
casting, the mould is produced from dried silica sand
mixed with a thermosetting resin (phenolic).
An accurate metal pattern is heated to 150-250C, and the
sand mixture is dumped on the pattern, which is placed in
a mould box. After a few minutes, a layer of the sand
mixture is cured, and the excess mixture is removed by
inverting the mould box. The pattern and the partially
cured shell are baked in an oven for a few minutes to
obtain complete curing. The pattern and shell are now
separated, and the mould halves assembled with clamps,
glue, or other devices. The shell mould is placed in a
pouring jacket and backed up or supported by shot or
sand. If it is sufficiently rigid, the shell mould can be
supported by pins.
The advantages of the shell moulding process are: high
dimensional accuracy (0.02-0.05 per dimensional unit, for
example cm/ cm), smooth surfaces, high reproducibility, a
minimum of cleaning, and easy automation.
The main disadvantage is the high pattern costs, but even
at moderate volumes, the process, which has a relatively
high production rate, becomes economic. The process is
used extensively to cast stainless steels but most metals
can be cast by this method. Maximum part mass is about
10-20 kg.

24

Investment Casting
In investment casting (also called "lost wax casting" or
"precision casting") a pattern of wax is used. The main
stages in the investment casting process are:
1. Production of a master pattern (normally in metal but
wood or plastic is sometimes used), used to produce a
master die (low-melting point alloys or steel)
2. Production of wax patterns by pouring or injection of
wax into the master die.
3. Assembly of wax patterns and a common gating system
with a sprue
4. Coating of the pattern assembly with a thin layer of
investment material (dipping in a thin slurry of finegrained silica)
5. Production of the final investment by placing the
coated pattern assembly into a flask and pouring
investment material around (vibrated to remove entrapped
air, etc.)
6. Drying and hardening for several hours
7. Melting the wax pattern assembly by warming the mould
and inverting it to allow the wax to flow out.
25

8. Heating the mould to higher temperatures (850-1000C)

to drive off moisture and volatile matter.
9. Preheating the mould to 500-1000C (facilitating flow
of the molten metal to thin sections to give better
dimensional control)
10. Pouring the metal (by gravity, pressure, or
evacuation of the mould)
11. Removal of the casting from the mould after
solidification
The main advantages of investment casting are: the
production of very complicated shapes even in high
melting temperature alloys [this includes thin sections
(-0.4
mm),
undercuts,
etc.],
very
fine
details,
exceptionally
good
surface
finish,
and
very
high
dimensional accuracy (0.003-0.005 per dimensional unit,
cm/cm).
The labour costs in investment casting are high. The
pattern costs are also high; consequently, the process is
used mainly to produce components that require the
special characteristics of the process (good surfaces,
tolerances, high complexity, etc.). Examples are metals
that are difficult to machine or to deform plastically.

26

Die Casting
As mentioned previously, die casting is characterized by a
permanent metal mould and high pouring or injection
pressures. The injection pressure, under which solidification
also takes place, may vary from 2 to 300 MPa; the usual range
is 10-50 MPa.
Two different die casting methods are employed:
(1) the hot-chamber method and (2) the cold-chamber method.
The principal distinguishing feature is the location of the
melting pot, which also reflects the final design of the
equipment.
In the hot-chamber method, the melting pot is
included in the machine and the injection cylinder is
immersed in the molten metal (see Fig. 10. 13a, b).
Figure 10. 13a shows the metal being forced by air
into the die (pressures ~ 0.5-5 MPa) and Fig. 10.13b
shows the metal being forced into the die by a
plunger (activated by air or hydraulic pressure),
resulting in injection and solidification pressures
in the range 10-40 MPa.
Hot-chamber die casting is used mainly for the
casting of alloys of zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium.

27

28

The cold-chamber process has a separate melting furnace, and the

molten metal is transferred from the furnace to the cold-chamber
machine by hand or mechanically (see Fig. 10.13c). In the machine,
the metal is forced into the die by a hydraulically activated plunger.
The injection and solidification pressure is in the range 30-150 MPa.
29

Machines of 25 MN plunger force and more are available, allowing the

casting of components of up to 50 kg.
The cold-chamber method is used mainly for brass, bronze,
aluminium, and magnesium castings.

The die casting process is rapid (production rates of up to 1000 castings per hour) and it gives
smooth surfaces, good dimensional accuracy (0.002 to 0.003 per dimensional unit, cm/cm of
length) and thin sections (0.6 mm in zinc, 0.90 mm in aluminium, and 1. 25 mm in magnesium,
brass, and bronze). The draft necessary varies between 0.125 and 0.35 per dimensional unit
(cm/cm), depending on the material.
Die casting requires, in general, no machining except for the drilling of holes and threading.
Flash and fins must be removed.
The dies for die casting are made from heat-resistant steel and are water-cooled through internal
channels. For large castings, a single-cavity die is used and for small castings, multiple cavity dies
are used, often built up from inserts.

Low-Pressure Die Casting

In this process, a mould-made from graphite or metal-is mounted above an induction furnace,
and the metal is forced into the die cavity by inert gas. The gas pressure varies between
0.12 and 0.20 MPa. Castings made by this method are dense, free of inclusions, and have
high dimensional accuracy. The process is used for railroad-car wheels, steel ingots, and
other applications.
Gravity or Permanent Mould Casting
In gravity or permanent mould casting, the mould is made from metal or graphite, perhaps
coated with a refractory material. Pouring is by gravity, which means that the process is

similar to sand casting, but the sand mould is replaced by a metal mould, often made from
cast iron. The process, which gives good surface finish, good reproduction of details, and
tolerances in the range ~0. 02 (cm/cm), is used mainly for aluminium, aluminium alloys,
30

zinc/zinc alloys, and sometimes for brass and aluminium bronze. In recent years, the casting
of grey cast iron has gained in interest.
Depending on the requirements, the permanent mould can be operated manually or
mechanically.
The economical number of castings can vary from 500 to 40,000, and in critical places in
the die, the die is water cooled.
Compared to sand casting, permanent die casting gives better tolerances, surface finish, and
mechanical properties.
Miscellaneous Casting Processes
The casting of pipes is often carried out by
centrifugal casting, where a permanent or nonpermanent mould rotates during solidification (see
Fig.10. 14b). The required centrifugal force
necessitates a rotational speed of n = 300 g/ r,
where g is the acceleration due to gravity and r is
the radius of the pipe. Impurities and inclusions are
segregated at the inside of the pipe, which is
usually to be machined. Pipes or bushings in cast

iron, stainless steel, copper alloys, and bearing

metal are produced by this method. A variant of

centrifugal casting is centrifuge casting, wherein

centrifugal force is used to create a suitable
pouring pressure (see Fig.10. 14a). This process is
limited to symmetrical components.

31

In slush casting, which gives a shell-like

component, liquid metal is poured into the mould
and, after solidification of a thin layer, the stillmolten metal is allowed to flow out by inverting
the mould. This process is used for ornamental
works, sculptures, toys, and so on. The common
materials are tin, lead, zinc, and bronze.

32

GEOMETRICAL POSSIBILITIES
Introduction
One of the major advantages of casting results from the virtually
unlimited geometrical possibilities (i. e., very complex shaped
components can be produced). But the cost of the components
depends directly on the complexity. Most foundries have cost
estimation methods involving a complexity factor. To achieve the
cheapest possible casting for a given complexity, certain design
rules must be followed to obtain a good casting.
When designing a component for casting, it is necessary to
know the casting and moulding method, so that the
possibilities and limitations of the particular process
33

concerning geometry, size, material, surfaces, tolerances, and

so on, can be considered.
An important factor is the minimum wall thickness that can be cast.
In normal sand casting, this is about 3 mm for aluminium and 1-6
mm for cast iron, depending on the actual size. These figures
correspond to castings having a maximum dimension of about 400
mm.
Table 10. 5 shows a rough comparison between some important
casting methods. The comparison is intended only as a rough
guide. Table 10.6 shows another comparison, where the properties
of the castings are graded from 1 to 7 (1 is best and 7 poorest).
The comparisons in these figures are based on general information;
in actual cases, detailed information about the particular process
must be obtained.

General
characteristics
casting processes

in

some

34

Comparison of various casting processes

35

General Design Rules

A few of the main design rules that must be followed to obtain
sound castings are described briefly below. Figures 10.15 and
10.16 illustrate the most important rules.
When designing a component for casting, several main factors must
be considered, since if forgotten they can each contribute to
considerably increased cost. The most important factors are:
Pattern and pattern costs (plane parting surface, simple,
draft, etc.)
Mould production (method and properties)
Core production (simplicity, methods, and properties)
Casting [gating system, risers as a function of geometry (Fig.
10.16)]
Cleaning (easy access to core cavities, easy removal of
gating system)
Machining (where, how, and what allowances, Table 10.7)
36

 Thermal stresses [reduced by uniform section thickness or

when changes are necessary, gradual changes (Fig. 10.15),
by permitting the contraction to take place without restraints]
Mechanical loadings (in the shaping of the component,
proper force transfer must be considered along with the
characteristics of the casting process)
Appearance

Prediction of Solidification Time: Chvorinov's Rule.

The amount of heat that must be removed from a casting to cause it to solidify is directly proportional to
the amount of superheating and the amount of metal in the casting, or the casting volume. Conversely, the
ability to remove heat from a casting is directly related to the amount of exposed surface area through
which the heat can be extracted and the insulating value of the mould. These observations are reflected in
Chvorinov's rule, which states that ts, the total solidification time, can be computed by:
ts = B (V/A)n
where n = 1.5 to 2.0
The total solidification time is the time from pouring to the completion of solidification; V is the volume of
the casting; A is the surface area; and B is the mould constant, which depends on the characteristics of the
metal being cast (its density, heat capacity, and heat of fusion), the mould material (its density, thermal
conductivity, and heat capacity), the mould thickness, and the amount of superheat.
Test specimens can be cast to determine B for a given mould material, metal, and condition of casting.
This value can then be used to compute the solidification times for other castings made under the same
conditions. Since a riser and a casting are both within the same mould and fill with the same metal under
the same conditions,

Chvorinov's rule can be used to ensure that the casting

will solidify before the riser.

This is necessary if the liquid within the riser is to

effectively feed the casting to compensate for solidification shrinkage.

Different cooling rates and solidification times can produce substantial variation in the resulting structure
and properties. For instance, die casting, which uses metal moulds, has faster cooling and produces
higher-strength castings than sand casting, which uses a more insulating mould material. The various
types of sands can produce different cooling rates. Sands with high moisture contents extract heat faster
than sands with low moisture.

Solidification Shrinkage.
Once in the mould cavity, most metals and alloys contract during cooling. There are three principal stages
during which shrinkage occurs: (1) shrinkage of the liquid; (2) solidification shrinkage as the liquid turns to
solid; and (3) solid metal contraction as the solidified material cools to room temperature. The amount of

37

liquid metal contraction depends on the coefficient of thermal contraction (a property of the metal being
cast) and the amount of superheat. Liquid contraction, however, is rarely a problem in casting production
because the metal in the gating system continues to flow into the mould cavity as the metal in the cavity
cools and contracts.
As the metal cools between the liquidus and solidus temperatures and changes state from liquid to solid,
significant amounts of shrinkage tend to occur, as indicated by the data in Table. This table also shows that
not all metals contract. Some expand, such as grey cast iron, in which low-density graphite flakes form as
part of the solidification structure.
When shrinkage occurs, it is important to know and control the form of the resulting void.
Metals and alloys with short freezing ranges, such as pure metals and eutectic -alloys, tend to form large
cavities or pipes. These can be avoided by designing the casting to have directional solidification. Here, the
solidification begins furthest, away from the feed gate or riser and moves progressively toward it.
As the metal solidifies and shrinks, the shrinkage void is continually filled with liquid metal. Ultimately, the
final shrinkage void occurs in the riser or the gating system.
Alloys with large freezing ranges have a wide range of temperatures over which the material is in a mushy
state. As the cooler regions complete their solidification, it is almost impossible for additional liquid to feed
into the shrinkage voids. Thus, the resultant structure tends to have small, but numerous, shrinkage pores
dispersed throughout. This type of shrinkage is far more difficult to prevent by control of the gating and
risering, and it may even be necessary to accept the fact that a porous product will result. If a gas- or liquidtight product is desired, the castings can be impregnated (the pores filled with a resinous material or lowermelting-temperature metal) as a subsequent operation.
After solidification, the casting contracts further as it cools to room temperature. These dimensional changes
have to be compensated for when setting the dimensions of the mould cavity or pattern.

Risers and Riser Design.

Risers are added reservoirs designed to feed liquid metal to the solidifying casting as a means of
compensating for solidification shrinkage. To perform this function, the risers must solidify after the casting.
If the reverse were true, liquid metal would flow from the casting into the solidifying riser, and the casting
shrinkage would be even greater. Hence, the casting should be designed to produce directional solidification,
which sweeps from the extremities of the mold cavity to the riser. In this way, the riser can "Continuously
feed molten metal and will compensate for the solidification shrinkage of the entire mould cavity. If such
solidification is not possible then multiple risers may be necessary, with various sections of the casting
solidifying toward their respective risers.
Finally, risers should be designed to conserve metal. If we define the yield of a casting as the casting weight
divided by the total weight of metal poured (sprue, gates, risers, and casting), it is clear that there is a
motivation to make the risers as small as possible to still perform their task. This can often be done by proper
consideration of riser size, shape, and location, and the nature of the connection between the riser and the
casting.

38

By consideration of Chvorinov's rule, a good shape for a riser would be one that has a long freezing time or a
small surface area per unit volume. A sphere would make the most efficient riser but presents considerable
difficulty to the pattern or mould maker who must remove the pattern from the mould. As a result, the most
popular shape for a riser is a cylinder, in which the height-to-diameter ratio is varied depending on the nature
of the alloy, the location of the riser, the size of the flask, and other variables.
Risers should be located so that directional solidification occurs. Since the thickest regions of a casting are
the last to freeze, the risers should be located so as to feed into these heavy sections. Various types of risers
are possible. A top riser, one that sits on top of a casting, has the advantage of feeding by additional pressure
(the weight of the metal), feeding a shorter distance, and occupying less space within the flask, thereby
permitting more freedom for the layout of the pattern and the gating system.
Side risers are located adjacent to the mould cavity in the horizontal direction. Figure compares a top and a
side riser. If the riser is contained entirely within the mould, it is known as a blind riser, while one that is
open to the atmosphere is called an open riser. Blind risers develop a solid skin because of surface
solidification and are generally bigger than open risers, because of the heat lost through the additional
surface.

Top riser

side riser [blind riser]

Mould cavity

Mould cavity

(a)

(b)

FIGURE: Schematic of a sand casting mould, showing a top riser (a) additional pressure and a side
riser (b).
Live (hot) risers receive the last hot metal that enters the mold and generally do so at a time when the metal
in the mold cavity has already begun to cool and solidify. Thus, they can be smaller than dead (cold) risers,
which fill with the colder metal that has already flowed through the mold cavity. Top risers are almost always
dead risers. Risers that are part of the gating system are generally live risers.
The minimum size of a riser can be calculated from Chvorinov's rule by setting the total solidification time
for the riser to be greater than the total solidification time for the casting. Since both will receive the same
metal and are in the same mould, the mould constant, B, will be the same for both regions. Assuming n = 2,
and a safe difference in solidification time of 25% (the riser takes 25% longer to solidify than the casting), we
can write this condition as:

triser

= 1.25 tcasting

(V/ A)2riser

= 1.25 (V/ A)2casting

Calculation of the riser size then requires the selection of a riser geometry (generally cylindrical)
and specification of a height-to-diameter ratio, so that the riser side of the equation will have only
39

one unknown. For a cylinder of diameter D and height H:

V = D2H / 4
A = DH + 2 ( D2 / 4)
Specifying the riser height as a function of the diameter enables the V/ A ratio to be written as a simple
expression with one unknown, namely, D. The VIA ratio for the casting can be calculated from its particular
geometry. Substitution of this information into the above form of Chvorinov's rule will then enable
calculation of the required riser size. Note, however, that if the riser and the casting share a surface, as with
a top riser, the common surface area should be subtracted from both segments since it will not be a surface
of heat loss to either component. While there are a variety of more sophisticated methods for calculating
riser size, the Chvorinov's rule method is the only one presented in this text.
A final aspect of riser design is the connection between the riser and the casting. Since it will ultimately be
necessary to separate the riser from the casting, it is desirable that the connection area be as small as
possible. On the other hand, the connection area should be large enough so that the link does not freeze
before solidification of the casting is complete. Short-length connections are most desirable. The adjacent
mould material will then receive heat from both the casting and the riser. Therefore, it will heat rapidly and
remain hot throughout the cast, retarding solidification of the metal in the channel.

40