Piping Isometrics WHAT IS AN ISOMETRIC? An isometric is a type of three-dimensional drawing known as a pictorial. Isometries, or isos as they are com- monly called, are developed using the three. primary dimensions of an object: height. width, and depth. Unlike orthographic drawings that represent the height, width, and depth dimensions in separate views (see Figure 13-1), the isometric combines the three dimensions of the object into a single view to provide a pictorial representation (see Figure 13-2). To include the height, width, and depth dimensions in a single view, an isometric must be drawn on axes that measure 30° from the horizontal plane as shiown in Figure 13-2. | DEPTH TOP }=— WIDTH —o HEIGHT A | A FRONT, R_SIDE Figure 13-1. Orthographic views. Figure 13-2. Isometric view Similar to the front, top, and right side views in Figure 13-1, piping plans, sections, and elevations offer limited visualization of an object, especially when piping compo- nents like fittings, flanges. or valves are incorporated. However, by combining the height, width, and depth dimensions found on plan, section, or elevation views, a single pictorial view can result in a drawing that provides greater clarity of the piping configuration. A comparison of Figure 13-3 with Figure 13-4 shows that a piping iso- metric with piping symbols is obviously clearer and eas- ice to understand than an orthographic view. The piping isometric is an important drawing that serves several purposes. Itis the primary source for mate- rial rake-off of each pipe configuration in the facilityTP1 APS 1P2— N a TP 4 TP’ PLAN P41 [- TPA TP2 Tp3 TP4 pg FT TPS A A FRONT SIDE ELEVATION ELEVATION. Figure 13-3. Piping orthographic views. Material take-off is the process by which each individual component that makes up a pipe configuration is tabu- lated for purchase or procurement. This means all piping components (elbows, flanges, nuts, bolts, washers, gas- kets. etc.) must be accounted for so that purchases of those items can be made. Isometrics are also used by many companies as fabrication drawings. Once drawn and properly dimensioned, isometries are provided to fab- ricators who will build each piping configuration, After ‘configurations are fabricated, isometries serve as an aid to the construction and erection of the facility by providing workers with the locations of tie-ins, connections, and routings, Most engineering and construction companies draw a piping isometric of every piping configuration t0 be installed in the facility. Piping isometries are typically drawn single lines no matter the pipe’s size, with each Pipe fine drawn on a separate sheet of vellum having an isometric grid background. Isometries are also drawn as a schematic, which means they are not drawn to scale, Iso- metric symbols for fittings, flanges, and valves represent all sizes of pipe. No attempt is made to represent a pipe’s actual size o pound rating graphically. This information is conveyed through the use of callouts and notes placed on the drawing. Although piping isometries are not drawn to scale, drafiers should make every effort to draw them proportionally, Drawing an iso proportionally simply means drawing a 10'-0" run of pipe twice as long as a 5/-0" length of pipe. Piping sometrics 211 Figure 13-4. Piping isometric view. To be successful in drawing isometries, the pipe drafter ‘must be able to interpret the information conveyed by the drawing symbols for fittings, flanges, or valves used on piping arrangement, section, and clevation drawings and transfer that information to the isometric. Notice in Fig- ures 13-3 and 13-4 that the elbow symbols differ in the omthographic views and in the isometric view. Piping drawing symbols used on plan, section, or elevation views dictate whether a pipe tums left, right, up, or down, When a pipe on a piping orthographic drawing makes a change in direction, that change must also be reflected on the iso- metric. The point at which the pipe changes direction is referred to as the turning point (TP). To correctly draw the isometric representation of a pipe shown on a plan, section, or elevation view, the pipe drafter must be Knowledgeable in the use of piping symbols used for orthographic views and the corresponding symbols used for isometric views. ‘To make piping isometries look uniform, most com panies use the grid units on the isometric vellum to establish sizes for fitting, flange, and valve symbols. Remember piping isometries are not drawn to any par- ticular scale. No matter what size or pound rating fit- tings may be, they are all shown the same size, Figure 13-5 shows the size and shape of manually drawn iso- metric symbols for fittings, flanges, and valves relative to the isometric grid, These symbols are typical of industry applications and should be used as a guide when drawing piping isometrics.22 Pipe Drafting and Design ELBOWS QO'LR g0'sr 4s TEES. STRAIGHT REDUCING REDUCERS CONCENTRIC ECCENTRIC WELD CAP ARROWS: NOZZLES FLANGES, VALVES GATE CONTROL PRESSURE ‘SAFETY VALVE FIELD ‘SUPPORT DUMMY. support |", Figure 13-5. Isometric piping symbols.Piping sometrics 218 ISO GRID = .125” SNAP = .0625” ROTATE OBJECT —30° 7 ABOUT BASE PT. BASE PT. WBLOCK OBJECT. FILE NAME=GATEVALH Figure 13-6. Creating isometric piping symbols using AutoCAD. STEP 1. Drawing sotup. Sot the SNAP Siyle to Isometric. Set the vertical spacing to 125°. Set SNAP TO .0625. STEP 2. Draw the desired symbols. Use the BASE com- mand to place a base point in tho location designated in Figure 13-7 Isometric symbols drawn with AutoCAD can be developed so that a single orientation of the symbol can be used in any of the isomettic axes. Isometric symbols can be drawn, rotated, and WBLOCKed for repeated use in any drawing at any isometric angle. Initially symbols for fittings, flanges, or valves are drawn on the north/south isometric axis, but, before they can be used in the other isometric axes, they must be rotated ~30° about a base point placed on the center of the symbol. Use the step-by-step procedures illus- trated in Figure 13-6 to create isometric piping sym- bols using AutoCAD commands. Figure 13-7 shows the size of the symbols relative to the isometric grid in AutoCAD. Notice that in Figures 13-1 and 13-2 the height, width, and depth dimensions in the orthographic views are assigned to the isometric view using point A as a point of reference. On piping isometries, establishing a point of reference becomes even more imperative. The complexity of piping configurations requires a point of reference to establish orientation between the orthographic and iso- metric views, ‘The north arrow is used as this point of ref= erence. Accurate isometric layout is based on the STEP 3. Uso the ROTATE command to revolve each sym- bol -30° about its base point. STEP 4. WBLOCK each symbol using the name associ- ated with each symbol in Figure 13-7. orientation of the north arrow on the piping arrangement drawing and the north arrow on the piping isometric. Figure 13-8 illustrates the relationship between the piping arrangement drawing north arrow and the north arrow on the isometric Knowing that a piping arrangement drawing is a plan view drawing, a pipe can be determined to be turning north, south, east, or west when oriented relative to the drawing’s north arrow. So, if a pipe that has been travel- ing north turns down and then east on the arrangement drawing, it should also be shown to travel north, turn down, and then east on the isometric drawing (see Figure 13-9). Most companies prefer to draw piping isometries with the north arrow pointing up and to the right. An alternate position is to draw the north arrow pointing up and to the left. This is done, however, only in excep- tional cases to improve drawing clarity. Figure 13-10 uses the configuration from the previous figure t dem- onstrate how drawing an isometric with the north arrow pointing up and to the left will affect the isometric rep- resentation, It is never appropriate to show the north arrow pointing down,214 Pipe Drafting and Design DRAW AS SHOWN BELOW CAD ROTATE —30° ABOUT GRID IS 25 ISO-GRID SYMBOLS INSERTION BASE POINT BASE_POINT INDICATED AS (+) BEFORE MAKING WBLOCKS o£. (verrase,_][ HORZASEL Me HORZORTE REDUCERS CONCENTRIC ECCENTRIC Figure 13-7. AutoCAD isometric piping symbols.Piping sometrics 215 @RiD S28 O-GRI pe INSERTION. BASE PONT BASE POINT INDICATED aS() SYMBOLS BEFORE’ MAKING WBLOCKS or FLOW ARROWS, I NOZZLES MANGES: | aly VALVES ss ce Boge a ch GLOBE CHECK CONTROL PRESSURE SAFETY VALVE FIELD SUPPORT eh] ume fo pUMsue 225] support. [ch RES Figure 13-7. Continued.216 Pipe Drafting and Design =»—\— w. YP N I~. ST oN OE Figure 13-8. Orthographic and isometric north arrows. =_—V- Figure 13-9. Isometric configuration. up * oN Figure 13-10. Alternate north arrow direction. DRAWING PIPING ISOMETRICS Asan isometric for a particular line is developed, con stant reference to the piping arrangement, section, of ele~ vation drawings is essential. Drawing symbols, callouts, coordinates, and elevations provide detailed information of the pipe’s configuration and routing through the unit. By using this information and the isometric symbols that correspond to the various orthographic drawing symbols the pipe drafter can render an isometric describing the pipe’s routing. Remember, the isometric must provide a detailed description of the pipe’s routing from beginning to end. However, this does not apply to a pipe in a pipe- rack. Piping isometries are generally drawn to represent the configuration up to and including the first fitting in the piperack. Use the procedure that follows to render a pi ing isometric for line 01-2-C30-10", ‘As shown in Figure 13-11, line O1-2-C30-10" is attached to vessel V-101 at nozzle NI and nozzle C of vessel E-101. The line begins at nozzle NI with a flange and elbow welded together, fitting make-up. The elbow oriented toward the north according to the north arrow. If line 01-2-C30-10" turns north on the arrangement draw- ing, it must also be shown turning north on the iso, To determine the distance a pipe travels in the north direc- tion, or any other horizontal plane, one must establish the length using two coordinates. If there were a need to determine the distance a pipe travels in a vertical plane, a drafter would need one of the following: elevation call- outs (found on the plan view drawing) or an elevation drawing that graphically depicts the amount of vertical change. Remember, horizontal using coordinates and vertical dimensions are calculated using elevations. Also, recall elevation changes can be shown on the piping arrangement drawing in the form of callouts, but the elevation callouts must be adequate enough to determine the length of the pipe traveling in the vertical plane, Afr the north run, an elbow turns west and line O1~ €30-10" travels below vessel F=101. Notice the elbow is also shown turning west on the iso. When the pipe aligns with the centerline of E-101, another elbow turns the line up and into nozzle C, Isometric drawing symbols for 90° and 45° elbows are typically shown with square corners, as opposed to the round comers found on arrangement drawings. However, itis not unusual for some companies and some CAD software packages to draw elbow sym- bols with round corners. When a pipe is connected to a piece of equipment, nozzles are shown double line. Other details about the equipment are shown in Figure 13-11 nensions are caleulated27 Piping Isometries NOLLVAUTA HLYON “4Ob-O€0-2-40 OU “LL-EL aanBi NOILVAGTA LSVa TICLE T2001 ona | T ol pi=089-2-10 = L Yq, _|.0b-089-z-10 7 —— = = = ; ai oft Oa AR ane oT if r 4A Una _q eas } i | URS NVId 1o1-A p-9e™m * ona 5 Seen]218 Pipe Drafting and Design ‘They include intersecting coordinates for the center of the equipment, nozzle elevation, and nozzle number. ISOMETRIC DIMENSIONS, NOTES, AND CALLOUTS: Isometric Dimensions. Length dimensions and informational notes or callouts are used on isometries to define the pipe’s exact routing through a facility. Placement of dimensions on the draw- ing establishes precise lengths between fittings, valves, equipment connections, ete. Information such as coordi- nates, elevations, muzzle projection, pipe size, amd pound rating are used to calculate lengths of a nun of pipe. As with orthographic views, dimensions are placed on iso- metrics that indicate center-to-center, center-to-face, and face to face measurements. Figure 13-12 provides dimen sions for line 01-2-C30-10" using information found on the plan and elevation views shown in Figure 13-11 and the equipment vendor drawings found in Chapter 6, Mechanical Equipment, Figure 13-12. Line 01-2-C30-10" dimensions. Placing dimensions on a piping isometric with AutoCAD requires the use of the Aligned and Oblique options within the DIMENSION command. Figure 13-13 provides two alternatives for placing dimensions on pip- ing isometries. Dimensions should be aligned with the routed pipe and obliqued as shown in Figure 13-14, Figure 13-14, Aligned and obliqued dimensions. Isometric Notes and Callouts Dimensions cannot provide all the information required to properly describe a piping isometric. Notes and callouts placed on the drawing provide significant information that may impact the purchase, fabrication and erection of the configuration, Notes are used to denote pipe size and pound rating of fittings, flanges, and valves. Notes also specify insulation type and thickness, locations for pipe guides, anchors, of supports, as well as offset angles. Callouts stipulate instrumentation locations and size, specification breaks, and fabrication. details Any information that is pertinent to a particular pipe must be conveyed on the isometric.Whether dimensioning or placing notes on an iso, all written information should remain on one of the isometric axes and inclined to the right, This task becomes a little more difficult when drawing with AutoCAD. To achieve the proper obliquing and rotation angles required on CAD generated isometries, create the text style outlined in the following procedures. Step 1. Use the STYLE command to create two dit. forent text styles. Use the style names ISOTEXT+ and ISOTEXT-2 for easy reference. Step 2. When creating ISOTEXT, set the obliquina anale to +30, For ISOTEXT-2 set the abliquing angle to -30°, Step 3. Depending upon the ISOPLANE being used, set the rotation angio in the DTEXT command to the appropriate setting as represented in Figure 13-16. Piping sometrics 219 ISOMETRIC OFFSETS Isometric offsets are formed when a pipe turns at any angle other than a 90° angle. Angular offsets can be ci ated by rolling a 90° elbow at any angle o replacing 90° elbows with 45° elbows. The result would be pipes that no onger travel north, south, east. west, up, or down. Instead lines would run northwest, northeast, southeast, or south- ‘west. They could also slant upward or downward. Several examples of isomettic offsets are shown in Figure 13-16. Dimension lines and callouts are included as a reference. To establish proper visual orientation, the indication of horizontal (HOR) or vertical (VERT) angles are included on all isometric offsets. Forty five degree elbows must always be labeled on an iso for material take-off purposes. ISOMETRIC DIMENSIONS AND TEXT CALLOUTS SET UP TWO TEXT STYLES FOR ISOMETRIC DIMENSIONS. AND CALLOUTS. ISOTEXT-1 ANGLE 30° SET OBLIQUING ISOTEXT—2 SET OBLIQUING ANGLE —30" NOTE: AS YOU ENTER THE TEXT YOU WILL NEED TO ADJUST THE ROTATION ANGLE AS SHOWN. Figure 13-15. Isumetiic text,220 Pipe Drafting and Design wy Figure 13-16. Isometric offsets. Figure 13-16 represents vily three of the amany offsets ple A of Figure 13-16 begins with a Tine traveling north, A 90° elbow is rolled downward and toward the east at a 45° angle. A 45° elbow is required to return the angular offset to a due easterly direction. This example is labeled as a vertical offset because a change in elevation occurs when the 90° elbow is tumed downward. Example C is also a vertical offset. but notice. there is no change in the geo- graphic direction the pipe travels. Here, two 45° elbows are used to angle the pipe upward while continuing in a northerly dircetion. Both elbows are 45°, thus, the inclu- sion of the abbreviation TYP. meaning “typical.” Exam ple B demonstrates how horizontal offsets are created. AS with example C, two 45° elbows are used, but rather than turning the elbows upward, they arc laid on their side and do not change elevation. Dimensioning Offsets With isometric offsets changing a pipe's routing from cone plane to another or from one geographic direction to another, coordinates and elevations no longer provide all the dimensions necessary to describe a pipe’s total length, However, the use of 90° and 45° elbows to form the oft sets results in a problem that can be casily solved with simple mathematical formulas. The 90° and 45° elbows form right triangles. By using Pythagorean’s Theorem that states that the sum of the squares of the two sides is ‘equal to the square of the triangles hypotennse, this proh- Jem can be solved. Simply stated, A* + B? = C?. Figure 13-17 identifies the sides and angles of a right triangle and their resulting solution formulas. ® +B7=C? oo Oa Bnav c?-8? RO BVA Figure 13-17. Pythagorean's theorem formulas. ‘These formulas can be used 1 solve for the Tength of an unknown side when the other two sides are. known, They work no matter the degree value of angle X. Some angles seem to be used repeatedly in pipe drafting. The chart in Figure 13-18 can significantly reduce the amount of time spent on calculating unknown sides of right trian- gles. Use the appropriate decimal value when X is one of the provided angles. As mentioned previously. 90° elbows can be rolled to form any degree of angular offset. To fabricate such a roll, 4 pipe fitter should be provided with the lengths of the three sides of the triangle and the degree value of angle X. Solving for an unknown value of X requires some addi- tional trigonometric formulas. Use the formulas provided in Figure 13-19 to solve for the unknown value of angle X. Notice that, relative to X, sicle A is identified ns the side adjacent (SA), side B is identified as the side oppo- site (SO), and side C is identified as the hypotenuse «HyP),Piping sometrics 224 RIGHT TRIANGLE MULTIPLICATION FACTORS WHEN] WHEN FIND ! sine | Soe! 4t 442] 2. SA= HYP (GOS x) HYP- SA (SEC x) SA SO (COTX) SO= SA (TAN) HYP= SO (CSC) ( = 0 _ SA - 0. HP “Sr ~_HP HYP SA SAS SEC x SO= sox HYP* Cos x Ss ie) YP HYP. SIN cos x - SA, Figure 13-19, Formulas for solving angle X.222 Pipe Dating and Design Multiple Angle ottsets Elbows are not the only piping components installed in angular positions. Nozzles are placed on vessels in loca- tions where interferences are Ieast likely to occur. As a result, nozzles oriented at angles of 10°, 20°, 35°, etc., are not uncommon. When offset or rolled elbows are added, ‘complex math problems often result. Multiple angle con- figurations, such as the one in Figure 13-20, require addi- tional calculations to determine dimensions for its length of pipe, We have already seen how unknown lengths can be solved using right triangle formulas. The key to solving the unknown length dimension in Figure 13-20 is the incorporation of right triangles. Remember, drawing space is limited. Excessive notes, callouts, and dimensions are not practical. As with dimensions, the right triangles ate positioned so their lengths establish center-to-center measurements: center-of-vessel, to center-of-elbow, to centerline of vessel. The length of the unknown dimen sion can only be solved by using the limited information available in Figure 13-20. Figure 13-21 demonstrates the way to position three right triangles to solve for the unknown dimension. 14"—1508 RFWN NOZ7 PRO. 49" 1/8" GASKETS ® a a = Figure 13-20. Multiple angle offsets. Numbering the triangles will aid in the discussion of solving for the sides of each triangle. The unknown dimension is equivalent to the hypotenuse of triangle 3. Begin by determining the known values for each of the triangles trom the information provided in Figure 13-20. Figure 13 22 shows the known values of triangles 1, 2, and 3 placed in their appropriate locations. ‘The X angle for triangle 1 is shown to be 20°. The 6-114" dimension is a total of the nozzle projection for nozzle NI, gasket, 150# flange, and 14” elbow. On trian- gle 2, the 2'-6" measurement is determined by subtracting the two west coordinates. The 5’-7" dimension is estab- lished by adding “4 of the OD of the 14" pipe to the 5’-0" dimension. There are no known dimensions for triangle 3. Remember a minimum of two values must be known in order to solve the missing lengths or angle of a triangle. By determining the side adjacent (SA) and side opposite (SO) of triangle 3, Pythagorean’s theorem can be applied to find the hypotenuse, the unknown dimension, Figure 13-21. Locating right triangles. Figure 19-22. Known values for triangles 1, 2, and 3.Using the available formulas, the missing lengths of triangles 1 und 2 must be solved before the sides of trian- ale 3 can be determined. Notice that by subtracting the SA of triangle 2 from the SA of triangle 1, the SO of tri- angle 3 can be determined, Also, adding the SO of trian- gle 1 to the SO of triangle 2 (2' 6") will yield the SA of triangle 3. The results of these calculations are shown in Figure 13-23. The length of the unknown dimension is 5/-1ye". Angle X of triangle 3 is also an important value to be determined. This angle establishes the rotation angle for the 90° elbows, In the fabrication shop, the vessel is not available 10 measure the 5'-0" dimension, Knowing this horizontal angle is the only way the elbows can be correctly installed. Rolling Offsets ‘The culmination of the isometric offset is the rolling offset. The rolling offset is a compound offset formed by replacing the two 90° elbows in Figure 13-20 with two 45° elbows. The result is an offset that changes clevation and direction simultaneously. Figure 13-24 shows the plan and elevation views of a rolling offset. Because of its complexity, adequate dimensions cannot be placed on the orthographic views that fully deseribe the rolling offset. An isometric is the best place for repre- senting and dimensioning the rolling offset. Rather than a horizontal or vertical triangle, the rolling offset requites tn isometric box for proper dimensioning. Figure 13-95 shows construction of this box and its accompanying dimensions, Combining elevational and directional changes com pounds the difficulty in representing the rolling offset on an isometric drawing. Visualizing directional changes on the plan view and elevation view simultaneously requires practice and patience. To aid in this visualization process, some helpful notes have been added to the plan and eleva- tion views of the rolling offset shown in Figure 13-26. In the plan view, a box has been drawn through the centers of the two 45° elbows that form the rolling offset. Its cor- nets have been labeled northeast, northwest, southwest, and southeast. The notes in the elevation view identify upper and lower planes. Remember the plan view shows north, south, east, west orientation and the elevation view depicts vertical changes in elevation ‘The plan view in Figure 13-26 shows that the pipe fenters the hox from the southwest! corner andl travels t0 the northeast corner where it ends with a flange. Looking at the elevation view, we can see the pipe beginning on the upper plane and dropping down to the lower plane, By Piping sometrics 228, ‘D4 Tie al Figure 13-23, Solutions for triangles 1, 2, and 3 ELEVATION Figure 13-24. Pian and elevation views of a rolling offset. combining the information fram these two views, we know that the pipe begins in the upper southwest corner and travels down to the lower northeast corner. The result- ing isometic representation is shown in Figure 13-27.224 Pipe Drafting and Design Nees AN aS Figure 13-25. Rolling offset box. UPPER oe LOWER © ELEVATION VIEW Figure 13-26. Visualization aids for rolling offsets. Dimensioning Rolling Offsets Figure 13-25 identifies the six measurements required to dimension a rolling offset. There are four length dimensions and two angular dimensions. When a rolling offset is part of a configuration similar to that shown in Figure 13-28, the lengths of the sides of triangle 3 are applied to the dimensions of the isometric box (see Figure 13-25). Notice the SA of triangle 3 in Tigure 13-28 is equal to the RUN of the box, the ROLL of the box equal to the SO of triangle 3, and angle X of triangle 3 is the same as the horizontal angle (HOR*), Figure 13-27. Isometric of rolling offsat. Figure 13-28. Rolling offset with right tangles. ‘The RISE is determined by subiracting the lower plane elevation from the upper plane elevation. Rolling offsets are typically fabricated using 45° elbows; therefore, the vertical angle will be 45°, Notice the dimension labeled TRAVEL in Figure 13-25. It establishes the true length of the pipe from the upper plane to lower plane across the box. This length is the most difficult to calculate. The values used to determine its length depend on how the pipe enters and exits the isometric box. Figure 13-29 shows the two examples of the ways pipes enter and exit the isometric box. In example A, the pipe enters and exits the isometric box in the vertical plane. Example B shows the pipe to center nnd exit the box in the horizontal plane. When a pipe enters and exits in the vertical direction, a 45° angle is formed between the TRAVEL and a dashed line drawn diagonally across the bottom of the box (hypotenuse oftriangle 3). When a pipe enters and exits in the horizontal direction, « 45° angle is formed between the TRAVEL and the RUN of the box. Depending on the type. vertical or horizontal, two different 45° right triangles will be formed. ‘he TRAVEL of the pipe becomes the hypote- ruse for either triangle. When solving a right triangle whose angle is 45°, the SA and SO will always be equal As you can see in example A, the length of the dashed line is equal to the RISE of the box, and in example B, the dashed line drawn diagonally across the end of the Figure 13-29. Vertical and horizontal Piping Wsometics 205 box is equal to the RUN of the box. Once the SA and SO lengths of the 45° right triangle are known, Pythagorean’s theorem can be used to easily solve the TRAVEL dimen- sion of the pipe. Since 45° is a commonly used angle, Figure 15-18 can also be used. “The chart in Figure 13 30 converts inches into deci mals. Multiplication and division of fractions is simpli- fied using decimal equivalents. This chart is extremely helpful when performing mathematical calculations on a caleulator that is limited to decimal input only. = A | I i Ver I pipes relative to the isometric box. DECIMALS OF A FOOT ? pecans opr ry sp eis} el riels 17 [yt INCH 2000 |.0633 |-re87 | 2500 [3355 |.4176 [sooo | sess [seer | 7500] 716 | 0082 | 008s | a7 | 2582 | 3368 |4z1e | 5052 | 5005 | ors | 7552] me sys | ros |.ons7 |.1771 | 2508 | sasr |.azrs | sto | 5937 |.5771 | 7006] usr | 9271 ve aye ese | 90 [4x23 | 156 | sooo | as | 7556 .uao | 2x23 aye | sms ve 2108 | 542 |4375 | 5208 | so4z | 075 | 7708 542 | 9575 we | 2500 sie 70a | 04 |aczr | 5260 | soe | 6927 sje | 125 ss 2ar2 | seus [4479 | 3512 | eras | 0579 ye | 70 7/16 | 06s |.s196 | 2031 | 2065 | se86 |.4ss1 | 5305 | sve | 7051 ms | ass fe | 0417 | 1280 | 200s }.2917 J 3750 }4s0s | 5417 | 5280 | 700s ve | sow sie | o4ss |.1302 |.2135 | 2868 | seoz |. | 4s | 302 | 7135 sie | ses 576 | sar |.135¢ | 2ve7 | soar |se54 |.se7 | 3521 | |.7107 5s 11/16] 0875 | 140s | 2240 |.s075 |.s906 ]4740 | 5575 | s00s | 7240 hie ye | os |.vase | 220e | 12s | ses0 |.aoe | 562s | suse | 7202 ye 13/16 | 0677 | 1510 | asi |.s177 | soto |aaus | s6r7 | e510 | 7344 sie 778 | rae | 1362 | 2390 | 5250 | 2062 |.asoe |.sv28 |.ss60 | 7306 | 2220] s082 | 006 We 15/16 | ovat |.51s [24a | 3201 | ori ]4ses [3701 [5615 |.7448 | azar 1s | 9948 svi | ssrs Figure 13-30. inch to decimal conversion chart