INSPECCION

PRUEBA DE FUGA

INSPECCION POR LIQUIDOS PENETRANTES

INSPECCION POR PARTICULAS MAGNETICAS

INSPECCION POR CORRIENTES

EDDY

INSPECCION POR ULTRASONIDO

INSPECCION POR EMISIN ACUSTICA

INSPECCION POR RADiOGRAFIA

INSPECCION POR RADIOGRAFIA POR NEUTRONES

INSPECCtON POR TERMOGRAFIA

lnspection Equipment
and Techniques
Visual Inspection .............................................................. 3
Laser Inspection .............................................................. 12
Coordinate Measuring .Machines ................................................ 18
Machine Vision and Robotic lnspection Systems ................................. 29

Visual lnspection
VISUAL INSPECTION is a nondestructive testing technique that provides a means
of detecting and examining a variety of surface flaws, such as corrosion. contamination,
surface finish. and surface discontinuities on
joints (for example, welds, seals, solder connections, and adhesive bondsl. Visual inspection is also the most widely used method for
detecting and examining surface cracks,
which are particularly important because of
their relationship to structural failure mechanisms. Even when other nondestructive techniques are used to detect surface cracks,
visual inspection often provides a useful supplement. For example, when the eddy current
examination of process tubing is performed,
visual inspection is often performed to verify
and more closely examine the surface disturbance.
Given the wide variety of surface laws
that may be detectable by visual examination. the use of visual inspection may encompass different techniques, depending on
e product and the type of surface flaw
0eing monitored. This article focuses on
sorne equipment used to aid the process of
visual inspection. The techniques and applicability of visual inspection for sorne products are considered in the Selected References in this article and in the Section
"Nondestructive Inspection of Specific
Products" in this Volume.
The methods of visual inspection in vol ve a
wide variety of equipment, ranging from examination with the naked eye to the use of
interference microscopes for measuring the
depth of scratches in the finish of finely polished or lapped surfaces. Sorne of the equipment used to aid visual inspection includes:

cept for dye penetrants and magnetic particles, which are discussed in the articles
''Liquid Penetrant Inspection" and "Magnetic Particle Inspection," respectively, in
this Volume.

Eyepiece lens

Borescopes
A borescope (Fig. l) is a long, tubular
optical device that illuminates and allows
the inspection of surfaces inside narrow

Relay iens

~:

Obect1ve iens

l!fi

!ncandescent
famp

(a)

Eyepiece lens
Focus1ng ring

Control handles
lnterchangeaole
tms

Protect1ve sheath

L1t;;rit gu1ae extt

(b)

ot

Field
./

Flexible or rigid borescopes for illuminating and observing interna!. closed or otherwise inaccessible areas
Image sensors for remote sensing or for
the development of permanent visual records in the form of photographs, videotapes, or computer-enhanced images
Magnifying systems for evaluating surtace
finish. surface shapes (profile and contour
gaging). and surface microstructures
Oye and fluorescent penetrants and magnetic particles for enhancing the observation of surface cracks (and sometimes
near-surface conditions in the case of
.nagnetic particle inspection)

(e)

This article will review the use of the equipment listed above in visual inspection. ex-

Fig. 1

'\,

'\,
'\,

"

Orbital sean
control

v1ew

Shaft rotat1on
for orbital sean

Focus
control
1
1

, . - - - - - - W o r k i n g length - - - - - - -

Light gurde connector _ _ _...._,

pns1de handleJ

To :ght source

Three typical designs of borescopes. (a) A rigid borescope with a lampo! the distal end. (b) A flexible
fiberscope with a light source. (e) A rigd borescope with a light guide bundle in the shaft

4 / lnspedion Equipment and Techniques

55~
r:r:::n y-c=r
8ottom1ng

55t

-~R1ght angle

~
~

~""""]_

55~-

Circumterence

-~-

-~-

Forward obilque

Retrosoective

19

155

Typicatdirections and field af view with rigid

borescopes

f ig. 3

Typical chomberscope. Courtesy o Lenox lnstrument Campony

tubes or difficult-to-reach chambers. The

tube, which can be rigid or flexible with a
wide variety of lengths and diameters, provdes the necessary optical connection between the viewing end and an objective lens
at the distan t. or distal. tip of the borescope.
This optical connection can be achieved in
one of three different ways:
By using a rigid tube with a series of relay
len ses
e By using a tube (normally flexible but
also rigid) with a bundle of optical fibers
By using a tube (normally flexible) with
wiring that carries the image signa! from a
charge-coupled device (CCD) imagng
sensor at the distal tip
These three basic tube designs can have
either fixed or adjustable focusing of the
objective lens at the distal tip. The distal tip
also has prisms and mirrors that define the
direction and field of view (see Fig. 2).
These views vary according to the type and
application of borescope. The design of
illumination system also varies with the
type of borescope. Generally, a fiber optic
light guide and a lamp producing white light
is used in the illumination system. although
ultraviolet light can be used to inspect surfaces treated wth liquid fluorescent penetrants. Light-emitting diodes at the distal tip
are sometimes used for illumination in videoscopes with working lengths greater than
15 m (50 ft).

Rigid Borescopes
Rigid borescopes are generally limited to
applications with a straight-line path between the observer and the area to be
observed. The sizes range in lengths from
0.15 to 30 m (0.5 to 100 ft) and in diameters
from 0.9 to 70 mm i0.035 to 2.75 in.).
Magnification is usually 3 to 4 x, but powers
up to 50x are available. The illumination
svstem is either an incandescent lamp located at the distal end (Fig. la) ora light guide
bundle made from optical fibers \Fig. lcJ
that .::onduct light from an externa! source.

(b)

(a)

Fi 4

[Link] views. down a combustor c~n with the. distal tip in the sorne position .. A fiberscope with smoller
ct1ometer f1bers ond 40% more f1bers in the rmoge bundle prov1des better resolution (o thon o f1berscope
with lorger fibers (b). Courtesy of Olympus Corporotion

The choice of viewing heads for rigid

borescopes (Fig. 2) varies according to the
application. as described in the section "Selection" in this article. Rigid borescopes
generally ha ve a 55 field of view. a!though
the fields of view can range from l O to 90.
Typically. the distal tips are not interchangeable. but sorne mode!s (such as the
extendable borescopes) may have interchangeable viewing heads.
Sorne rigid borescopes have orbital sean
(Fig. le). which invo!ves the rotaton of the
optical shaft for scanning purposes. Depending on the borescope model, the
amount of rotation can vary from 120 to
370. Sorne rigid borescopes also have movable prisms at the tip for scanning.
Rigid borescopes are available in a variety of models having significant variations
in the design of the shaft. the distal tip, and
the illumination system. Sorne of these design variations are described be!ow.
Basic Design. The rigid borescope typica!ly has a series of achromatic relay lenses in

the optical tube. These lenses preserve the

resolution of the image as it traveis from tht
objective lens to the eyepiece. The tube di
ameter of these borescopes ranges from .+ tL
70 mm (0.16 to 2.75 in.). The illuminatior
system can be either a distal lamp or a iigh
guide bundle, and the various features ma\
include orbital sean. various viewing heads
and adjustable focusing of the objective lens
Miniborescopes. instead of the conven
tional relay tenses. miniborescopes have ,
single image-relaying rod or quartz fiber ir
the optical tube. The lengths of minibore
scopes are 110 and 170 mm (U and 6.7 in.1
and the diameters range from 0.9 to 2.7 mrr
(0.035 to 0.105 in.). High magnification (ur
to 30x) can be reached at minima! foca
lengths, and an adjustable focus is not re
quired. because the scope has :m intinit
depth of field. The larger sizes hve for
ward, si de view. and forward-obliqu.
views. The 0.9 mm (0.035 in.l diam size ha
only a forward view. Miniborescopes hav
an integral light guide bundle.

Visual lnspection / 5

,:"ii':

(a)

f ig. 5

(b)
Videoscope imoges (a) nside engine guide vones (b) of on engine fuel nozzle. Courtesy of Welch Allyn, lnc.

Hybrid borescopes utilize rod lenses

combined with convex lenses to relay the
image. The rod lenses have fewer glass-air
boundaries; this reduces scattering and allows for a more compact optical guide.
Consequently, a larger light guide bundle
can be employed with an increase in illumination and an image with a higher degree of
contras t.
Hybrid borescopes ha ve lengths up to 990
mm (39 in.), with diameters ranging from
5.5 to 12 mm (0.216 to 0.47 in.). Ali hybrid
borescopes have adjustable focusing of the
objective lens and a 370 rotation for orbital
sean. The various viewing directions are
forward. side, retrospective, and forwardoblique.
Extendable borescopes allow the user to
construct a longer borescopic tube by joining extension tubes. Extendable borescopes
are available with either a fiber-optic light
guide or an incandescent lamp at the distal
end. Extendable borescopes with an integral lamp have a maximum length of about
30 m ( 100 ft). Scopes with a light guide
bundle have a shorter maximum length
(about 8 m, or 26 ft), but do allow smaller
tube diameters (as srnall as 8 mm. or 0.3
in.). lnterchangeable viewing heads are also
available. Extendable borescopes do not
have adjustable focusing of the objective
lens.
Rigid chamberscopes allow more rapid
inspection of larger chambers. Chamberscopes (Fig. 3) have variable magnification
(zoom). a lamp at the distal tip, and a
scanning mirror that a!lows the user to
observe in dfferent directions. The higher

illumination and greater magnification of

chamberscopes allow the inspection of surfaces as muchas 910 mm (36 in.) away frorn
the distal tip of the scope.
Mirror sheaths can convert a direct-viewing borescope into a side-viewing scope. A
mirror sheath is designed to fit over the tip
of the scope and thus relect an image frorn
the side of the scope. However, not ali
applications are suitable for this device. :\
side. forward-oblique. or retrospective
viewng head provides better resoluton and
a higher degree of image contrast. A rnirror
sheath also produces an inverse image and
may produce unwanted relections from the
shaft.
Scanning. In addition to the orbital sean
feature described earlier. sorne rigid borescopes have the ability to sean longitudinally
along the axis of the [Link]. A movable prisrn
with a control at the handle accomplishes this
scanning. Typically, the prism can shift the
direction of view through an are of 120.

Flexible Borescopes
Flexible borescopes are used primarily in
applications that do not have a straight
passageway to the point of observation. The
two types of flexible borescopes are flexible
fiberscopes and videoscopes with a CCD
image sensor at the distal tip.
Flexible Fiberscopes. A typical fiberscope (Fig. lb) conssts of a light guide
bundle, an image guide bundle, an objective
leos. interchangeable viewing heads, and
re mote controls for articulation of the distal
tip. Fiberscopes are :wailable in diameters
from 1A to ! 3 mm (0.055 to 0.5 in.) and in

lengths up to 12 m (40 ft). Special quartz

fiberscopes are available in lengths up to
90 rn (300 ft).
The fibers used in the light guide bundk
are generally 30 m (0.001 in.) in diameter.
The second optical bundle. called the image
guide. is used to carry the image formed by
the objective lens back to the eyepiece. The
fibers in the irnage guide must be precisely
aligned so that they are in an identcal
relative position to each other at their terminations for proper irnage resolution.
The diameter of the fibers in the image
guide is another factor in obtaining good
image resolution. With smaller diameter fibers, a brighter image with better resoiution
can be obtained by packing more fibers in
the image guide. With higher resolution. it is
then possible to use an objective lens with a
wider field of view and also to magnify the
image at the eyepiece. This allows better
viewing of objects at the periphery of the
image (Fig . .+). Image guide fibers range
from 6.5 to 17 m (255 to 670 in.).
The interchangeable distal tips provide
various directions and fields of view on a
single fiberscope. However. because the tip
can be articulated for scanning purposes.
distal tips with either a forward or side
viewing directon are usually sufficient.
Fields of view are typically .+O to 60. although they can range from !O to 120. [Link]
fiberscopes provide adjustable focusing of
the objective lens.
Videoscopes with CCD probes involv,
the electronic transmission of color or black
and white images to a video monitor. The
distal end of electronic videoscopes con-

6 / lnspection Equipment and Techniques

Ob1ect distance, :n.

1.6

0.8

2.4

3.2

1400

16\

Usabie

.-u;

300

"'n~

200

U)

100 a:
"'

a:"

40

20

60

30

Object distance, mm

(a)

Ob1ect distance.
0.8

1.6

1n.

2.4

3.2

400

16

Usable

o
"'

~ ~f-----,-H---f----=--1"-:o:-~----l

a:'"

a:

20

40

60

80

Obect distance, mm

(a)

(b)

Obect distance. :n
08

1 .6

161

2.4

3.2
1

400

Usable

e 2 1f----i~~H-<-"r----+------l 300
;;

3 f---i4'---if--~....,._,_------l200
r"'=----i-l---i'-----4---++---'"'-11

'.;;

:;

on

:i

o'-----'--L---J----'---"-'----lO'
J

20

40

60

30

100

Obect d1stance. mm

(e)

f ig 6

Typical resolution of CCD videoscopes with 0

90 field al view (a), 60 field of view (b),

30 field of view (e). Source: Welch Allyn, lnc.

tains a CCD chip, which consists of thousands of light-sensitive elements arrayed in

a pattern of rows and columns. The objective lens focuses the image of an object on
the surface of the CCD chip, where the light
is converted to electrons that are stored in
each picture element, or pixel, of the CCD
device. The image of the object is thus
stored in the form of electrons on the CCD
device. At this point. a voltage proportional
to the number of electrons at each pixel is
determined electronicalty for each pixel

(b)

f ig. 7
Allyn, lnc.

lmage ~roma videoscope (a) anda fiberscope (b). In sorne fiberscope images, voids between individue
glass f1bers can create a haneycomb pattern that adds graininess to the image. Courtesy of Welc

Visual lnspection 1

(a)

(b)

(e)

(d)

View through a measuring fiberscope with

reticles for 20 and 40 field-of-view lenses.
Courtesy of Olympus Corporation

19

site. This voltage is then amplified, filtered,

and sent to the input of a video monitor.
Videoscopes with CCD probes produce
images (Fig. 5) with spatial resolutions of
the order of those described in Fig. 6. Like
rigid borescopes and flexible fiberscopes,
the resolution of videoscopes depends on
the object-to-lens distance and the fields of
view, because these two factors affect the
amount of magnification (see the section
"Magnification and Field of View" in this
article). Gene rally, videoscopes produce
higher resolution than fiberscopes, although
fiberscopes with smaller diameter fibers
(Fig. 4a may be competitive with the resolution of videoscopes.
Another advantage of videoscopes is
their longer working length. With a given
amount of illumination at the distal tip,
videoscopes can return an image over a
greater length than fiberscopes. Other features of videoscopes include:

f ig. 1O

f g 9

Turbine flaws seen through a flexible fiberscope. (a) Crack near a fuel burner nozzle. (b) Crack in an outer

combustion liner. (e) Combustion chamber and high pressure nozzle guide vanes. (d} Campressor damage
showing blade deformation. Courtesy of Olympus Corporation

The display can help reduce eye fatigue

(but does not allow the capability of direct viewing through an eyepiece)

There is no honeycomb pattem or irregular picture distortion as with sorne fiberscopes (Fig. 7)

ln-service defects as seen through a borescope designed for automotive servicing. (a) Carbon on valves. (b) Broken transmission gear tooth. (e) Differential gear
wear. Caurtesy of Lenax lnstrument Company

8 i lnspection Equipment and Techniques

Filament iamp

f-12--f:--1
Cable
cross section

~1,--J~

.lenses / ______--/f-:.-j

~ Cylinarica1

Sonerica1 lenses

Fig. 1:2

Schematic of line projection method for monitoring the surface roughness on fast-moving caoles

F 11
19.

Operator viewing a weld 21 m (70 ft)

inside piping with a videoscope. Courtesy
o Olympus Corporation

e The electronic form of the image signa!

allows digital image enhancement and the
potential for integration with automatic
inspection systems
The display allows the generation of reticles on the viewing screen for pointto-point measurements

Apedal Features
Measuring borescopes and fiberscopes
contain a movable cursor that ailows mea>Urements during viewing 1 Fig. 8). When
the object under measurement is in focus.
lhe movable cursor provides a reference for
Jimensional measurements in the optical
plane of the object. This capability eiiminates the need to know the object-to-lens
distance when determining magnifcation
factors.
Working channels are used in borescopes and fiberscopes to pass working
devices to the distal tip. Working channels
are presently used to pass measuring instruments. retrieval devices. and hooks for aiding the insertion of thin. flexible fiberscopes. Working channels are used in
flexible fiberscopes with diameters as small
as 2.7 mm (0.106 in.). Working channels are
also under consideration for the application
and removal of dye penetrants and for the
passage of wires and sensors in eddy current measurernents.

Selection
Flexible and rigid borescopes are available in a wide variety of standard and
customized designs. and severa! factors can
ntluence the selection of a :>cope for a
ricular application. These factors inciude
ising. iilurnination. magnitication. work1ng length. direction of view. and envronmenr.

Fig. 13

Setup used in the in-plan! trials of the line proiection method far monitoring the surfoce rougnness o
cables. Courtesy of P. Cielo, National Research Council of Canada

Focusing and Resoiution. If portions of

long objects are at different planes. the
scope must ha ve sufficient focus adjustment
to achieve an adequate depth of tield. If the
scope has a fixed focal length. the object
will be in focus only at a specific lensto-object distance.
To allow the observation of surface detail
at a desired size. the optical system of a
borescope must also provide adequate resolution and mage contrast. !f resolution is
adequate but contrast is lacking, detaii cannot be observed.
[n general. the optical quaiity of a rigid
borescope improves as the size of the lens
increases: consequently. a borescope with
the largest possible diameter should be
used. For fiberscopes. the resolution is dependent on the accuracv. of alignment
and
the diameter of the fibers in the mage

bundle. Smaller-diameter tibers provide

more resolution and edge contrast (fig . .+),
when combined with good geometrical
alignment of the fibers. Typical resolutions
of videoscopes are given in Fig. .
lllumination. The required intensny of
the light source is determined by the retlectivity of the surface, the area of surface to
be illuminated. and the transmission !osses
over the tength of the scooe. At working
lengths greater than 6 m (2 ftL rigid borescopes with a lamp at the distal end provide
the greatest amount of illumination o ver the
widest area. However. the heat generated
by the light source may deform rubber or
plastic materials. Fiber-optic illumination in
scopes with working lengths less than 6 m
CO ftl is always brighter and is suitabte for
heat-sensitive applications because fiiters
can remove nfrared frequenc1es. Because

Visual lnspection I 9
fiberscopes or videoscopes. because of
their articulating tip. are often adequate
wth either a side or forward viewing tip.
Circumferential or panoramic heads are
designed for the inspection of tubing or
other cylindrical structures. A centrally located mrror permits right-angle viewing of
an areajust scanned by the panoramic view.
The forward viewing head permits the
inspection of the area directly ahead of the
viewing head. lt is commonly used when
examining facing walls or the bottoms of
blind holes and cavities.
Forward-oblique heads bend the viewing
direction at an angle to the borescope axis.
permitting the inspection of comers at the
end ofa bored hole. The retrospective viewing head bends the cone of view at a retrospective angle to the borescope axis. providing a view of the area just passed by the
advancing borescope. It is especially suited
to inspecting the inside neck of cylinders
and bottles.
Environment. Flexible and rigd bore
scopes can be manufactured to withstand a
variety of environments. Although most
scopes can operate at temperatures from
- 34 to 66 C (- 30 to 150 Fl. specially
desgned scopes can be used at temperatures to 1925 C (3500 F). Scopes can also
be manufactured for use in liquid media.
Special scopes are requred for use in
pressures above ambient and in atmospheres exposed to radiation. Radiation
can cause the multicomponent tenses and
image bundles to turn brown. When a
scope is used in atmospheres exposed to
radiation. quartz fiberscopes are generally
used. Scopes used in a gaseous environment should be made explosionproof to
minimize the potential of an accidental
explosion.

40

20

o
-20

m
200

100

o
-100

Applications
(b)

f ig. 14

Examples af signals obtained with the apparatus shawn in Fig. 13. (a) Acceptable surface raughness.
(b) Unacceptable surface roughness

the amount of illumination depends on the

diameter of the light guide bundle, it is
desirable to use the largest diameter possible.
Magnification and field of view are
interrelated: as magnification is increased. the
field of view is reduced. The precise relationship between magnification and field of view
is specified by the manufacturer.
The degree of magnification in a particular
application is deterrnined by the field of view
and the distance from the objective lens to the
object. Specifically. the magnification increases when either the field of view or the
lens-to-object distance decreases.

Working length. In addition to the obvious need for a scope of sufficient length. the
working length can sometimes dictate the
use of a particular type of scope. For example, a rigid borescope with a long working
length may be limted by the need for additional supports. In general. videoscopes allow a longer working length than fiberscopes.
Direction of View. The selection of a
viewing direction is influenced by the location of the access port in relation to the
object to be observed. The following sections describe sorne crteria for choosing the
direction of view shown in Fig. 2. Flexible

Rigid and flexible borescopes are available in different designs suitable for a variety of applications. For example. when inspecting straight process piping for leaks.
rigid borescopes with a 360 radial view are
capable of examining inside diameters of 3
to 600 mm I0.118 to 24 in.). Scopes are also
used by building inspectors and contractors
to see inside walls, ducts. large tanks. or
other dark areas.
The principal use of borescopes is in
equipment maintenance programs. in which
borescopes can reduce or eliminate the
need for costly teardowns. Sorne types of
equipment. such as turbines. have access
ports that are specifically desjgned for borescopes. Borescopes provide' a means of
checking in-service defects in a variety of
equipment. such as turbines (Fig. 9). automotive components ( Fig. 1Ol. and process
piping (Fig. 11 ).
Borescopes are also extensiveiy used in a
variety of manufacturing industries to c:n-

1 O I lnspection Equipment and Techniques

------

Condens1ng lens

"<eflecting

,,L<c;nt

sou~ce ~I

:~
WJ
1

len?
1
as

--ft-

Ob1ect

1
1

m1rror

MagniMng

1
1

-----

1
1

L ______ _J

Fig. 1 5

Schematic of an optical comporotor

sure the product quality of difficult-to-reach

components. Manufacturers of hydraulic
cylinders, for example. use borescopes to
examine the interiors of bores for pitting,
scoring, and tool marks. Aircraft and aerospace manufacturers also use borescopes to
verify the proper placement and fit of seals.
bonds. gaskets, and subassemblies in difficult-to-reach regions.

Optical Sensors*
Visible light. which can be detected by
the human ;ye or with optical sensors, has
sorne advantages over inspection methods
based on nuclear, microwave. or ultrasound
radiation. For example. one of the advantages of visible light is the capability of
tightly focusing the probing beam on the
inspected surface ( Ref 1). High spatial resolution can result from this sharp focusing,
which is useful in gaging and profiling applications (Ref 1).
Sorne different types of image sensors
used in visual inspection include:
Vidicon or plumbicon television tubes
Secondary electron-coupled (SEC) vidicons
Image orthicons and image isocons
Charge-coupled device sensors
Holographic plates (see the article .. Optical Holography" in this Volume)
Television cameras with vidicon tubes
are useful at higher light levels (about 0.2
lm!m 2 or 10-:- ftc). while orthicons. isocons.
and SEC vidicons are useful at lower light
levels. The section "T elevision Cameras ..
"'Example 1 tn th1s section wo.i:-i adatited with f?erm1ssion
from P. Cdo. Optical Tt'chn1t1ta's for lndtotrta! lnspcc~
uon. A1.2aJcmrc Pn::s~. 19K8.

in the article "Radiographic Inspection" in

this Volume describes these cameras in
more detail.
Charge-coupled devices are suitable for
many different information-processing applications, including image sensing in television-camera technology. Charge-coupled
devices offer a clear advantage over vacuum-tube image sensors because of the reliability of their solid-state technology. their
operation at low voltage and low power
dissipation. extensive dynamic range, visible and near-infrared response, and geometric reproducibility of image location. Image
enhancement (or visual feedback into robotic systems) typically involve the use of
CCDs as the optical sensor or the use of
television signals that are converted into
digital form.
Optical sensors are a!so used in inspection applications that do not involve imaging. The articles "Laser Inspection" and
"Speckle Metrology in this Volume describe the use of optical sensors when laser
light is the probing too!. In sorne appiications, however. incoherent light sources are
very effective in non-imaging inspection applications utilizing optical sensors.
Example 1: Monitoring Surface Roughness on a Fast-Moving Cable. A shadow
projection configuration that can be used at
hgh extrusion speeds is shown in Fig. 12. A
linear-filament lamp is imaged by two
spherical lenses of focal length f 1 on a
large-area single detector. Two cylindrical
lenses are used to project and recollimate a
laminar light beam of uniform intensity.
nearly 0.5 mm (0.02 in.) wide across the
wire situated near their common focal
plane. The portion ot the light beam that is
not intercepted by lhe wire is collected on

the detector, which has an altemating current output that corresponds to the defectrelated wire diameter fluctuations. The wire
speed is limited only by the detector response time. With a moderare detector
bandwidth of 100 kHz, wire extrusion
speeds up to 50 mJs (160 ft/s) can be accepted. Moreover, the uniformity of the nearly
coilimated projected beam obtained with
such a configuration makes the detected
signal relatively independent of the random
wire excursions in the plane of Fig. 12. It
should be mentioned that the adoption of
either a single He-Ne laser or an array of
fiber-pigtailed diode lasers proved to be
inadequate in this case because of speckle
noise, high-frequency laser amplitude or
mode-to-mode intert'erence fluctuations.
and line nonuniformity.
An industrial prototype of such a sensor
was tested on the production line at extruding speeds reaching 30 mis (100 ft/s). Figure
13 shows the location of the sensor just after
the extruder die. Random noise introduced
by vapor turbulence could be almost completely suppressed by high-pass filtering.
Figure 14 shows two exampies of signais
obtained with a wire of acceptable and
unacceptable surface quaiity. As shown. a
roughness amplitude resolution of a few
micrometers can be obtained with such a
device. Subcritical surface roughness levels
can thus be monitored for real time control
of the extrusion process.

Magnifying Systems
In addition to the use of microscopes in
the metallographic examination of microstructures (see the article .. Reolication .\1icroscopy Techniques for ~DE.-. in this Volume), magnifying systems are also used in
visual reference gaging. When tolerances
are too tight to judge by eye :ilone. optical
comparators or tooimakers microscopes
are used to achieve magnifications ranging
from 5 to 500x.
A toolmakers' microscope consists ot a
microscope mounted on a base that carnes
an adjustable stage, a stage transport mechanism. and supplementary lighting. Micrometer barreis are often incorporated in to
the stage transport mechanism to permit
precisely controiied movements, and digital
readouts of stage positioning are becoming
increasingly available. Various objective
tenses provide magnifications rangmg from
10 to 2oox.
Optical comparators (Fig. 15) are magnifying devices that project the silhouette of
small parts onto a large projection screen.
The magnified silhouette is then compared
against an optical comparator chart. which
is a magnified outline drawing of the work
piece being gaged. Opticai comparators are
available with magnifications ranging from 5
to 500X.

Visual lnspection
Parts with recessed contours can also be
successfu!ly gaged on optical comparators.
This is done with the use of a pamograph.
One arrn of the pantograph is a stylus that
traces the recessed contour of the part, and
the other arm canies a follower that is
visible in the light path. As the stylus
moves. the fo!lower projects a con tour on
the screen.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

ASM INTERNATIONAL would like to

thank Oliver Darling and Morley Melden of
Spectrum Marketing, Inc., for their assistance in preparing the section on borescopes. They provided a draft of a textbook
being developed for Olympus Corporation.
Thanks are also extended to Virginia Torrey
ofWelch Allyn, Inc., for the information on
videoscopes and to Peter Sigmund of Lindhult and Iones, Inc., for the information on
instruments from Lenox, Inc.

REFERENCE
l. P. Cielo. Optical Techniques for Industrial Inspection, Academic Press. l 988. p

243

SHECTED REFERENCES
Robert C. Anderson. Inspection of .'vierais: Visual Examinaran, Vol l. :\.merican Society for Metals, 1983
Detecting Susceptibility to Intergranular
Attack in Austenitic Stainless Steels,
ASTM A 262. Annual Book of [Link]-t
Standards. American Society for Testing
and Materials
Detecting Susceptibility to Intergranular
Attack in Fenitic Stainless Steeis. ASTYi
A 763, Annual Book ofASTJf Standards.
American Society for Testing and Yiaterials
Detecting Susceptibility to Intergranular
Corrosion in Severely Sensitized Auste-

l 1

nitic Stainless Steei. ASTM ..\ 708. Annual Book of ASTM Standards. American
Societv for Testing and Yiaterials
W.R. beVries and D.A. Dornfield. In
spection and Qua/ity Control in ,\;fanuJacturing S_vstems. American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, 1982
C. W. Kennedy and D.E. Andrews, fnspection and Gaging, Industrial Press.
1977
Standard Practice for Evaluating and
Specifying Textures and Discontinuities
of Steel Castings by Visual Examination,
ASTM Standard A 802. American Society for Testing and Materials
Surface Discontinuities on Boits. Screws.
and Studs. ASTM F 788. Annual Book of
ASTM Standards. American Society for
Testing and Yiaterials
Visual Evaluation of Color Changes of
Opaque Materials. ASTM D !729. [Link] Book of ASTM Standards. American
Society for Testing and Yiaterials