Table of Contents

ABSTRACT..............................................................................................2
OBJECTIVES............................................................................................2
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................2
THEORY.................................................................................................3
METHODOLOGY......................................................................................7
OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS.................................................................8
DISCUSSION.........................................................................................12
CONCLUSION........................................................................................15
APPENDIX............................................................................................16
QUESTIONS..........................................................................................16
REFERENCES........................................................................................19

Abstract
This laboratory report comprises of three experiments that test
predominantly chemical and physical characteristics of water to determine
the quality of water from various sources, comparing it to international Water
Quality Standards. These experiments are performed on a small scale to
simulate the works of a water treatment plant on an even larger scale. This is
all done through the comparison tabulated and plotted results. These results
demonstration how important a water treatment plant is to prevent the
spread of disease through contaminated water. It also demonstrates how
fragile and susceptible our water supply and the eco system is to
contaminated water. These experiments also show us how to determine
where the water maybe coming from, whether ground, surface or saltwater.

Objectives
The objectives of the laboratory experiments are:

To attain a better understanding of the water treatment processes that

are used by the water treatment plants.
To determine the bacteriological quality of water for various samples.
To obtain the optimum alum dosage that can be used to treat and
remove turbidity from the provided river water.
To determine the sources, of three different water sample provided
using various experiments.
To interpret laboratory results and be able to analyze the water
samples to determine if it conforms to the water quality standards.

Introduction
Water can be said to be one of the most important substances on
earth. All plants and animals must have water to survive. If there were no
presence of water on earth there would be no life. It is most important that
the water which people drink and use for other purposes is clean water. This
means that the water must be free of germs and chemicals and be clear (not
cloudy). Water that is safe for drinking is called potable water. Diseasecausing germs and chemicals can find their way into water supplies. When
this happens the water becomes polluted or contaminated and when people
drink it or come in contact with it in other ways they can become very sick. A

series of test are performed in order to prevent any disease carry water from
reaching the taps with-in the public housing sector.
An essential experiment carried out is the bacteriological analysis
using membrane filter (MF) technique. This involves using various sources of
water to examine the amount of bacteria present within the water body. This
analysis uses indicators to evaluate the water quality based on the concept
of microbial organisms, which are always present within fecal material. This
is because most of these waterborne disease-causing organisms originate
from humans or animal bodies and are discharged as part of the bodys
waste. This technique is used mainly in water and wastewater treatment to
ensure that the disease carrying organisms are identified and prevented
from infiltrating the public water supply. This allows a check for the water
quality entering the public water supply which must meet the World Health
Organisation (WHO) standards.
The next step in the analysis of water quality is the jar test. The jar test
is a common laboratory procedure used to determine the optimum dose of
different coagulants, on a small scale in order to predict the functioning of a
large-scale treatment operating conditions for water or wastewater
treatment. Raw water contains. These impurities are in suspension, which
leads to turbidity, odor and taste problems. These impurities stay suspended
in solution due to their small size. In order to remove these particles, they
must agglomerate and grow in size in order to settle out of solution.
Therefore to obtain agglomeration a chemical coagulant such as alum is
used. This causes the suspended particles to agglomerate and form flocs,
which are then heavy enough to settle and removed.
Source determination is a method used by water treatment companies
to determine the origins of a water leak or unidentified water body. Each and
every water source has varying physical and chemical characteristics. The
determination of each characteristic allows for a water treatment company
to determine the source. These physical and chemical characteristics include
pH level, turbidity, hardness, odour, the level of alkalinity, chloride and
chlorine concentrations. The values obtained from the experiments for these
physical and chemical characteristics are compared to the expected values
to determine the source.

Theory

Experiment 1 Bacteriological Analysis using Membrane Filter (MF)

Technique
Most modern laboratories use a refinement of total plate count in
which serial dilutions of the sample are vacuum filtered through purpose
made membrane filters and these filters are themselves laid on nutrient
medium within sealed plates. The methodology is otherwise similar to
conventional total plate counts. Membranes have a printed millimetre grid
printed on and can be reliably used to count the number of colonies under a
binocular microscope. A typical membrane filtration method for water
analysis is performed by passing a known volume of water through a sterile
membrane filter with a pore size small enough to retain bacterial cells. The
filter is then transferred aseptically to the surface of an agar plate, or an
absorbent pad saturated with a suitable selective medium, and incubated.
Colonies are allowed to develop on the surface of the filter and can be
counted and examined directly. MF methods are quick and easy to perform,
require little incubator space and can handle very large volumes of water if
required.
Some common indicator organisms used to indicate the presence of
harmful microorganisms include total coliform bacteria and fecal coliform
bacteria. Most of the coliform type of bacteria are non-pathogenic and are
found in the digestive tract and feces of warm-blooded animals. They exist in
large numbers in water and wastewater and are therefore easily detected.

Experiment 2 Jar Test

Raw water or wastewater must be treated to remove turbidity, color
and bacteria. Colloidal particles are in the size range between dissolved
substance and suspended particles. The particles are too small to be
removed by sedimentation or by normal filtration processes. Colloidal
particles an effect, when light passes through liquid containing colloidal
particles, the light is reflected by the particles. The degree to which colloidal
suspension reflects light at 90 angle to the entrance beam is measured by
turbidity. The unit of measure is a Turbidity Unit (TU) or Nephlometric
Turbidity Unit (NTU). Turbidities in excess are easily detectable in a glass of
water and are usually unpleasant for aesthetic reasons. The higher the
turbidity of water means the higher the concentration of colloidal particles.
Finely dispersed solid (colloids) suspended in wastewater are stabilized
by negative electric charges on their surfaces, causing them to repel each
other. Since this prevents these charged particles from colliding to form
larger masses, called flocs, they do not settle. To assists in the removal of
colloidal particles form suspension, chemical coagulations and flocculation

are required. These processes are usually done in sequence and, are a
combination of physical and chemical procedures. Chemicals are mixed with
wastewater to cause the aggregation of the suspended solids into particles
large enough to settle or be removed. Coagulation is the destabilization of
colloids by neutralizing the forces that keep them apart. Cationic coagulants
provide positive electric charges to reduce the negative charge of the
colloids. As a result, the particles collide to form larger particles (floc). Rapid
mixing is required to disperse the coagulant throughout the liquid. A
coagulant is the chemical that is added to the water to achieve coagulation.
The colloids most commonly found in natural waters are negatively charged;
hence a cation is required to neutralize the charge. The coagulant that is
added must precipitate out of solution so that high concentrations of the ion
are not left in the water. Such precipitation greatly assists the colloid removal
process. The two most commonly used coagulants are aluminum (Al3+) and
ferric iron(Fe3+).
The type of source water will have a large impact on how often jar
tests are performed. Plants which treat groundwater may have very little
turbidity to remove are unlikely to be affected by weather-related changes in
water conditions. As a result, groundwater plants may perform jar tests
seldom, if at all, although they can have problems with removing the more
difficult small-suspended particles typically found in groundwater. Surface
water plants, in contrast, tend to treat water with a high turbidity, which is
susceptible to sudden changes in water quality. Operators at these plants will
perform jar tests frequently, especially after rains, to adjust the coagulant
dosage and deal with the changing source water turbidity.
To put it briefly, these organisms are good indicators of the potential
contamination of a water source. Coliform bacteria have been used to
evaluate the general quality of water. Testing for coliform bacteria is faster
and cheaper than testing for specific organisms and pathogens.

Experiment 3 Source Determination

pH Test- the pH value is an important determining factor in a majority of
chemical processes and the pH meter has, consequently, become the most
widely used analytical laboratory instrument. Measurement of pH by means
of electronic instrumentation and electrodes holds a key position in the
modern laboratory. The pH of a solution is a measure of the molar
concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution and as such is a measure of
the acidity or basicity of a solution. The letters pH stands for power of

hydrogen and the numerical value is defined as the negative base 10

logarithm of the molar concentration of hydrogen ions.
pH = -log10[H+]
Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with
a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline. Pure water has a pH very close to 7.
Chlorine Residual- Residual Chlorine is the amount of available chlorine
present in wastewater after treating the water with chlorine. The presence of
chlorine residual in drinking water indicates that:

A sufficient amount of chlorine was added initially to the water to

inactivate the bacteria and some viruses that cause diarrheal disease;
and,
The water is protected from recontamination during storage. The
presence of free residual chlorine in drinking water is correlated with
the absence of disease-causing organisms, and thus is a measure of
the portability of water.
When chlorine is added to water, some of the chlorine reacts first with
organic materials and metals in the water and is not available for
disinfection. The remaining chlorine concentration after the chlorine demand
is accounted for is called total chlorine. Total chlorine is further divided into:
1) the amount of chlorine that has reacted with nitrates and is unavailable
for disinfection which is called combined chlorine and, 2) the free chlorine,
which is the chlorine available to inactivate disease-causing organisms, and
thus a measure to determine the portability of water. For example, if using
completing clean water the chlorine demand will be zero, and there will be
no nitrates present, so no combined chlorine will be present. Thus, the free
chlorine concentration will be equal to the concentration of chlorine initially
added. In natural waters, especially surface water supplies such as rivers,
organic material will exert a chlorine demand, and nitrates will form
combined chlorine. Thus, the free chlorine concentration will be less than the
concentration of chlorine initially added. The WHO guideline value for free
residual chlorine in drinking water is 0.5mg/L to 5 mg/L.

Hardness- Hardness in water is that characteristic, which prevents the

lathering of soap. This is due to presence in water of certain salts of
calcium, magnesium and other heavy metals dissolved in it. A sample of
hard water, when treated with soap does not produce lather, but on other
hand forms a white scum or precipitate. This precipitate is formed, due to the
formation of insoluble soaps of calcium and magnesium. Thus, water that
does not produce lather with soap solution readily, but forms a white curd, is
called hard water. On the other hand, water which lathers easily on shaking

with soap solution, is called soft water. Such water consequently does not
contain dissolved calcium and magnesium salts in it. The degree of hardness
of drinking water has been classified in terms of the equivalent CaCO3
concentration as follows:

Figure 1. Water Hardness

Alkalinity- Alkalinity is a property of the water sample, which measures the
acid-neutralizing capacity of a water sample. It can be interpreted in terms
specific substances only when a complete chemical composition of the
sample is also performed. The alkalinity of surface water is due to the
carbonate, bicarbonate and hydroxide content and is often interpreted in
terms of the concentrations of these constituents. Higher the alkalinity,
greater is the capacity of water to neutralize acids. Conversely, the lower the
alkalinity, the lesser will be the neutralizing capacity. To detect the different
types of alkalinity, the water is tested for phenolphthalein and total
alkalinity, using Equations:

Once P and T are determined, then three types of alkalinities, i.e, hydroxides,
carbonates and bicarbonates can be easily calculated from Alkalinity Forms
table. (Refer to Table 2 in Appendix)
Chloride- Chloride ions, or ionized chloride atoms, are derived mostly from
salt deposits that leech into water. Some common chlorides include sodium
chloride (NaCl) and magnesium chloride (MgCl2). Fresh water has almost no
chlorine ions whatsoever, whilst saltwater from the ocean has the highest
quantity of chloride ions. Many wells and water reservoirs can also build up
chlorine ions from underground salt deposits, or deep aquifers that originate
from ancient marine basins. Industrial processes combined with poor
maintenance of filters and controls can also lead to a high Chloride
concentration. Chlorides can corrode metals and pipes. It can affect the taste
of food products, cause nausea and vomiting. Therefore, water that is used in
industry or processed for any use has a maximum Chloride level. Chlorides
can also contaminate fresh water streams and lakes, leading to death of
aquatic life.

Methodology
Experiment 1 Bacteriological Analysis using Membrane Filter (MF)
Technique
The procedure completed, adhered to the procedure provided in the
lab script.
Experiment 2 Jar Test
The procedure completed, adhered to the procedure provided in the lab
script with exception of:
The appropriate volumes of stock solution with a concentration of
10,000 mg/L were calculated to give the required dosages of 0, 10, 30, 50,
70 and 90mg/L.
The speed was reduced to 20 rpm and continued mixing for 7 minutes
(without stopping the process).
The mixing was stopped and the contents of the beaker were allowed
to settle for 7 minutes
Experiment 3 Source Determination
The procedure completed, adhered to the procedure provided in the lab
script with exception of:
pH
1)
2)
3)
4)

A small amount of the sample was poured into a beaker.

The electrode was emerged into the sample.
The magnetic mixer was used to stir the sample.
The pH meter was allowed to stabilize, and then the reading was
recorded.
5) These steps were repeated for all the samples.
Chlorine Residual
Two bottles were filled up to the indicated 10ml mark with the sample.

Observations and Results

Table 1. Total and Fecal Coliform for each sample

TNTC- To Numerous To Count
TD- Too Diluted

Table 2. Source Determination Results

Table 3. Jar Test Results

TURBIDITY VS. ALUM DOSAGE

Figure 2. Graph of Turbidity vs. Alum Dose

Table 4. Adjusted Jar Test Results

TURBIDITY VS. ALUM DOSAGE

150
100
Turbidty (NTU)

50
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

ALUM DOSE (mg/L )

Figure 3. Adjusted Graph of Turbidity vs. Alum Dose

Calculations:
Experiment 1 Bacteriological Analysis using Membrane Filter (MF)
Technique
For filtered volume of 0.001
Total Coliform colonies for 100ml of sample=

of colonies counted
100
volume of sample filtered

Total Coliform colonies for 100ml of sample=

3
10 0=300000
0.00 1

Fecal Coliform colonies for 100 ml of sample=

1
10 0=100000
0.001

Experiment 2 Jar Test

Calculating the volume of stock for the 30mg/l dosage.
Volume of stock Alum=

Concentration of JarVolume of water

AlumConcentration

=3 mL
( 3 01000
10 000 )

Experiment 3 Source Determination

120

Sample calculations for sample Y:

Hardness=

Chloride=

Titre value1,000
0.41,000
=
=16 mg CaCO 3 / L
vol . of sample tested
25

Titre value50 0
38500
=
=760 mgCl / L
vol . of sample tested
25

Initial burette reading (ml) = 15.5

Final Burette reading (ml) = 17.8
Volume of titrant used (ml) = 2.3

A lkalinity=

T itre value0.0250 000 2.300.025 000

=
=23 mg CaCO 3 / L
vol . of sample tested
100 mL

Discussion
The water that enters our water distribution system and out of our
faucets has three, primary sources. These primary sources are categorised
as Sea Water, Ground Water (e.g. Aquifers) and Surface Water (e.g. rivers
and lakes). It so happens that the raw water from these sources must not
and should not be consumed directly, without first being treated and purified
to the consumable water quality standard enforce by the World Health
Organisation (WHO).
Desalination is the name given to the method of transforming seawater
into consumable (potable) water. These processes involve the separation of
salt- free fresh water from the seawater. The desalination processes can be
based on thermal or membrane separation methods. The thermal separation
techniques include two main categories; the first is evaporation followed by
condensation of the formed water vapour and the second involves freezing
followed by melting of the formed ice crystals. The main membrane
desalination process is reverse osmosis, where fresh water permeates under
high pressure through semi-permeable membranes leaving behind highly
concentrated salt water call brine solution. The other membrane process is
electrodialysis. In this process the electrically charged salt ions are separated

through selective ion exchange membranes leaving behind low salinity

water. Highly concentrated brine is formed on the other side of the
membrane. Proper and effective pre-treatment of the seawater is required to
increase the efficiency and life of the reverse osmosis system. Ferric chloride
is used as a coagulant and a cationic polymer is used as a coagulant aid.
These chemicals, via the coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation
processes remove the solids from the seawater. In addition to the solids, the
seawater also contains micro-organisms. Shock chlorination sequences,
using sodium hypochlorite, are used to minimize/prevent bio-fouling of the
reverse osmosis membranes from the biological activity in the seawater.
Sulphuric acid is utilized as an anti-scalant to eliminate carbonate and
sulphate scaling. The water enter the supply is treated with Sodium
hypochlorite to provide residual chlorine which ensures that the drinking
water is clear of any biological activity (bacteria) and lime (calcium
carbonate) is added to maintain a pH of 7 8.5.
Good quality groundwater is an important natural resource.
Unfortunately groundwater can become contaminated through a number of
ways including improper handling of process chemicals or disposal of wastes.
The treatment of ground water begins with aeration to remove excess and
objectionable gases while adding oxygen to the water. Coagulation is then
used to remove dirt and other particles suspended in the water. Alum and
other chemicals are added to water to form particles called floc which
attract the dirt particles. The combined weight of the dirt and the alum (floc)
become heavy enough to sink to the bottom during sedimentation. The next
step is Re-carbonation, which readjust the water pH and alkalinity. It also
converts the excess lime to CaCO 3 solids, which is removed by settling.
Filtration is the next step in the process and is used to remove any residual
solids from the settling process. The final stage is the disinfecting of the
filtered water mainly by the use of chlorine.
The treatment of surface water is similar to that of ground water.
Surface water typically contains, a high suspended solids content, bacteria,
algae, organic matter, creating bad taste and odour. The treatment begins
with screening to remove any debris from the water. The next step is the
coagulation process, which uses chemicals such as Alum to form particles
called floc which attract the dirt particles does process. The combined
weight of the dirt and the alum (floc) become heavy enough to sink to the
bottom during sedimentation. Filtration then removes particles and floc that
are too small or light to settle by gravity through a porous medium.
Disinfection is the final process used to kill any bacteria or pathogens that
remain.

For the first experiment we are given three samples in which to

determine the quality of the water. This experiment tested whether or not
the water contained bacteria by using the membrane filter technique. The
samples we were given comprised of; sample A being water from the tap,
sample B being river water treated with chlorine and sample C being river
water. The number of fecal coliform and total coliforms determined in the
experiment are use as indicators of the presence of water borne disease
carrying bacteria or pathogens.
Using the membrane-filtration method an estimation of the numbers of
bacteria present in the water could be calculated. It gives you a direct colony
count for a volume of sample taken from a water body. This is shown Table 1.
Observing the results for samples A and B, it can be said that these
samples do not contain any pathogens and is safe to drink. These were
expected results since tap water has already completed the treatment
process because is being distributed from the water treatment plant and
should be of World Health Organisation (WHO) standards. Also the use of
chlorine in the river water removes the water-borne bacteria from the water.
Sample Bs experiment shows that chlorine is capable of removing the
bacteria and why it is a main part in the water treatment process.
In the case of sample C the results were also expected. In these results
sample C was contaminated with pathogens and unfit for human
consumption. This was due to the fact that there was absolutely no
treatment of the river water. In order to acquire sample Cs results the
technique of serial dilution was used, this is where consecutive volumes of
samples are diluted even more to obtain readable results. For sample C the
number of fecal coliform colonies per 100mL of river water was 100,000 and
for the total coliform colonies per 100mL was 300,000. These numbers
indicate that the water is highly contaminated with disease carrying bacteria.
The acceptable coliform standards (refer to Figure 1 in Appendix) expressed
in colonies/100 ml of water sample varies depending on the use of the water.
For drinking purposes, however, the number of total coliforms must not be
greater than 1 TC.
The next experiment perform was the jar test using river water. This
test is performed to simulate the coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation
processes of a water treatment plant. This test is done on a small scale in
order to predict the function of a large-scale treatment plant
For this experiment the volume of alum required for the respective
alum dosages of 0 to 100 for intervals 10 were calculated. One group did odd
while the other group did even volume of alum. The calculated alum was
added to the jars and the solution was mixed at a speed of 100 rpm for 1
minute. This high speed mixing was to disperse and mix the coagulant
evenly throughout the jar. After 1 minute the speed was reduced to 20 rpm

for 7 minutes to allow for the flocculation process to take place. In observing
the jars at the point the particles were colliding together and forming heavier
particles called floc. The higher the dose of alum in the jar, the clearer the
samples became and the more floc was seen. After the 7 minutes the mixing
was stopped and the sedimentation of the floc was allowed to take place for
another 7 minutes. The optimum dosage of coagulant is determined by the
dosage for which the turbidity was most improved.
The turbidity was expected to decrease with the increase of each alum
dosage but in the case of this experiment the turbidity fluctuated (refer to
Table 3.). Therefore for the determination of optimum alum dosage the
values that did not decrease sequentially were removed from the results
shown in table 4, this resulted in a graph that decreased when alum dosage
increased (refer to figure 3.). The optimum dosage is where the largest
change in turbidity occurs, which from figure 3 is 70mg/L for 66 NTU.
It was also observed the level of pH decreased as the amount of alum
dosage increased. This being stated, it can be said that as the alum dosage
increases the water became more acidic that it was at the start of the test.
For this experiment the three possible water sources for X, Y and Z
were taken from a saltwater aquifer in El Socoro, the other was water from
the Desalcott desalination treatment plant and the other was water from the
Caroni River treatment plant. The chemical composition of water is based on
the source from which it is extracted.
In observation and study of the results it was determine that sample X
was water from the saltwater aquifer in El Socoro. This determination was
firstly because of the high levels of chloride calculated [1129mg Cl/L].
Chloride ions are derived mostly from salt deposits that leech into water.
Secondly the high level of hardness calcium carbonate [224 mg CaCO3/L],
which is a chemical compound mainly found in rocks. Thirdly because of the
high alkalinity [155 mg CaCO3/L], salt water has a higher alkalinity than that
of fresh water.
It was determined that the source of sample Y was water from the
Caroni River treatment plant. This was due mainly to the high levels of
chloride calculated [760mg Cl/L]. The pH level is neutral [7.01] and alkalinity
is low [23 mg CaCO3/L]. Its hardness is also lower than the other samples,
which indicates no CaCO3 from rock deposits. These characteristics make it
suitable for service water.
By elimination it can be said that sample Z was taken from the
Desalcott desalination treatment plant. This determination was also made
due to the fact that, it would be expected that the ground water and surface

water would have the higher alkalinity since the desalination water would be
treated sea water therefore removing the minerals from it.
Sources of error
Experiment 1 Bacteriological Analysis using Membrane Filter (MF)
Technique
o Sample not diluted enough, therefore obtaining results of TNTC
o Sample too dilute, therefore obtaining results of TD
o Contamination of the samples due to the mixing of the samples via the
pipettes
o Not measuring the correct volume in the pipette
o Exposing the membrane to outside contamination
Experiment 2 Jar Test
o
o
o
o
o

Finger prints could have affected the turbidity readings

Not measuring the correct volume in the pipette
Not allowing the contents of the beaker to settle
Disturbing the settled floc when removing samples
Incorrect use of the pH meter

Experiment 3 Source Determination

o
o
o
o
o
o

Mixing up the packets of residual and total chlorine

Finger prints could have affected the turbidity readings
Incorrect use of the pH meter
Not measuring the correct volume in the pipette
Adding too much or too little indicator during titration
Titration is based on visual assumption

Conclusion

For the bacteriological analysis using membrane filter technique, the

experiment was completed successfully. It was determine that samples A
tap water and samples B- river water treated with chlorine can be used for
human consumption. However for samples C- river water, it was determined
to be unsafe for human consumption.
The optimum alum dosage was found to be 70mg/L for treating river
water.
For the source determination, the experiment was completed successfully
and the sample sources are as follows:

i) Sample X a saltwater aquifer in El Socoro.

ii) Sample Y the Caroni River treatment plant.
iii) Sample Z the Desalcott desalination treatment plant.
Appendix

Figure 1.

Figure 2.

Figure 3.
Questions
1.

Using the information provided in Table 2, determine the different forms (T,
2
P, HCO3, CO3 , and OH) of alkalinity in the three (3) water samples.
In the experiment it was observed during the titration that the samples did
not turn pink when phenolphthalein indicator was added. This occurrence is
due to the fact that there was no presence of hydroxide or carbonate ions.
This means that phenolphthalein alkalinity, P=0. However there was colour
change in all samples when methyl orange indicator was added, this meant
the bicarbonates are present in the sample, T = HCO3-.

2.

Provide a rationale for testing water supplies for coliform bacteria and show

how you would obtain 0.00001 mL of a very contaminated wastewater

sample.
The rationale behind testing the water supplies for coliform bacteria is
these organisms are good indicators of the potential contamination of a
water source. Water systems test for indicators such as total coliforms, fecal
coliforms, or E. coli to monitor water quality. If the water system has a positive
test for one of these indicators, it can mean recent contamination with soil or
human feces.
The following is the method of obtaining the dilution of 0.00001 mL:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.

3.

The dilution bottles were prepared by placing 99ml of

sterilize water into dilution bottle 1
Then 1ml of the sample was placed into bottle 1 and the
sample was mixed.
Then 1ml of the sample was taken from bottle 1 and placed
into bottle 2.
And then 1ml of the sample was taken from bottle 2 and
placed into bottle 3.
Then, 10ml of the sample was then taken from bottle 3 and
this was filtered.

What is the Water quality Index WQI? Read the fecal coliform index value (Q
fecal coliform) off the graph of Q vs. fecal coliform concentration.
A water quality index provides a single number (like a grade) that
expresses overall water quality at a certain location and time based on
several water quality parameters. It is a means by which water quality data
is summarized for reporting to the public in a consistent manner. It is similar
to the UV index or an air quality index, and it tells us, in simple terms, what
the quality of drinking water is from a drinking water supply. Using the
information obtained from the laboratory experiment. The highest fecal
coliform value that was determined was 100,000. The Q value, which
matched 100,000, is approximately 2. When comparing this value to the
information on the National Sanitation Foundation Water Quality Index
website, it can be stated that the water is of very bad quality and therefore
should not be used for any form of water use.

4.

List the negative environmental impacts of high turbidity in waters and

describe the process used to remove high turbidity from river (surface) water

in order to make it potable?

Some of the negative impacts are as follows:
i) It reduces the concentration of oxygen in the water
ii) The water becomes warmer because of the suspended particles
iii) The turbidity must be effectively removed because no one likes
drinking water that looks dirty. This adds or increases the cost used
to treat it.
iv) Turbidity can also inhibit photosynthesis by blocking sunlight. Halted
or reduced photosynthesis means a decrease in plant survival and
decreased dissolved oxygen output
v) Pollutants such as dissolved metals and pathogens can attach to
suspended particles and enter the water
Raw water has impurities (particles) in suspension, which can lead to
turbidity, odor and taste problems. These impurities stay suspended in
solution due to their small size and because they carry a negative
electrostatic charge. This means that they repulse each other and thus stay
in suspension. To remove these particles, they must agglomerate and grow in
size in order to settle out of solution. To promote accumulation of particles, a
chemical
coagulant
(aluminum
or
iron
salts)
is
used.
The chemical coagulant has positive charges, therefore, it neutralizes the
negative electrostatic charges of the particles and brings them together
causing them to accumulation and settle.

5.

Discuss the similarities and differences of the jar test plots shown in
appendix figure 2. to a similar plot for your jar test results. Determine and
indicate the optimal alum dose for all three plots.
The results for the performed experiment, closely resembles that of
figure 2 in the appendix (Settled Turbidity as a Function of Alum Dose at 30
rpm), in both graphs as the coagulant dosage increase the turbidity
decreased.
For figure 3, in the appendix (Turbidity vs. Dose Rate for Aquapac 55),
it shows that as the dosage of coagulant dosage is increased that the
turbidity will start to rise as well, while in the experimental the alum dosages
are not high enough to cause in increase in turbidity

The optimum alum dosage can be regarded as the amount of alum,

which is required to produce the maximum turbidity removal but at the same
time, it does not increase the plants operations.
For the Settled Turbidity as a Function of Alum Dose at 30 rpm and the
Turbidity vs. Dose Rate for Aquapac 55, the optimum coagulant dosage was
determine to be 2mg/L and 30mg/L respectively and for the experiment the
optimum dosage was 70mg/L.

References
A. K. Chatterji, Introduction to Environmental Biotechnology 3rd edition: PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.
Ian L. Pepper, Charles P. Gerba, and Jeffrey W. Brendecke, Environmental Microbiology: A
Laboratory Manual 2nd Edition: Academic Press, 2011.
H.T. El-Dessouky, and H.M. Ettouney, Fundamentals of Salt Water Desalination: Elsevier,
2002.
Gilbert M. Masters, and Wendell Ela, Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science
3rd edition: Prentice Hall, 2008.
Kiely, Gerard. Environmental Engineering. England: McGraw Hill Publishing Company,
1997.
Mines, Richard O., and Laura W. Lackey. Introduction to Environmental Engineering. London:
Pearson Education Ltd, 2009
[Link]
Accessed: October 14, 2014
[Link] Accessed: October 14, 2014
[Link] Accessed: October 14, 2014
[Link] Accessed: October 16, 2014
[Link] Accessed: October
16, 2014
[Link] Accessed: October 20, 2014
[Link] Accessed: October 23, 2014
[Link] Accessed: October 24, 2014
[Link] Accessed: October 24, 2014
[Link] Accessed: October 24, 2014

[Link] Accessed: October 24, 2014