Chapter 4
Resources,
Comparative
Advantage,
and Income
Distribution
Slides prepared by Thomas Bishop
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Production possibilities
Relationship among output prices, input
(factor) prices, and levels of inputs
Relationship among output prices, input
prices, levels of inputs, and levels of output.
Trade in the Heckscher-Ohlin model
Factor price equalization
Income distribution and income inequality
Empirical evidence
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4-2
Introduction
While trade is partly explained by differences in labor
productivity, it also can be explained by differences in
resources across countries.
The Heckscher-Ohlin theory argues that differences in
labor, labor skills, physical capital, land or other
factors of production across countries create
productive differences that explain why trade occurs.
Countries have a relative abundance of factors of production.
Production processes use factors of production with
relative intensity.
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4-3
Two Factor Heckscher-Ohlin Model
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Labor services and land are the resources important for
production.
The amount of labor services and land varies across countries,
and this variation influences productivity.
The supply of labor services and land in each country is
constant.
Only two goods are important for production and consumption:
cloth and food.
Competition allows factors of production to be paid a
competitive wage, a function of their productivities and the
price of the good that they produce, and allows factors to be
used in the industry that pays the most.
Only two countries are modeled: domestic and foreign
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Production Possibilities
When there is more than one factor of production, the
opportunity cost in production is no longer constant
and the PPF is no longer a straight line. Why?
Lets expand the previous chapters model to include
two factors of production, labor services and land.
aTC = hectares of land used to produce one m2 of cloth
aLC = hours of labor used to produce one m2 of cloth
aTF = hectares of land used to produce one calorie of food
aLF = hours of labor used to produce one calorie of food
L = total amount of labor services available for production
T = total amount of land (terrain) available for production
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Production Possibilities (cont.)
Production possibilities are influenced by both
land and labor (requirements):
aTFQF + aTCQC T
Land required for
each unit of food
production
Total units
of food
production
Land required for
each unit of cloth
production
aLFQF + aLCQC L
Labor required for
each unit of food
production
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Total amount of
land resources
Total units
of cloth
production
Total amount of
labor resources
Labor required for
each unit of cloth
production
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Production Possibilities (cont.)
Lets assume that each unit of cloth production uses
labor services intensively and each unit of food
production uses land intensively:
aLC /aTC > aLF/aTF
Or aLC /aLF > aTC /aTF
Or, we consider the total resources used in each industry and
say that cloth production is labor intensive and food
production is land intensive if LC /TC > LF /TF.
This assumption influences the slope of the
production possibility frontier:
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4-7
Fig. 4-1: The Production Possibility
Frontier Without Factor Substitution
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Production Possibilities (cont.)
The opportunity cost of producing cloth in
terms of food is not constant in this model:
its low when the economy produces a low amount
of cloth and a high amount of food
its high when the economy produces a high
amount of cloth and a low amount of food
Why? Because when the economy devotes all resources
towards the production of a single good, the marginal
productivity of those resources tends to be low so that the
(opportunity) cost of production tends to be high
In this case, some of the resources could be used more
effectively in the production of another good
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Production Possibilities (cont.)
The above PPF equations do not allow substitution of
land for labor services in production or vice versa.
Unit factor requirements are constant along each line
segment of the PPF.
If producers can substitute one input for another in the
production process, then the PPF becomes curved.
For example, many workers could work on a small plot of
land or a few workers could work on a large plot of land to
produce the same amount of output.
Unit factor requirements can very at every quantity of cloth
and food that could be produced.
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Fig. 4-2: The Production Possibility
Frontier with Factor Substitution
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Fig. 4-4: Input Possibilities in Food
Production
In the production of
each unit of food, unit
factor requirements of
land and labor are not
constant in the
Heckscher-Ohlin model
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4-12
Production and Prices
The production possibility frontier describes what an
economy can produce, but to determine what the
economy does produce, we must determine the
prices of goods.
In general, the economy should produce at the point
that maximizes the value of production, V:
V = PCQC + PFQF
where PC is the price of cloth and PF is the price of food.
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4-13
Production and Prices (cont.)
Define an isovalue line as a line representing
a constant value of production, V.
V = PCQC + PFQF
PFQF = V PCQC
QF = V/PF (PC /PF)QC
The slope of an isovalue line is (PC /PF)
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Fig. 4-3: Prices and Production
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Production and Prices (cont.)
Given prices of output, a point on one
isovalue line represents the maximum value
of production, say at a point Q.
At that point, the slope of the PPF equals
(PC /PF), so the opportunity cost of cloth
equals the relative price of cloth.
In other words, the trade-off in production equals
the trade-off according to market prices.
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Factor Prices, Output Prices,
and Levels of Factors of Production
Producers may choose different amounts of factors of
production used to make cloth or food.
Their choice depends on the wage rate, w, and the
(opportunity) cost of using land, the rate r at which
land can be lent to others or rented from others.
As the wage rate increases relative to the lending/
renting rate r, producers are willing to use less labor
services and more land in the production of food and
cloth.
Recall that food production is land intensive and cloth
production is labor intensive.
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Fig. 4-5: Factor Prices and Input Choices
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Factor Prices, Output Prices,
and Levels of Factors (cont.)
In competitive markets, the price of a good should be reduced to
the cost of production, and the cost of production depends on the
wage rate and the lending/renting rate.
The effect of changes in the wage rate depend on the intensity of
labor services in production.
The effect of changes in the lending/renting rate of land depend
on the intensity of land usage in production.
An increase in the lending/renting rate of land should affect the price
of food more than the price of cloth since food is the land intensive
industry.
With competition, changes in w/r are therefore directly related to
changes in PC /PW .
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Fig. 4-6: Factor Prices and Goods Prices
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Factor Prices, Output Prices,
and Levels of Factors (cont.)
We have a relationship among input (factor) prices
and output prices and the levels of factors used in
production:
Stolper-Samuelson theorem: if the relative price of a
good increases, then the real wage or real lending/
renting rate of the factor used intensively in the
production of that good increases, while the real wage
or real lending/renting rate of the other factor
decreases.
Under competition, the real wage/rate is equal to the
marginal productivity of the factor.
The marginal productivity of a factor typically decreases as
the level of that factor used in production increases.
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Fig. 4-7: From Goods Prices to Input
Choices
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Factor Prices, Output Prices,
and Levels of Factors (cont.)
We have a theory that predicts changes in the
distribution of income when the relative price of goods
changes, say because of trade.
An increase in the relative price of cloth, PC /PF, is
predicted to:
raise income of workers relative to that of landowners, w/r.
raise the ratio of land to labor services, T/L, used in both
industries and raise the marginal productivity of labor in both
industries and lower the marginal productivity of land in both
industries.
raise the real income of workers and lower the real income of
land owners.
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Factor Prices, Output Prices, Levels of
Factors, and Levels of Output
The allocation of factors used in production
determine the maximum level of output (on
the PPF).
We represent the amount of factors used in
the production of different goods using the
following diagram:
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Fig. 4-8: The Allocation of Resources
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Factor Prices, Output Prices, Levels of
Factors, and Levels of Output
How do levels of output change when the
economys resources change?
If we hold output prices constant as the
amount of a factor of production increases,
then the supply of the good that uses this
factor intensively increases and the supply of
the other good decreases.
This proposition is called the Rybczynski theorem.
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Fig. 4-9: An Increase in the Supply of
Land
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Fig. 4-10: Resources and Production
Possibilities
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Factor Prices, Output Prices, Levels of
Factors, and Levels of Output
An economy with a high ratio of land to labor services
is predicted to have a high output of food relative to
cloth and a low price of food relative to cloth.
It will be relatively efficient at (have a comparative advantage
in) producing food.
It will be relatively inefficient at producing cloth.
An economy is predicted to be relatively efficient at
producing goods that are intensive in the factors of
production in which the country is relatively well
endowed.
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4-29
Trade in the Heckscher-Ohlin Model
Suppose that the domestic country has an abundant
amount of labor services relative to land.
The domestic country is abundant in labor services and the
foreign country is abundant in land: L/T > L*/ T*
Likewise, the domestic country is scarce in land and the
foreign country is scarce in labor services.
However, the countries are assumed to have the same
technology and same consumer tastes.
Because the domestic country is abundant in labor
services, it will be relatively efficient at producing cloth
because cloth is labor intensive.
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Trade in the Heckscher-Ohlin Model (cont.)
Since cloth is a labor intensive good, the
domestic countrys PPF will allow a higher
ratio of cloth to food relative to the foreign
countys PPF.
At each relative price, the domestic country
will produce a higher ratio of cloth to food than
the foreign country.
The domestic country will have a higher relative
supply of cloth than the foreign country.
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Fig. 4-11: Trade Leads to a Convergence
of Relative Prices
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Trade in the Heckscher-Ohlin Model (cont.)
Like the Ricardian model, the Heckscher-Ohlin model
predicts a convergence of relative prices with trade.
With trade, the relative price of cloth is predicted to
rise in the labor abundant (domestic) country and fall
in the labor scarce (foreign) country.
In the domestic country, the rise in the relative price of cloth
leads to a rise in the relative production of cloth and a fall in
relative consumption of cloth; the domestic country becomes
an exporter of cloth and an importer of food.
The decline in the relative price of cloth in the foreign country
leads it to become an importer of cloth and an exporter
of food.
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Trade in the Heckscher-Ohlin Model (cont.)
An economy is predicted to be relatively
efficient at (have a comparative advantage in)
producing goods that are intensive in its
abundant factors of production.
An economy is predicted to export goods that
are intensive in its abundant factors of
production and import goods that are
intensive in its scarce factors of production.
This proposition is called the Heckscher-Ohlin
theorem
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Trade in the Heckscher-Ohlin Model (cont.)
Over time, the value of goods consumed is
constrained to equal the value of goods produced for
each country.
PCDC + PFDF = PCQC + PFQF
where DC represents domestic consumption demand of cloth
and DF represents domestic consumption demand of food
(DF QF) = (PC /PF)(QC DC)
Quantity
of imports
Price of exports
relative to imports
Quantity
of exports
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Trade in the Heckscher-Ohlin Model (cont.)
(DF QF) = (PC /PF)(QC DC)
This equation is the budget constraint for an
economy, and it has a slope of (PC /PF)
(DF QF) (PC /PF)(QC DC) = 0
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12
Fig. 4-12: The Budget Constraint
for a Trading Economy
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Trade in the Heckscher-Ohlin Model (cont.)
Note that the budget constraint touches the
PPF: a country can always afford to consume
what it produces.
However, a country need not consume
only the goods and services that it produces
with trade.
Exports and imports can be greater than zero.
Furthermore, a country can afford to consume
more of both goods with trade.
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Fig. 4-13: Trading Equilibrium
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13
Fig. 4-14: Trade Expands the
Economys Consumption Possibilities
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Trade in the Heckscher-Ohlin Model (cont.)
Because an economy can afford to consume more
with trade, the country as a whole is made better off.
But some do not gain from trade, unless the model
accounts for a redistribution of income.
Trade changes relative prices of goods, which have
effects on the relative earnings of workers and land
owners.
A rise in the price of cloth raises the purchasing power of
domestic workers, but lowers the purchasing power of
domestic land owners.
The model predicts that owners of abundant factors
gain with trade, but owners of scarce factors lose.
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Factor Price Equalization
Unlike the Ricardian model, the Heckscher-Ohlin
model predicts that input (factor) prices will be
equalized among countries that trade.
Because relative output prices are equalized and
because of the direct relationship between output
prices and factor prices, factor prices are also
equalized.
Trade increases the demand of goods produced by
abundant factors, indirectly increasing the demand of
the abundant factors themselves, raising the prices of
the abundant factors across countries.
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14
Factor Price Equalization (cont.)
But factor prices are not really equal across countries.
The model assumes that trading countries produce
the same goods, so that prices for those goods will
equalize, but countries may produce different goods.
The model also assumes that trading countries have
the same technology, but different technologies could
affect the productivities of factors and therefore the
wages/rates paid to these factors.
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Factor Price Equalization (cont.)
The model also ignores trade barriers and
transportation costs, which may prevent output prices
and factor prices from equalizing.
The model predicts outcomes for the long run, but
after an economy liberalizes trade, factors of
production may not quickly move to the industries that
intensively use abundant factors.
In the short run, the productivity of factors will be determined
by their use in their current industry, so that their wage/rate
may vary across countries.
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Does Trade Increase Income Inequality?
Over the last 40 years, countries like South
Korea, Mexico, and China have exported to
the U.S. goods intensive in unskilled labor
(ex., clothing, shoes, toys, assembled goods).
At the same time, income inequality has
increased in the U.S., as wages of unskilled
workers have grown slowly compared to those
of skilled workers.
Did the former trend cause the latter trend?
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Does Trade Increase
Income Inequality? (cont.)
The Heckscher-Ohlin model predicts that owners of
abundant factors will gain from trade and owners of
scarce factors will lose from trade.
But little evidence supporting this prediction exists.
1. According to the model, a change in the distribution
of income occurs through changes in output prices,
but there is no evidence of a change in the prices of
skill-intensive goods relative to prices of unskilledintensive goods.
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Does Trade Increase
Income Inequality? (cont.)
2. According to the model, wages of unskilled workers
should increase in unskilled labor abundant
countries relative to wages of skilled labor, but in
some cases the reverse has occurred:
Wages of skilled labor have increased more rapidly in
Mexico than wages of unskilled labor.
But compared to the U.S. and Canada, Mexico is supposed to
be abundant in unskilled workers.
3. Even if the model were exactly correct, trade is a
small fraction of the U.S. economy, so its effects on
U.S. prices and wages prices should be small.
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Trade and Income Distribution
Changes in income distribution occur with every
economic change, not only international trade.
Changes in technology, changes in consumer preferences,
exhaustion of resources and discovery of new ones all affect
income distribution.
Economists put most of the blame on technological change
and the resulting premium paid on education as the major
cause of increasing income inequality in the US.
It would be better to compensate the losers from trade
(or any economic change) than prohibit trade.
The economy as a whole does benefit from trade.
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Trade and Income Distribution (cont.)
There is a political bias in trade politics:
potential losers from trade are better politically
organized than the winners from trade.
Losses are usually concentrated among a few, but
gains are usually dispersed among many.
Each of you pays about $8/year to restrict imports
of sugar, and the total cost of this policy is about
$2 billion/year.
The benefits of this program total about $1 billion,
but this amount goes to relatively few sugar
producers.
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4-49
Empirical Evidence of the
Heckscher-Ohlin Model
Tests on US data
Leontief found that U.S. exports were less capital-intensive
than U.S. imports, even though the U.S. is the most capitalabundant country in the world: Leontief paradox.
Tests on global data
Bowen, Leamer, and Sveikauskas tested the HeckscherOhlin model on data from 27 countries and confirmed the
Leontief paradox on an international level.
Tests on manufacturing data between low/middle
income countries and high income countries.
This data lends more support to the theory.
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Table 4-2: Factor Content of U.S.
Exports and Imports for 1962
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Table 4-3: Testing the HeckscherOhlin Model
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Table 4-4: Estimated Technological
Efficiency, 1983 (United States = 1)
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Empirical Evidence of the
Heckscher-Ohlin Model (cont.)
Because the Heckscher-Ohlin model
predicts that factor prices will be equalized
across trading countries, it also predicts that
factors of production will produce and export
a certain quantity goods until factor prices
are equalized.
In other words, a predicted value of services from
factors of production will be embodied in a
predicted volume of trade between countries.
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Empirical Evidence of the
Heckscher-Ohlin Model (cont.)
But because factor prices are not equalized across
countries, the predicted volume of trade is much
larger than actually occurs.
A result of missing trade discovered by Daniel Trefler.
The reason for this missing trade appears to be the
assumption of identical technology among countries.
Technology affects the productivity of workers and therefore
the value of labor services.
A country with high technology and a high value of labor
services would not necessarily import a lot from a country
with low technology and a low value of labor services.
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Summary
1. Substitution of factors used in the production
process is represented by a curved PPF.
When an economy produces a low quantity of a good, the
opportunity cost of producing that good is low and the
marginal productivity of resources used to produce that
good is high.
When an economy produces a high quantity of a good, the
opportunity cost of producing that good is high and the
marginal productivity of resources used to produce that
good is low.
2. When an economy produces the most it can from its
resources, the opportunity cost of producing a good
equals the relative price of that good in markets.
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Summary (cont.)
3. If the relative price of a good increases, then the real
wage or real lending/renting rate of the factor used
intensively in the production of that good is predicted
to increase,
while the real wage and real lending/renting rates of other
factors of production are predicted to decrease.
4. If output prices remain constant as the amount of a
factor of production increases, then the supply of the
good that uses this factor intensively is predicted to
increase, and the supply of other goods is predicted
to decrease.
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Summary (cont.)
5. An economy is predicted to export goods that are
intensive in its abundant factors of production and
import goods that are intensive in its scarce factors
of production.
6. The Heckscher-Ohlin model predicts that relative
output prices and factor prices will equalize, neither
of which occurs in the real world.
7. The model predicts that owners of abundant factors
gain, but owners of scarce factors lose with trade.
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Summary (cont.)
8. A country as a whole is predicted to be
better off with trade, even though owners of
scarce factors are predicted to be worse off
without compensation.
9. Empirical support of the Heckscher-Ohlin
model is weak except for cases involving
trade between high income countries and
low/middle income countries.
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Additional Chapter Art
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Fig. 4-4: Input Possibilities in Food
Production
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Table 4-1: Comparative International
Wage Rates (United States = 100)
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Fig. 4-15: Skill Intensity and the Pattern of
U.S. Imports from Two Countries
Source: John Romalis, Factor Proportions and the Structure of Commodity Trade, American Economic Review, March
2004.
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21
Fig. 4-16 Changing Patterns of
Comparative Advantage
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Fig. 4-16 Changing Patterns of
Comparative Advantage (continued)
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Table 4-5: Estimated Technological
Efficiency, 1983 (United States = 1)
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Fig. 4A-1: Choosing the Optimal
Land-Labor Ratio
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Fig. 4A-2: Changing the Wage-Rental
Ratio
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Fig. 4A-3: Determining the Wage-Rental
Ratio
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Fig. 4A-4: A Rise in the Price of Cloth
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