Christoph Schiller

MOTION MOUNTAIN
the adventure of physics [Link]
the strand model
a speculation on unification

[Link]

Christoph Schiller

Motion Mountain
The Adventure of Physics
Volume VI

The Strand Model

A Speculation on Unification

Edition 27.06, available as free pdf

with films at [Link]

Editio vicesima septima.

Proprietas scriptoris Chrestophori Schiller
tertio anno Olympiadis trigesimae.
Omnia proprietatis iura reservantur et vindicantur.
Imitatio prohibita sine auctoris permissione.
Non licet pecuniam expetere pro aliqua, quae
partem horum verborum continet; liber
pro omnibus semper gratuitus erat et manet.

Twenty-seventh edition.
Copyright 19902014 by Christoph Schiller,
the third year of the 30th Olympiad.

This pdf file is licensed under the Creative Commons

Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 Germany
Licence, whose full text can be found on the website
[Link]/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/de,
with the additional restriction that reproduction, distribution and use,
in whole or in part, in any product or service, be it
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To Britta, Esther and Justus Aaron

Die Menschen strken, die Sachen klren.

PR EFAC E

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

Munich, 15 December 2014.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

This book is written for anybody who is intensely curious about nature and motion. Have
you ever asked: Why and how do people, animals, things, images and empty space move?
The answer leads to many adventures, and this book presents one of the best of them: the
search for a precise, unified and final description of all motion.
The aim to describe all motion everyday, quantum and relativistic implies a large
project. Fortunately, this project can be structured in the simple diagram shown in
Figure 1. The previous volumes have covered all points in the diagram except the highest
one. This remaining point, the topic of this book, contains the final and unified description of motion. The present volume briefly summarizes the history of this oldm quest
and then presents an intriguing, though speculative solution to the riddle.
The search for the final, unified description of motion is a story of many surprises.
For example, twentieth-century research has shown that there is a smallest distance in
nature. Research has also shown that matter cannot be distinguished from empty space
at those small distances. A last surprise dates from this century: particles and space are
best described as made of strands, instead of little spheres or points. The present text
explains how to reach these unexpected conclusions. In particular, quantum field theory,
the standard model of particle physics, general relativity and cosmology are shown to
follow from strands. The three gauge interactions, the three particle generations and the
three dimensions of space turn out to be due to strands. In fact, all the open questions of
twentieth-century physics about the foundations of motion, including the origin of the
parameters of the standard model, can be solved with the help of strands.
The strand model, as presented in this text, is an unexpected result from a threefold
aim that I have pursued since 1990, in the five previous volumes of this series: to present
the basics of motion in a way that is up to date, captivating and simple. While the previous
volumes introduced, in an entertaining way, the established parts of physics, this volume
presents, in the same entertaining and playful way, a speculation about unification. Nothing in this volume is established knowledge yet. The text is the original presentation of
the topic. In retrospect, the aim for maximum simplicity has been central in deducing
this speculation.
The search for a final theory is one of the great adventures of life: it leads to the limits
of thought. The search overthrows several of our thinking habits about nature. A change
in thinking habits can produce fear, often hidden by anger. But by overcoming our fears
we gain strength and serenity. Changing thinking habits thus requires courage, but it also
produces intense and beautiful emotions. Enjoy them.

preface

Final, unified description of

motion
Adventures: understanding
motion, intense joy with
thinking, calculating
couplings and
masses, catching
a glimpse
of bliss
(vol. VI).

PHYSICS:
Describing motion
with the least action principle.

Quantum
theory with gravity
Adventures: bouncing
neutrons, understanding tree
growth (vol. V).

How do
everyday,
fast and large
things move?

How do small
things move?
What are things?
Special relativity
Adventures: light,
magnetism, length
contraction, time
dilation and
E0 = mc2 (vol. II).
c

h, e, k

Quantum theory
Adventures: death,
reproduction, biology,
chemistry, evolution,
enjoying colours and
art, all high-tech
business, medicine
(vol. IV and V).

Galilean physics, heat and electricity

Adventures: sport, music, sailing, cooking,
describing beauty and understanding its origin
(vol. I), using electricity, light and computers,
understanding the brain and people (vol. III).
F I G U R E 1 A complete map of physics: the connections are dened by the speed of light c, the
gravitational constant G, the Planck constant h, the Boltzmann constant k and the elementary charge e.

Marginal notes refer to bibliographic references, to other pages or to challenge solutions.

In the colour edition, such notes and also the pointers to footnotes and to other websites
are typeset in green. In the free pdf edition, all green links can be clicked. The pdf edition
also contains all films; they can be watched in Adobe Reader.
Solutions and hints for challenges are given in the appendix. Challenges are classified
as research level (r), difficult (d), standard student level (s) and easy (e). Challenges for
which no solution has yet been included in the book are marked (ny).

free pdf le available at [Link]

Using this book

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Classical gravity
Adventures:
climbing, skiing,
space travel,
the wonders of
astronomy and
geology (vol. I).

Quantum field theory

Adventures: building
accelerators, understanding quarks, stars,
bombs and the basis of
life, matter, radiation
(vol. V).

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

General relativity
Adventures: the
night sky, measuring curved space,
exploring black
holes and the
universe, space
and time (vol. II).

Why does motion

occur? What are
space, time and
quantum particles?

preface

Feedback and support

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

This text is and will remain free to download from the internet. In order to simplify
annotations, the pdf file allows adding yellow sticker notes in Adobe Reader.
I would be delighted to receive an email from you, at fb@[Link], either
on how to improve the text, or on a solution for one of the prize challenges mentioned
on [Link]/[Link]. All feedback will be used to improve the next
edition. For a particularly useful contribution you will be mentioned if you want in
the acknowledgements, receive a reward, or both.
Your donation to the charitable, tax-exempt non-profit organisation that produces,
translates and publishes this book series is welcome! For details, see the web page www.
[Link]/[Link]. The German tax office checks the proper use of
your donation. If you want, your name will be included in the sponsor list. Thank you in
advance for your help, on behalf of all readers across the world.
The pdf version of this book, with embedded films, is available for free at www.
[Link]. The paper edition of this book is also available. It is delivered
by mail to any address of your choice and can be ordered at [Link], www.
[Link] or [Link]. And now, enjoy the reading.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

Contents

24
24

Physics in limit statements

Simplifying physics as much as possible
Everyday, or Galilean, physics in one statement 24 Special relativity in one statement 25 Quantum theory in one statement 26 Thermodynamics in one statement 27 General relativity in one statement 28 Deducing general relativity 30
Deducing universal gravitation 32 The size of physical systems in general relativity 33 A mechanical analogy for the maximum force 33
Planck limits for all physical observables
Physics, mathematics and simplicity 35 Limits to space, time and size 36
Mass and energy limits 36 Virtual particles a new definition 37 Curiosities
and fun challenges about Planck limits 37
Cosmological limits for all physical observables
Size and energy dependence 42 Angular momentum and action 43 Speed 43
Force, power and luminosity 44 The strange charm of the entropy bound 44
Curiosities and fun challenges about system-dependent limits to observables 45
Cosmology in one statement 47 The cosmological limits to observables 48
Limits to measurement precision and their challenge to thought 49 No real
numbers 49 Vacuum and mass: two sides of the same coin 49 Measurement
precision and the existence of sets 50
Summary on limits in nature

53

General rel ativit y versus quantum theory

The contradictions 54 The origin of the contradictions 55 The domain of contradictions: Planck scales 56 Resolving the contradictions 58 The origin of
points 58 Summary on the clash between the two theories 59

61

D oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

Farewell to instants of time 61 Farewell to points in space 63 The generalized
indeterminacy relation 65 Farewell to space-time continuity 65
Farewell
to dimensionality 68 Farewell to the space-time manifold 68 Farewell to observables, symmetries and measurements 69 Can space-time be a lattice? 70
A glimpse of quantum geometry 71 Farewell to point particles 72 Farewell
to particle properties 73 A mass limit for elementary particles 74 Farewell to
massive particles and to massless vacuum 75 Matter and vacuum are indistinguishable 77 Curiosities and fun challenges on Planck scales 78 Common
constituents 82
Experimental predictions 83 Summary on particles and
vacuum 84

86

What is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

Cosmological scales 86 Maximum time 87 Does the universe have a definite
age? 87 How precise can age measurements be? 88 Does time exist? 89
What is the error in the measurement of the age of the universe? 90 Maximum
length 94 Is the universe really a big place? 94 The boundary of space is
the sky a surface? 96 Does the universe have initial conditions? 97 Does the
universe contain particles and stars? 97 Does the universe have mass? 98 Do

34

42

51

free pdf le available at [Link]

From millennium physics to unification

Against a final theory 19 What went wrong in the past 21 Summary: how to
find the final theory of motion 21

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

16

contents

11
symmetries exist in nature? 100 Does the universe have a boundary? 100 Is
the universe a set? 101 Curiosities and fun challenges about the universe 103
Hilberts sixth problem settled 104 The perfect physics book 105 Does the
universe make sense? 106
Abandoning sets and discreteness eliminates contradictions 107 Extremal scales and open questions in physics 107 Is extremal
identity a principle of nature? 108 Summary on the universe 109 A physical
aphorism 110

111
112

The basis of the strand model

Requirements for a final theory 141 Introducing strands 143 From strands to
modern physics 145 Vacuum 149 Observables and limits 150 Particles and
fields 151 Curiosities and fun challenges about strands 152 Do strands unify?
The millennium list of open issues 154 Are strands final? On generalizations
and modifications 156 Why strands? Simplicity 157 Why strands? The
fundamental circularity of physics 159 Funnels an equivalent alternative to
strands 161 Summary on the fundamental principle of the strand model and
on continuity 162

163

Q uantum theory of mat ter deduced from strands

Strands, vacuum and particles 163 Rotation, spin 1/2 and the belt trick 165 The
belt trick is not unique 168 An aside: the belt trick saves lives 169 Fermions

120

123

126
128
129
131
133

free pdf le available at [Link]

140

117

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

The shape of points extension in nature

The size and shape of elementary particles
Do boxes exist? 112 Can the Greeks help? The limitations of knives 112 Are
cross sections finite? 113 Can we take a photograph of a point? 114 What is
the shape of an electron? 115 Is the shape of an electron fixed? 116 Summary
of the first argument for extension 117
The shape of points in vacuum
Measuring the void 119 What is the maximum number of particles that fit inside
a piece of vacuum? 119 Summary of the second argument for extension 119
The large, the small and their connection
Is small large? 120 Unification and total symmetry 121 Summary of the third
argument for extension 122
Does nature have parts?
Does the universe contain anything? 125 An amoeba 125 Summary of the
fourth argument for extension 126
The entropy of black holes
Summary of the fifth argument for extension 128
Exchanging space points or particles at Planck scales
Summary of the sixth argument for extension 129
The meaning of spin
Summary of the seventh argument for extension 131
Curiosities and fun challenges about extension
Gender preferences in physics 132
Checks of extension
Current research based on extended constituents 134 Superstrings extension
and a web of dualities 135 Why superstrings and supermembranes are so appealing 135 Why the mathematics of superstrings is so difficult 136 Testing superstrings: couplings and masses 137 The status of the superstring conjecture 137
Summary on extension in nature 138

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

12

contents
and spin 170 Bosons and spin 171 Spin and statistics 173 Tangle functions:
blurred tangles 173 Details on fluctuations and averages 175 Tangle functions
are wave functions 176 Deducing the Schrdinger equation from tangles 180
Mass from tangles 183 Potentials 184 Quantum interference from tangles 184
Deducing the Pauli equation from tangles 186 Rotating arrows, interference
and path integrals 187 Measurements and wave function collapse 188 Hidden variables and the KochenSpecker theorem 190 Many-particle states and
entanglement 190 Mixed states 194 The dimensionality of space-time 194
Operators and the Heisenberg picture 195 Lagrangians and the principle of least
action 196 Special relativity: the vacuum 197 Special relativity: the invariant
limit speed 198 Diracs equation deduced from tangles 200 Visualizing spinors
and Diracs equation using tangles 202 Quantum mechanics vs. quantum field
theory 204 A flashback: settling three paradoxes of Galilean physics 205 Fun
challenges about quantum theory 206
Summary on quantum theory of matter: millennium issues and experimental predictions 207

213

241

262

Interactions and phase change 209 Tail deformations versus core deformations 210
Electrodynamics and the first Reidemeister move
Strands and the twist, the first Reidemeister move 213 Can photons decay, disappear or break up? 214 Electric charge 216 Challenge: What knot invariant
is electric charge? 216 Electric and magnetic fields and potentials 216 The
Lagrangian of the electromagnetic field 217 U(1) gauge invariance induced by
twists 219 U(1) gauge interactions induced by twists 220 The Lagrangian of
QED 221 Feynman diagrams and renormalization 223 The anomalous magnetic moment 224 Maxwells equations 226 Curiosities and fun challenges
about QED 227 Summary on QED and experimental predictions 227
The weak nuclear interaction and the second Reidemeister move
Strands, pokes and SU(2) 230 Weak charge and parity violation 231 Weak
bosons 233 The Lagrangian of the unbroken SU(2) gauge interaction 234 SU(2)
breaking 235 Open issue: are the W and Z knots correct? 236 The electroweak
Lagrangian 237 The weak Feynman diagrams 239 Fun challenges and curiosities about the weak interaction 239 Summary on the weak interaction and experimental predictions 240
The strong nuclear interaction and the third Reidemeister move
Strands and the slide, the third Reidemeister move 241 From slides to SU(3) 242
Open issue: better arguments for the gluon tangles 252 The gluon Lagrangian 252 Colour charge 253 Properties of the strong interaction 255
The Lagrangian of QCD 255 Renormalization of the strong interaction 256 Curiosities and fun challenges about SU(3) 256 Summary on the strong interaction
and experimental predictions 257
Summary on millennium issues about gauge interactions
Prediction about the number of interactions 259 Unification of interactions 259
Predictions about grand unification and supersymmetry 260 No new observable
gravity effects in particle physics 260 The status of our quest 261
10 General rel ativit y deduced from strands
Flat space, special relativity and its limitations 262 Classical gravitation 263
Deducing universal gravitation from black hole properties 264 Summary on uni-

free pdf le available at [Link]

259

Gauge interactions deduced from strands

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

229

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

209

contents

284

294

298

320

330
332
332

12 Particle properties deduced from strands

The masses of the elementary particles
General properties of particle mass values 333 W/Z boson mass ratios and the
weak mixing angle 334 2013: Higgs/Z boson and Higgs/W boson mass ratio 336
Quark mass ratios 336 Lepton mass ratios 339 Mass ratios across particle
families 341 Predictions about absolute mass values and the full mass hierarchy 341 Fine-tuning and naturalness 344 Open issues about mass calcula-

free pdf le available at [Link]

324

11 The particle spectrum deduced from strands

Particles and quantum numbers from tangles 292
Particles made of one strand
Unknotted curves 295 Gauge bosons 295 Complicated open knots 297
Closed tangles: knots 297 Summary on tangles made of one strand 297
Particles made of two strands
Quarks 298 Quark generations 302 The graviton 302 Glueballs 303 The
mass gap problem and the Clay Mathematics Institute 303 A puzzle 304 Summary on two-stranded tangles 305
Particles made of three strands
Leptons 305 Open challenge: Find better arguments for the lepton tangles 307
The Higgs boson the mistaken section from 2009 307 The Higgs boson the
corrected section of 2012 310 2012 predictions about the Higgs 312 Quarkantiquark mesons 312 Meson form factors 314 Meson masses, excited mesons
and quark confinement 316 CP violation in mesons 317 Other three-stranded
tangles and glueballs 319 Spin and three-stranded particles 319 Summary on
three-stranded tangles 319
Tangles of four and more strands
Baryons 320 Tetraquarks and exotic mesons 322 Other tangles made of four
or more strands 324 Summary on tangles made of four or more strands 324
Fun challenges and curiosities about particle tangles
Motion through the vacuum and the speed of light 329
Summary on millennium issues about particles and related predictions
Predictions about dark matter, the LHC and the universe 331

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

305

versal gravitation from strands 265 Curved space 266 Horizons and black
holes 267 Is there something behind a horizon? 268 Energy of black hole horizons 268 The nature of black holes 269 Entropy of vacuum 269 Entropy of
horizons 270 Temperature, radiation and evaporation of black holes 272 Black
hole limits 272 Curvature around black holes 273 The shape of black holes 274
The field equations of general relativity 274 Equations from no equation 276
The Hilbert action of general relativity 276 Space-time foam 277 Gravitons
and gravitational waves 277 Open challenge: Improve the argument for the graviton tangle 278 Other defects in vacuum 278 The gravity of superpositions 279
Torsion, curiosities and challenges about general relativity 280 Predictions of
the strand model about general relativity 282
Cosmology
The finiteness of the universe 284
The big bang 286 The cosmological
constant 286 The value of the matter density 288 Open challenge: What is
dark matter? 288 The topology of the universe 289 Predictions of the strand
model about cosmology 289 Summary on millennium issues about relativity and
cosmology 290

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

292

13

347

353

366
367
371
371

tions 344 Summary on elementary particle masses and millennium issues 345
Mixing angles
Quark mixing the data 347 Quark mixing explanations 348 A challenge 349 CP-violation in quarks 349 Neutrino mixing 350 CP-violation in
neutrinos 351 Open challenge: Calculate mixing angles and phases ab initio 351
Summary on mixing angles and the millennium list 351
Coupling constants and unification
Strands imply unification 355 General expectations about coupling constants 355
First hint: charge quantization and topological writhe 356 Second hint: the
energy dependence of physical quantities 357 Third hint: the running of the coupling constants at low energy 358 Fourth hint: predictions at low energy, independent of particle content 358 The running of the coupling constants near Planck
energy 359 On estimating the fine structure constant from knot shapes 360
Fifth hint: 3d-writhe 360 Sixth hint: torsion 361 Seventh hint: linking number 362 Eighth hint: estimating coupling constants using random rotations 362
Ninth hint: estimating the fine structure constant from deformation statistics 364
Open challenge: Calculate coupling constants ab initio 364 Electric dipole moments 364 Summary on coupling constants and millennium issues 365
Final summary about the millennium issues
Experimental predictions of the strand model

385
387
387

13 The top of Motion Mountain

Our path to the top
Everyday life: the rule of infinity 372 Relativity and quantum theory: the absence
of infinity 372
Unification: the absence of finitude 374
New sights
The beauty of strands 376 Can the strand model be generalized? 377
What
is nature? 377 Quantum theory and the nature of matter 378 Cosmology 378
Musings about unification and strands 379 The elimination of induction 383
What is still hidden? 384
A return path: je rve, donc je suis
What is the origin of colours?
Summary: what is motion?

389

Postface

390

a Knot geometry

393

Challenge hints and solu tions

398

Biblio graphy

420

Credits
Acknowledgments 420 Film credits 420 Image credits 421

422

Name index

428

Subject index

375

The Strand Model

A Speculation on
Unification

Where, through the combination of

quantum mechanics and general relativity,
the top of Motion Mountain is reached,
and it is discovered
that vacuum is indistinguishable from matter,
that there is little difference between the large and the small,
that nature can be described by strands,
that particles can be modelled as tangles,
that interactions appear naturally,
that colours are due to strand twisting,
and that a complete description of motion is possible.

Chapter 1

FROM MILLENNIUM PHYSIC S TO

UNIFICATION

Page 28

3. In nature, there is an invariant highest momentum flow, the Planck force c 4 /4G. This
invariant maximum implies general relativity, as we will recall below. Among others,
* The photograph on page 15 shows an extremely distant, thus extremely young, part of the universe, with
its large number of galaxies in front of the black night sky (courtesy NASA).

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 2

2. In nature, there is an invariant maximum energy speed, the speed of light c. This
invariant maximum implies special relativity. Among others, it implies that mass and
energy are equivalent, as is observed.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 1, Ref. 3

1. In nature, motion takes place in three dimensions of space and is described by

the least action principle. Action is a physical quantity that describes how much
change occurs in a process. The least action principle states: motion minimizes change.
Among others, the least change principle implies that motion is predictable, that energy is conserved and that growth and evolution are natural processes, as is observed.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

ook at what happens around us. A child who smiles, a nightingale that sings, a
ily that opens: all move. Every shadow, even an immobile one, is due to moving
ight. Every mountain is kept in place by moving electrons. Every star owes its
formation and its shine to motion of matter and radiation. Also the darkness of the night
sky* is due to motion: it results from the expansion of space. Finally, human creativity
is due to the motion of molecules, ions and electrons in the brain. Is there a common
language for these and all other observations of nature?
Is there a unified and precise way to describe all motion? Is everything that moves,
from people to planets, from light to empty space, made of the same constituents? What
is the origin of motion? Answering these questions is the topic of the present text.
Answering questions about motion with precision defines the subject of physics. Over
the centuries, researchers collected a huge number of precise observations about motion.
We now know how electric signals move in the brain, how insects fly, why colours vary,
how the stars formed, how life evolved, and much more. We use our knowledge about
motion to look into the human body and heal illnesses; we use our knowledge about
motion to build electronics, communicate over large distances, and work for peace; we
use our knowledge about motion to secure life against many of natures dangers, including droughts and storms. Physics, the science of motion, has shown time after time that
knowledge about motion is both useful and fascinating.
At the end of the last millennium, humans were able to describe all observed motion
with high precision. This description can be summarized in the following six statements.

from millennium physics to unification

17

general relativity implies that things fall and that empty space curves and moves, as
is observed.

Ref. 2

4. The evolution of the universe is described by the cosmological constant . It determines the largest distance and the largest age that can presently be observed.

Ref. 4

5. In nature, there is a non-zero, invariant smallest change value, the quantum of action
. This invariant value implies quantum theory. Among others, it explains what life
and death are, why they exist and how we enjoy the world.

Ref. 4

6. In nature, matter and radiation consist of quantum particles. Matter consists of

fermions: six quarks, three charged leptons, three neutrinos and their antiparticles.
Radiation consists of bosons: the photon, three intermediate weak vector bosons and
eight gluons. In addition, the year 2012 brought the discovery of the Higgs boson.
Fermions and bosons move and can transform into each other. The transformations
are described by the electromagnetic interaction, the weak nuclear interaction and
the strong nuclear interaction. Together with the masses, quantum numbers, mixing
angles and couplings, these transformation rules form the so-called standard model
of particle physics. Among others, the standard model explains how lightning forms,
why colours vary, and how the atoms in our bodies came to be.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 5

free pdf le available at [Link]

These six statements, the millennium description of physics, describe everything known
in the year 2000 about motion. These statements describe the motion of people, animals,
plants, objects, light, radiation, stars, empty space and the universe. The six statements
describe motion so precisely that even today there is no difference between calculation
and observation, between theory and practice. This is an almost incredible result, the
summary of the efforts of tens of thousands of researchers during the past centuries.
However, a small set of observations does not yet follow from the six statements. A
famous example is the origin of colours. In nature, colours are consequences of the socalled fine structure constant, a mysterious constant of nature whose value is measured
to be 1/137.035 999 074(44). If it had another value, all colours would differ.
Another unexplained observation is the nature of dark matter. We do not know yet
what dark matter is. A further unexplained process is the way thinking forms in our brain.
We do not know yet in detail how thinking follows from the above statements, though
we do know that thinking is not in contrast with them. In the case of dark matter this is
not so clear: dark matter could even be in contrast with the millennium description of
motion.
In other words, even though the millennium description of physics is precise and
successful, it is not complete: there are some open issues. Indeed, the sixth statement
given above, summarizing the standard model of particle physics, is not as simple as the
preceding ones. Why are there three interactions, twelve elementary fermions, thirteen
elementary bosons and three dimensions? How does the origin of colours and the nature
of dark matter fit in? How is the standard model related to the five preceding statements?
And why is there motion anyway? These open, unexplained issues form the quest for
unification, phrased in concrete terms.
The complete list of all those fundamental issues about motion that were unexplained
in the year 2000 make up only a short table. We call them the millennium issues.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 2

18

1 from millennium physics to unification

TA B L E 1 The millennium list: everything the standard model and general relativity cannot explain; thus,

also the list of the only experimental data available to test the nal, unied description of motion.

O b s e r va b l e P r o p e r t y u n e x p l a i n e d i n t h e y e a r 2 0 0 0
Local quantities unexplained by the standard model: particle properties
= 1/137.036(1)
w or w

Local mathematical structures unexplained by the standard model

SU(2)
SU(3)
Ren. group
W = 0
W = LSM dt

the origin of the invariant Planck units of quantum field theory

the number of dimensions of physical space and time
the origin of Poincar symmetry, i.e., of spin, position, energy, momentum
the origin of particle identity, i.e., of permutation symmetry
the origin of the gauge groups, in particular:
the origin of the electromagnetic gauge group, i.e., of the quantization of electric charge, as well as the vanishing of magnetic charge
the origin of weak interaction gauge group, its breaking and P violation
the origin of strong interaction gauge group and its CP conservation
the origin of renormalization properties
the origin of wave functions and the least action principle in quantum theory
the origin of the Lagrangian of the standard model of particle physics

Global quantities unexplained by general relativity and cosmology

f0 (1, ..., c. 1090 )

the observed flatness, i.e., vanishing curvature, of the universe

the distance of the horizon, i.e., the size of the universe (if it makes sense)
the value and nature of the observed vacuum energy density, dark energy or
cosmological constant
the number of baryons in the universe (if it makes sense), i.e., the average
visible matter density in the universe
the initial conditions for c. 1090 particle fields in the universe (if or as long as
they make sense), including the homogeneity and isotropy of matter distribution, and the density fluctuations at the origin of galaxies

free pdf le available at [Link]

0
1.2(1) 1026 m
de = c 4 /(8G)
0.5 nJ/m3
(5 4) 1079

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

c, , k
3+1
SO(3,1)
S(n)
Gauge symmetry
U(1)

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

s
mq
ml
mW
mH
12 , 13 , 23

12
, 13
, 23

, 1 , 2
34
J, P, C, etc.

the low energy value of the electromagnetic coupling constant

the low energy value of the weak coupling constant or the value of the weak
mixing angle
the value of the strong coupling constant at one specific energy value
the values of the 6 quark masses
the values of 6 lepton masses
the value of the mass of the W vector boson
the value of the mass of the scalar Higgs boson
the value of the three quark mixing angles
the value of the CP violating phase for quarks
the value of the three neutrino mixing angles
the value of the three CP violating phases for neutrinos
the number of fermion generations and of particles in each generation
the origin of all quantum numbers of each fermion and each boson

from millennium physics to unification

19

TA B L E 1 (Continued) Everything the standard model and general relativity cannot explain.

O b s e r va b l e P r o p e r t y u n e x p l a i n e d i n t h e y e a r 2 0 0 0
dm

the density and nature of dark matter

Global mathematical structures unexplained by general relativity and cosmology

c, G
LGR dt = 0
R S3

the origin of the invariant Planck units of general relativity

the origin of the least action principle and the Lagrangian of general relativity
the observed topology of the universe

Against a final theory

It is regularly said that a final theory cannot exist because nature is infinite and mysteries will always remain. But this statement is wrong. First, nature is not infinite.
Second, even if it were infinite, knowing and describing everything would still be
possible. Third, even if knowing and describing everything would be impossible, and
if mysteries would remain, a final theory remains possible. A final theory is not useful
for every issue of everyday life, such as choosing your dish on a menu or your future
profession. A final theory is simply a full description of the foundations of motion:
the final theory combines and explains particle physics and general relativity.

Some state that it is not clear whether a final theory exists at all. We all know from
experience that this is wrong, for a simple reason: We are able to talk about everything.
In other words, all of us already have a theory of everything, or a final theory of
nature. Also a physical theory is a way to talk about nature, and for the final theory
we only have to search for those concepts that enable us to talk about all of motion
with full precision. Because we are looking for a way to talk, we know that the final
theory exists. And searching for it is fascinating and exciting, as everybody busy with

free pdf le available at [Link]

It is sometimes argued that a final theory cannot exist due to Gdels incompleteness
theorem or due to computational irreducibility. However, in such arguments, both
theorems are applied to domains were they are not valid. The reasoning is thus wrong.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

We know that a final theory exists: it is the theory that describes how to calculate the
fine structure constant = 1/137.036(1). The theory does the same for about two dozen
other constants, but this is the most famous one. Thus, the final theory is the theory that
explains all colours in nature.
A fixed list of arguments are repeated regularly against the search for a final, unified
theory of motion. Reaching the final theory and enjoying the adventure is only possible
if these arguments are known and then put gently aside.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

The millennium list contains everything that particle physics and general relativity
cannot explain. In other words, the list contains everything that was unexplained in the
domain of fundamental motion in the year 2000. The list is short, but it is not empty.
Therefore, the millennium list asks for an answer to each of these issues. The quest for
unification and the topic of this text is the quest for these answers. We can thus say
that a final theory of motion is a theory that eliminates the millennium table of open
issues.

20

1 from millennium physics to unification

this adventure will confirm.

Ref. 6

Ref. 7
Vol. IV, page 140

Some claim that the search for a final theory is a reductionist endeavour and cannot
lead to success, because reductionism is flawed. This claim is wrong on three counts.
First, it is not clear whether the search is a reductionist endeavour, as will become
clear later on. Second, there is no evidence that reductionism is flawed. Third, even
if it were, no reason not to pursue the quest would follow. The claim in fact invites
to search with a larger scope than was done in the past decades an advice that will
turn out to be spot on.

Some people claim that searching for a final theory is a sign of foolishness or a sin of
pride. Such small and envious minds should simply be ignored; the nastier specimens
might deserve to be ridiculed. After all, the quest is just the search for the solution to
a riddle.
Ref. 8

Some fear that knowing the final theory yields immense power that harbours huge
dangers of misuse, in short, that knowing the final theory might change people into
devils. However, this fear is purely imaginary; it only describes the fantasies of the
person that is talking. Indeed, the millennium description of physics is already quite
near to the final theory, and nothing to be afraid of has happened. Sadly, another great
advertising opportunity is eliminated.

Ref. 10

These arguments show us that we can reach the final unified theory which we symbolically place at the top of Motion Mountain only if we are not burdened with ideological
or emotional baggage. The goal we have set requires extreme thinking, i.e., thinking up to
the limits. After all, unification is the precise description of all motion. Therefore, unification is a riddle. The search for unification is a pastime. Any riddle is best approached
with the lightness that is intrinsic to playing. Life is short: we should play whenever we
can.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Some people object that various researchers in the past have thought to have found
the final theory, but were mistaken, and that many great minds tried to find a final
theory, but had no success. That is true. Some failed because they lacked the necessary
tools for a successful search, others because they lost contact with reality, and still
others because they were led astray by prejudices that limited their progress. We just
have to avoid these mistakes.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 9

Some believe that understanding the final theory means to read the mind of god, or
to think like god, or to be like god. This is false, as any expert on god will confirm.
In fact, solving a riddle or reading a physics textbook does not transform people into
gods. This is unfortunate, as such an effect would provide excellent advertising.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Some argue that searching for a final theory makes no sense as long as the measurement problem of quantum theory is not solved, or consciousness is not understood,
or the origin of life is not understood. Now, the measurement problem is solved by
decoherence, and in order to combine particle physics with general relativity, understanding the details of consciousness or of the origin of life is not required. Neither
is understanding or solving child education problems required though this might
help.

from millennium physics to unification

21

What went wrong in the past

Vol. V, page 261

The twentieth century was the golden age of physics. Scholars searching for the final
theory explored candidates such as grand unified theories, supersymmetry and numerous other options. These candidates will be discussed later on; all were falsified by experiment. In other words, despite a large number of physicists working on the problem,
despite the availability of extensive experimental data, and despite several decades of research, no final theory was found. Why?
During the twentieth century, many successful descriptions of nature were deformed
into dogmatic beliefs about unification. Here are the main examples, with some of their
best known proponents:

All these beliefs appeared in the same way: first, some famous scholar in fact, many
more than those mentioned explained the idea that guided his discovery; then, he and
most other researchers started to believe the guiding idea more than the discovery itself.
During the twentieth century, this attitude produced all the beliefs just given. The most
deleterious has been the belief that unification is complicated and difficult. In fact, this
and all the other beliefs can be seen as special cases of the first one. And like the first
belief, they are all, as we will discover in the following, wrong.

We have a riddle to solve: we want to describe precisely all motion and discover its origin.
In order to achieve this, we need to find a final theory that solves and explains each open
issue given in the millennium list.
We proceed in steps. We first simplify quantum theory and gravitation as much as
possible, we explore what happens when the two are combined, and we deduce the requirement list that any final theory must fulfil. Then we deduce the simplest possible
model that fulfils the requirements; we check the properties of the model against every
experiment performed so far and against every open issue from the millennium list. Discovering that there are no disagreements, no points left open and no possible alternatives,

free pdf le available at [Link]

Summary: how to find the final theory of motion

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Unification requires generalization of existing theories.

Unification is independent of Plancks natural units.
Unification requires axiomatization. (David Hilbert)
Unification requires evolution equations. (Werner Heisenberg)
Unification requires space to be a manifold. (Albert Einstein)
Unification requires searching for beauty. (Paul Dirac)
Unification requires more dimensions of space. (Theodor Kaluza)
Unification requires topology change. (John Wheeler)
Unification requires finding higher symmetries. (Werner Heisenberg)
Unification requires going beyond the standard model of particle physics. (Steven
Weinberg)
Unification requires supersymmetry. (Steven Weinberg)
Unification requires complicated mathematics. (Edward Witten)
Unification requires solving huge conceptual difficulties. (Edward Witten)
Unification is only for a selected few.
Unification is extremely useful, important and valuable.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

22

1 from millennium physics to unification

we know that we have found the final theory. We thus end our adventure with a list of
testable predictions for the proposed model.
In short, three lists structure our quest for a final theory: the millennium list of open
issues, the list of requirements for the final theory, and the list of testable predictions. To
get from one list to the next, we proceed along the following legs.

At this point, after the first half of our adventure, we have obtained an extensive
requirement list for the final theory. This list allows us to proceed rapidly to our goal,
without being led astray.

free pdf le available at [Link]

6. We discover a simple fundamental principle that explains how the maximum speed c,
the minimum action , the maximum force c 4 /4G and the cosmological constant
follow from strands. We also discover how to deduce quantum theory, relativity and
cosmology from strands.
7. We discover that strands naturally yield the existence of three spatial dimensions,
flat and curved space, black holes, the cosmological horizon, fermions and bosons.
We find that all known physical systems are made from strands. Also the process of
measurement and all properties of the background result from strands.
8. We discover that fermions emit and absorb bosons and that they do so with exactly
those properties that are observed for the electromagnetic, the weak and the strong
nuclear interaction. In short, the three known gauge interactions and their parity
conservation or violation follow from strands. In addition, we discover that other
interactions do not exist.
9. We discover that strands naturally yield the known elementary fermions and bosons,
grouped in three generations, with all the properties that are observed. Other elementary particles do not exist. We thus recover the standard model of elementary particles.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 141

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

1. We first simplify modern physics. Twentieth century physics deduced several invariant properties of motion. These invariants, such as the speed of light or the quantum
of action, are called Planck units. The invariant Planck units allow motion to be measured. Above all, these invariants are also found to be limit values, valid for every
example of motion.
2. Combining quantum theory and general relativity, we discover that at the Planck limits, the universe, space and particles are not described by points. We find that as long as
we use points to describe particles and space, and as long as we use sets and elements
to describe nature, a unified description of motion is impossible.
3. The combination of quantum theory and general relativity teaches us that space and
particles have common constituents.
4. By exploring black holes, spin, and the limits of quantum theory and gravity, we discover that the common constituents of space and particles are extended, without ends,
one-dimensional and fluctuating: the common constituents of space and particles are
fluctuating strands.
5. We discover that we cannot think or talk without continuity. We need a background
to describe nature. We conclude that to talk about motion, we have to combine continuity and non-continuity in an appropriate way. This is achieved by imagining that
fluctuating strands move in a continuous three-dimensional background.

from millennium physics to unification

Page 368

23

10. We discover that the fundamental principle solves all the issues listed in the table of
unexplained properties, and that all properties deduced from strands agree with experiment. In particular, the strand model allows us to calculate the fine structure constant and the other gauge coupling strengths. An extensive list of testable predictions
can be given. These predictions will all be tested by experiment or by calculation
in the coming years.
11. We discover that motion is the observation of crossing switches due to strand fluctuations. Motion is an inescapable consequence of observation: motion is an experience
that we make because we are a small, approximate part of a large whole.
At the end of this path, we will thus have unravelled the mystery of motion. It is a truly
special adventure. But be warned: almost all of the story presented here is still speculative,
and thus open to question. Everything presented in the following agrees with experiment.
Nevertheless, with almost every sentence you will find at least one physicist or philosopher who disagrees. That makes the adventure even more fascinating.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Es ist fast unmglich, die Fackel der Wahrheit

durch ein Gedrnge zu tragen, ohne jemandem
den Bart zu sengen.*
Georg Christoph Lichtenberg

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

* It is almost impossible to carry the torch of truth through a crowd without scorching somebodys beard.
Georg Christoph Lichtenberg (b. 1742 Ober-Ramstadt, d. 1799 Gttingen) was a famous physicist and essayist.

Chapter 2

PHYSIC S I N LI MI T STATEMENT S

At dinner parties, physicists are regularly asked to summarize physics in a few sentences.
It is useful to have a few simple statements ready to answer such a request. Such statements are not only useful to make other people think; they are also useful in our quest
for the final theory. Here they are.
Everyday, or Galilean, physics in one statement
Everyday motion is described by Galilean physics. It consists of only one statement:

In nature, change is measured by physical action W. More precisely, change is measured

by the time-averaged difference between kinetic energy T and potential energy U. In
other words, motion obeys the so-called least action principle, written as
W = 0 , where W = (T U) dt .

(1)

This statement determines the effort we need to move or throw stones, and explains why
cars need petrol and people need food. In other terms, nature is as lazy as possible. The

free pdf le available at [Link]

Motion minimizes change.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

simplifying physics as much as p ossible

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

wentieth century physics deduced several invariant properties of motion.

hese invariants, such as the speed of light or the quantum of action, define
he so-called Planck units. The invariant Planck units are important for two reasons: first, they allow motion to be measured; second, the invariants are limit values. In
fact, the Planck units provide bounds for all observables.
The main lesson of modern physics is thus the following: When we simplify physics
as much as possible, we discover that nature limits the possibilities of motion. Such limits
lie at the origin of special relativity, of general relativity and of quantum theory. In fact,
we will see that nature limits every aspect of motion. Exploring the limits of motion will
allow us to deduce several astonishing conclusions. These conclusions contradict all that
we learned about nature so far.

simplifying physics as much as possible

Vol. I, page 29

25

laziness of nature implies that motion is conserved, relative and predictable. The laziness
of motion is valid throughout modern physics, for all observations, provided a few limit
statements are added.
Special relativity in one statement

Ref. 11

The step from everyday, or Galilean, physics to special relativity can be summarized in a
single limit statement on motion. It was popularized by Hendrik Antoon Lorentz:
There is a maximum energy speed value c in nature.
For all physical systems and all observers, the local energy speed is limited by the speed
of light c:
c = 3.0 108 m/s .
(2)

Vol. II, page 96

free pdf le available at [Link]

* A physical system is a region of space-time containing massenergy, the location of which can be followed
over time and which interacts incoherently with its environment. The speed of a physical system is thus an
energy speed. The definition of physical system excludes images, geometrical points or incomplete, entangled situations.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Vol. II, page 26

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 1 e

All results peculiar to special relativity follow from this principle. A few well-known facts
set the framework for the discussion that follows. The speed is less than or equal to the
speed of light c for all physical systems;* in particular, this speed limit is valid both for
composite systems and for elementary particles. No exception has ever been found. (Try
it.)
The energy speed limit is an invariant: the local energy speed limit is valid for all observers. In this context it is essential to note that any observer must be a physical system,
and must be close to the moving energy.
The speed limit c is realized by massless particles and systems; in particular, it is realized by electromagnetic waves. For matter systems, the speed is always below c.
Only a maximum energy speed ensures that cause and effect can be distinguished in
nature, or that sequences of observations can be defined. The opposite hypothesis, that
energy speeds greater than c are possible, which implies the existence of (real) tachyons,
has been explored and tested in great detail; it leads to numerous conflicts with observations. Tachyons do not exist.
The maximum energy speed forces us to use the concept of space-time to describe
nature, because the existence of a maximum energy speed implies that space and time
mix. It also implies observer-dependent time and space coordinates, length contraction,
time dilation, massenergy equivalence, horizons for accelerated observers, and all the
other effects that characterize special relativity. Only a maximum speed leads to the principle of maximum ageing that governs special relativity; and only this principle leads to
the principle of least action at low speeds. In addition, only with a finite speed limit is
it possible to define a unit of speed that is valid at all places and at all times. If there
were no global speed limit, there could be no natural measurement standard for speed,
independent of all interactions; speed would not then be a measurable quantity.
Special relativity also limits the size of systems whether composite or elementary.
Indeed, the limit speed implies that acceleration a and size l cannot be increased inde-

26

2 physics in limit statements

pendently without bounds, because the two ends of a system must not interpenetrate.
The most important case concerns massive systems, for which we have
l

c2
.
a

(3)

This size limit is induced by the speed of light c; it is also valid for the displacement d of
a system, if the acceleration measured by an external observer is used. Finally, the speed
limit implies a relativistic indeterminacy relation
l a c 2

Challenge 2 s

(4)

for the length and acceleration indeterminacies. You may wish to take a minute to deduce
this relation from the timefrequency indeterminacy. All this is standard knowledge.

Ref. 12

The difference between Galilean physics and quantum theory can be summarized in a
single statement on motion, due to Niels Bohr:
There is a minimum action value in nature.

Vol. IV, page 15

For all physical systems and all observers, the action W obeys

Challenge 3 e

The Planck constant is the smallest observable action value, and the smallest observable change of angular momentum. The action limit is valid for all systems, thus both
for composite and elementary systems. No exception has ever been found. (Try it.) The
principle contains all of quantum theory. We call it the principle of non-zero action, in
order to avoid confusion with the principle of least action.
The non-zero action limit is an invariant: it is valid with the same numerical value
for all observers. Again, any observer must be a physical system.
The action limit is realized by many physical processes, from the absorption of light
to the flip of a spin 1/2 particle. More precisely, the action limit is realized by microscopic
systems that are made of a single particle.
The non-zero action limit is stated less frequently than the speed limit. It starts from
the usual definition of the action, W = (T U) dt, and states that between two observations performed at times t and t + t, even if the evolution of a system is not known,
the measured action is at least . Physical action measures the change in the state of a
physical system. Thus there is always a minimum change of state between two different
observations of a system.* The non-zero action limit expresses the fundamental fuzziness
of nature at a microscopic scale.
* For systems that seem constant in time, such as a spinning particle or a system showing the quantum Zeno
effect, finding this minimum change is tricky. Enjoy the challenge.

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Challenge 4 e

(5)

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

W = 1.1 1034 Js .

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Quantum theory in one statement

simplifying physics as much as possible

Ref. 13

d p

.
2

(7)

This relation is valid for both massless and massive systems. All this is textbook knowledge.
Thermodynamics in one statement
Thermodynamics can also be summarized in a single statement about motion:

free pdf le available at [Link]

Vol. IV, page 24

In other words, the (reduced) Compton wavelength of quantum theory appears as the
lower limit on the displacement of a system, whenever gravity plays no role. Since the
quantum displacement limit applies in particular to an elementary system, it also applies
to the size of a composite system. However, the limit is not valid for the sizes of elementary
particles.
The limit on action also implies Heisenbergs well-known indeterminacy relation for
the displacement d and momentum p of physical systems:

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Challenge 5 e

It can easily be checked that no observation whether of photons, electrons or macroscopic systems gives a smaller action than the value . The non-zero action limit has
been verified for fermions, bosons, laser beams and matter systems, and for any combination of these. The opposite hypothesis, implying the existence of arbitrary small change,
has been explored in detail: Einsteins long discussion with Bohr, for example, can be
seen as a repeated attempt by Einstein to find experiments that would make it possible
to measure arbitrarily small changes or action values in nature. In every case, Bohr found
that this could not be achieved. All subsequent attempts were equally unsuccessful.
The principle of non-zero action can be used to deduce the indeterminacy relation, the
tunnelling effect, entanglement, permutation symmetry, the appearance of probabilities
in quantum theory, the information-theoretic formulation of quantum theory, and the
existence of elementary particle reactions. Whenever one tries to overcome the smallest
action value, the experimental outcome is probabilistic. The minimum action value also
implies that in quantum theory, the three concepts of state, measurement operation, and
measurement result need to be distinguished from each other; this is done by means of
a so-called Hilbert space. The non-zero action limit is also the foundation of Einstein
BrillouinKeller quantization.
The existence of a non-zero action limit has been known from the very beginning
of quantum theory. It is at the basis of and completely equivalent to all the usual
formulations of quantum theory, including the many-path and the information-theoretic
formulations.
We also note that only a non-zero action limit makes it possible to define a unit of
action. If there were no action limit, there could be no natural measurement standard
for action: action would not then be a measurable quantity.
The upper action and speed bounds W pd mcd for any physical system, together
with the quantum of action, imply a limit on the displacement d of a system between any
two observations:

d
.
(6)
mc

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 14

27

28

2 physics in limit statements

There is a smallest entropy value k in nature.

Written symbolically,

Challenge 6 e
Ref. 15

S k = 1.3 1023 J/K .

1
k
U .
T
2

(9)

This relation was first given by Bohr and discussed by Heisenberg and many others.
General relativity in one statement

There are maximum force and power values in nature.

For all physical systems and all observers, force F and power P are limited by

Challenge 7 e

Ref. 17
Vol. I, page 214

c4
= 3.0 1043 N
4G

and

c5
= 9.1 1051 W .
4G

(10)

No exception has ever been found. (Try it.) These limit statements contain both the speed
of light c and the gravitational constant G; they thus qualify as statements about relativistic gravitation.
Force is change of momentum; power is change of energy. Since momentum and energy are conserved, force and power are the flow of momentum and energy through a
surface. Force and power, like electric current, describe the change in time of conserved
quantity. For electric current, the conserved quantity is charge, for force, it is momentum,
for power, it is energy. In other words, like current, also force is a flow across a surface.

free pdf le available at [Link]

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 51

This text can be enjoyed most when a compact and unconventional description of general
relativity is used; it is presented in the following. However, the conclusions do not depend
on this description; the results are also valid if the usual approach to general relativity is
used; this will be shown later on.
The most compact description summarizes the step from universal gravity to general
relativity in a single statement on motion:

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

The entropy S is limited by the Boltzmann constant k. No exception has ever been found.
(Try it.) This result is almost 100 years old; it was stated most clearly by Leo Szilard. All
of thermodynamics can be deduced from this relation, together with the quantum of
action.
The entropy limit is an invariant: it is valid for all observers. Again, any observer must
be a physical system.
The entropy limit is realized only by physical systems made of a single particle. In
other words, the entropy limit is again realized only by microscopic systems. Therefore
the entropy limit provides the same length limit for physical systems as the action limit.
Like the other limit statements we have examined, the entropy limit can also be
phrased as a indeterminacy relation between temperature T and energy U:

Ref. 16

(8)

simplifying physics as much as possible

Vol. II, page 105

Challenge 8 e

Vol. II, page 103

Vol. II, page 81

free pdf le available at [Link]

Vol. II, page 103

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Challenge 9 e

This is a simple consequence of the continuity equation. As a consequence, every discussion of maximum force implies a clarification of the underlying surface.
Both the force and the power limits state that the flow of momentum or of energy
through any physical surface (a term defined below) of any size, for any observer, in any
coordinate system, never exceeds the limit value. In particular, the force and power limits are realized only at horizons. In all other situations, the observed values are strictly
smaller than the maximum values.
The force and power limit values are invariants: they are valid for all observers and
for all interactions. Again, any observer must be a physical system and it must be located
on or near the surface used to define the flow of momentum or energy.
The value of the force limit is the energy of a Schwarzschild black hole divided by its
diameter; here the diameter is defined as the circumference divided by . The power
limit is realized when such a black hole is radiated away in the time that light takes to
travel along a length corresponding to the diameter.
An object of mass m that has the size of its own Schwarzschild radius 2Gm/c 2 is called
a black hole, because according to general relativity, no signals and no light from inside
the Schwarzschild radius can reach the outside world. In this text, black holes are usually
non-rotating and usually uncharged; in this case, the terms black hole and Schwarzschild black hole are synonymous.
The value of the maximum force, as well as being the massenergy of a black hole
divided by its diameter, is also the surface gravity of a black hole times its mass. Thus
the force limit means that no physical system of a given mass can be concentrated in a
region of space-time smaller than a (non-rotating) black hole of that mass. In fact, the
massenergy concentration limit can easily be transformed algebraically into the force
limit: they are equivalent.
It is easily checked that the maximum force limit is valid for all systems observed in
nature, whether they are microscopic, macroscopic or astrophysical. Neither the gravitational force (as long as it is operationally defined) nor the electromagnetic or nuclear
interactions are ever found to exceed this limit.
But is it possible to imagine a system that exceeds the force limit? An extensive discussion shows that this is impossible. For example, the force limit cannot be overcome with
Lorentz boosts. One might think that a boost can be chosen in such a way that a 3-force
value F in one frame is transformed into any desired value F in another, boosted frame.
This thought turns out to be wrong. In relativity, 3-force cannot be increased beyond all
bounds using boosts. In all reference frames, the measured 3-force can never exceed the
proper force, i.e., the 3-force value measured in the comoving frame.
Also changing to an accelerated frame does not help to overcome the force limit, because for high accelerations a, horizons appear at distance a/c 2 , and a mass m has a
minimum diameter given by l 4Gm/c 2 .
In fact, the force and power limits cannot be exceeded in any thought experiment,
as long as the sizes of observers or of test masses are taken into account. All apparent
exceptions or paradoxes assume the existence of point particles or point-like observers;
these, however, are not physical: they do not exist in general relativity.
Fortunately for us, nearby black holes or horizons are rare. Unfortunately, this means
that neither the force limit nor the power limit are realized in any physical system at
hand, neither at everyday length scales, nor in the microscopic world, nor in astrophysi-

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 18

29

30

Ref. 19

2 physics in limit statements

cal systems. Even though the force and power limits have never been exceeded, a direct
experimental confirmation of the limits will take some time.
The formulation of general relativity as a consequence of a maximum force is not
common; in fact, it seems that it was only discovered 80 years after the theory of general
relativity had first been proposed.
Deducing general relativity*

Ref. 20

E
.
L

(11)

Since we are at a horizon, we need to insert the maximum possible values. In terms of
the horizon area A and radius R, we can rewrite the limit case as
1
E
c4
= 4R2
4G A
L

(12)

E=

* This section can be skipped at first reading.

1 2
a AL .
4G

(13)

free pdf le available at [Link]

where we have introduced the maximum force and the maximum possible area 4R2 of
a horizon of (maximum local) radius R. The ratio E/A is the energy per unit area flowing
across the horizon.
Horizons are often characterized by the so-called surface gravity a instead of the radius
R. In the limit case, two are related by a = c 2 /2R. This leads to

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

F=

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

In order to elevate the force or power limit to a principle of nature, we have to show that,
just as special relativity follows from the maximum speed, so general relativity follows
from the maximum force.
The maximum force and the maximum power are only realized at horizons. Horizons
are regions of space-time where the curvature is so high that it limits the possibility of
observation. The name horizon is due to an analogy with the usual horizon of everyday
life, which also limits the distance to which one can see. However, in general relativity
horizons are surfaces, not lines. In fact, we can define the concept of horizon in general
relativity as a region of maximum force; it is then easy to prove that a horizon is always
a two-dimensional surface, and that it is essentially black (except for quantum effects).
The connection between horizons and the maximum force or power allows us to deduce the field equations in a simple way. First, there is always a flow of energy at a horizon.
Horizons cannot be planes, since an infinitely extended plane would imply an infinite energy flow. To characterize the finite extension of a given horizon, we use its radius R and
its total area A.
The energy flow across a horizon is characterized by an energy E and a proper length
L of the energy pulse. When such an energy pulse flows perpendicularly across a horizon,
the momentum change dp/dt = F is given by

simplifying physics as much as possible

Ref. 21

31

Special relativity shows that at horizons the product aL of proper length and acceleration is limited by the value c 2 /2. This leads to the central relation for the energy flow at
horizons:
c2
aA .
(14)
E=
8G
This horizon relation makes three points. First, the energy flowing across a horizon is limited. Secondly, this energy is proportional to the area of the horizon. Thirdly, the energy
flow is proportional to the surface gravity. These three points are fundamental, and characteristic, statements of general relativity. (We also note that due to the limit property
of horizons, the energy flow towards the horizon just outside it, the energy flow across a
horizon, and the energy inside a horizon are all the same.)
Taking differentials, the horizon relation can be rewritten as

Ref. 22

c2
a A .
8G

(15)

E = Tab k a d b ,

(16)

where Tab is the energymomentum tensor. This is valid in arbitrary coordinate systems
and for arbitrary energy flow directions. Jacobsons main result is that the right-hand side
of the horizon relation (15) can be rewritten, using the (purely geometric) Raychaudhuri
equation, as
a A = c 2 Rab k a d b ,

(17)

* The horizon relation (15) is well known, though with different names for the observables. Since no communication is possible across a horizon, the detailed fate of energy flowing across a horizon is also unknown.
Energy whose detailed fate is unknown is often called heat, and abbreviated Q. The horizon relation (15)
therefore states that the heat flowing through a horizon is proportional to the horizon area. When quantum
theory is introduced into the discussion, the area of a horizon can be called entropy S and its surface gravity
can be called temperature T; relation (15) can then be rewritten as Q = T S. However, this translation of
relation (15), which requires the quantum of action, is unnecessary here. We only cite it to show the relation
between horizon behaviour and quantum gravity.

free pdf le available at [Link]

where Rab is the Ricci tensor describing space-time curvature.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

In this form, the relation between energy and area can be applied to general horizons, in
particular those that are irregularly curved or time-dependent.*
In a well-known paper, Jacobson has given a beautiful proof of a simple connection:
if energy flow is proportional to horizon area for all observers and all horizons, and if
the proportionality constant is the correct one, then general relativity follows. To see
the connection to general relativity, we generalize the horizon relation (15) to general
coordinate systems and general directions of energy flow.
The proof uses tensor notation. We introduce the general surface element d and the
local boost Killing vector field k that generates the horizon (with suitable norm). We
then rewrite the left-hand side of relation (15) as

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

E =

32

2 physics in limit statements

Combining these two steps, we find that the energyarea horizon relation (15) can be
rewritten as
c4
Rab k a d b .
(18)
Tab k a d b =
8G
Jacobson shows that this equation, together with local conservation of energy (i.e., vanishing divergence of the energymomentum tensor), can only be satisfied if
Tab =

(19)

Deducing universal gravitation

Challenge 10 e

Page 264

free pdf le available at [Link]

Challenge 11 e

Universal gravitation follows from the force limit in the case where both forces and
speeds are much smaller than the maximum values. The first condition implies
4GMa c 2 , the second c and al c 2 . Let us apply this to a specific case.
Consider a satellite circling a central mass M at distance R with acceleration a. This
system, with length l = 2R, has only one characteristic speed. Whenever this speed is
much smaller than c, 2 must be proportional both to the squared speed calculated by
al = 2aR and to the squared speed calculated from 4GMa . Taken together, these two
conditions imply that a = f GM/R2 , where f is a numerical factor. A quick check, for
example using the observed escape velocity values, shows that f = 1.
Forces and speeds much smaller than the limit values thus imply that gravity changes
with the inverse square of distance. In other words, natures limit on force implies universal gravitation. Other deductions of universal gravity from limit quantities are given
below.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

where is a constant of integration whose value is not determined by the problem. These
are the full field equations of general relativity, including the cosmological constant .
This value of this constant remains undetermined, though.
The field equations are thus shown to be valid at horizons. Since it is possible, by
choosing a suitable coordinate transformation, to position a horizon at any desired spacetime event, the field equations must be valid over the whole of space-time.
Since it is possible to have a horizon at every event in space-time, there is the same
maximum possible force (or power) at every event in nature. This maximum force (or
power) is thus a constant of nature.
In other words, the field equations of general relativity are a direct consequence of
the limited energy flow at horizons, which in turn is due to the existence of a maximum
force or power. We can thus speak of the maximum force principle. Conversely, the field
equations imply maximum force. Maximum force and general relativity are thus equivalent.
By the way, modern scholars often state that general relativity and gravity follow from
the existence of a minimum measurable length. The connection was already stated by
Sakharov in 1969. This connection is correct, but unnecessarily restrictive. The maximum
force, which is implicit in the minimal length, is sufficient to imply gravity. Quantum
theory or is (obviously) not necessary to deduce gravity.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 29

c4
1
Rab R + ab ,
8G
2

simplifying physics as much as possible

33

The size of physical systems in general relativity

General relativity, like the other theories of modern physics, implies a limit on the size l
of systems. There is a limit to the amount of matter that can be concentrated into a small
volume:
4Gm
(20)
l 2 .
c

Page 281
Ref. 23

Experimental data are available only for composite systems; all known systems comply with it. For example, the latest measurements for the Sun give T = GM /c 3 =
4.925 490 947(1) s; the error in E is thus much smaller than the (scaled) error in its radius, which is known with much smaller precision. The indeterminacy relation (21) is
not as well known as that from quantum theory. In fact, tests of it for example with
binary pulsars may distinguish general relativity from competing theories. We cannot
yet say whether this inequality also holds for elementary particles.

free pdf le available at [Link]

The maximum force is central to the theory of general relativity. Indeed, its value
(adorned with a factor 2) appears in the field equations. The importance of the maximum force becomes clearer when we return to our old image of space-time as a deformable mattress. Like any material body, a mattress is described by a material constant
that relates the deformation values to the values of applied energy. Similarly, a mattress,
like any material, is described by the maximum stress it can bear before it breaks. These
two values describe all materials, from crystals to mattresses. In fact, for perfect crystals
(without dislocations), these two material constants are the same.
Empty space somehow behaves like a perfect crystal, or a perfect mattress: it has a
deformation-energy constant that is equal to the maximum force that can be applied
to it. The maximum force describes the elasticity of space-time. The high value of the
maximum force tells us that it is difficult to bend space.
Now, materials are not homogeneous: crystals are made up of atoms, and mattresses
are made up of foam bubbles. What is the corresponding structure of space-time? This is
a central question in the rest of our adventure. One thing is sure: unlike crystals, vacuum
has no preferred directions. We now take a first step towards answering the question of
the structure of space-time and particles by putting together all the limits found so far.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

A mechanical analogy for the maximum force

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 24

The size limit is only realized for black holes, those well-known systems which swallow
everything that is thrown into them. It is fully equivalent to the force limit. All composite
systems in nature comply with the lower size limit. Whether elementary particles fulfil
or even match this limit remains open at this point. More about this issue below.
General relativity also implies an indeterminacy relation for the size l and the energy
E of systems:
c4
E

.
(21)
l
4G

34

2 physics in limit statements

pl anck limits for all physical observables

The existence of a maximum force in nature is equivalent to general relativity. As a result,
a large part of modern physics can be summarized in four simple and fundamental limit
statements on motion:
W
S k
c

quantum theory follows from the action limit:

thermodynamics follows from the entropy limit:
special relativity follows from the speed limit:

general relativity follows from the force limit:

(22)

These Planck limits are valid for all physical systems, whether composite or elementary,
and for all observers. Note that the limit quantities of quantum theory, thermodynamics,
special and general relativity can also be seen as the right-hand sides of the respective
indeterminacy relations. Indeed, the set (4, 7, 9, 21) of indeterminacy relations is fully
equivalent to the four limit statements (22).
By combining the three fundamental limits, we can obtain limits on a number of physical observables. The following limits are valid generally, for both composite and elementary systems:
time interval:

c7
4G

acceleration:

angular frequency:

1.1 1043 s

(23)

3.5 1078 ms

(24)

2.8 1051 m/s2

(25)

5.8 1043 /s

(26)

c5
=
2G

Adding the knowledge that space and time can mix, we get

area:
volume:
curvature:
mass density:

4G
=
c3
4G
=
A 3
c
4G 3/2
V 3 =
c
3
c
=
K
4G
c5
=

16G 2
d

3.2 1035 m

(27)

1.0 1069 m2

(28)

3.4 10104 m3

(29)

1.0 1069 /m2

(30)

3.2 1095 kg/m3

(31)

free pdf le available at [Link]

distance:

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

time-distance product:

4G
c5
4G
td 4
c
t

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 12 e

c4
.
4G

pl anck limits for all physical observables

Page 55
Ref. 25

Of course, speed, action, angular momentum, entropy, power and force are also limited,
as already stated. Up to a numerical factor, the limit for every physical observable corresponds to the Planck value. (The limit values are deduced from the commonly used
Planck values simply by substituting 4G for G.) These limit values are the true natural
units of nature. In fact, the ideal case would be to redefine the usual Planck values for
all observables to these extremal values, by absorbing the numerical factor 4 into the respective definitions. In the following, we call the limit values the corrected Planck units
and assume that the numerical factor 4 has been properly included. In other words, every natural unit or (corrected) Planck unit is the limit value of the corresponding physical
observable.
Most of these limit statements are found scattered throughout the research literature,
though the numerical factors often differ. Each limit has attracted a string of publications.
The existence of a smallest measurable distance and time interval of the order of the
Planck values is discussed in all approaches to quantum gravity. The maximum curvature
has been studied in quantum gravity; it has important consequences for the beginning
of the universe, where it excludes any infinitely large or small observable. The maximum
mass density appears regularly in discussions on the energy of the vacuum.
In the following, we often call the collection of Planck limits the Planck scales. We will
discover shortly that at Planck scales, nature differs in many ways from what we are used
to at everyday scales.
Note that the different dimensions of the four fundamental limits (22) in nature mean
that the four limits are independent. For example, quantum effects cannot be used to
overcome the force limit; similarly, the power limit cannot be used to overcome the speed
limit. There are thus four independent limits on motion in nature.

The four limits of nature of equation (22) on action, entropy, speed and force are
astonishing. Above all, the four limits are simple. For many decades, a silent assump* The question of the validity of the hypotheses of geometry in the infinitely small is connected to the
question of the foundation of the metric relations of space. To this question, which may still be regarded as
belonging to the study of space, applies the remark made above; that in a discrete manifold the principles
of its metric relations are given in the notion of this manifold, while in a continuous manifold, they must
come from outside. Either therefore the reality which underlies space must form a discrete manifold, or the
principles of its metric relations must be sought outside it, in binding forces which act upon it.
Bernhard Riemann is one of the most important mathematicians. 45 years after this statement, Max
Planck confirmed that natural units are due to gravitation, and thus to binding forces.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Physics, mathematics and simplicity

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Die Frage ber die Gltigkeit der Voraussetzungen der Geometrie im

Unendlichkleinen hngt zusammen mit der Frage nach dem innern Grunde der
Massverhltnisse des Raumes. Bei dieser Frage, welche wohl noch zur Lehre
vom Raume gerechnet werden darf, kommt die obige Bemerkung zur
Anwendung, dass bei einer discreten Mannigfaltigkeit das Princip der
Massverhltnisse schon in dem Begriffe dieser Mannigfaltigkeit enthalten ist,
bei einer stetigen aber anders woher hinzukommen muss. Es muss also
entweder das dem Raume zu Grunde liegende Wirkliche eine discrete
Mannigfaltigkeit bilden, oder der Grund der Massverhltnisse ausserhalb, in
darauf wirkenden bindenden Krften, gesucht werden.*
Bernhard Riemann, 1854, ber die Hypothesen, welche der Geometrie zu
Grunde liegen.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 26

35

36

2 physics in limit statements

Limits to space, time and size

Mass and energy limits

Mass plays a special role in all these arguments. The four limits (22) do not make it possible to extract a limit statement on the mass of physical systems. To find one, we have
* Interestingly, he also regularly wrote the opposite, as shown on page 82.
** Groucho Marx (b. 1890 New York City, d. 1977 Los Angeles), well-known comedian.

free pdf le available at [Link]

The four fundamental limits of nature (22) result in a minimum distance and a minimum
time interval. As the expressions for the limits shows, these minimum intervals arise
directly from the unification of quantum theory and relativity: they do not appear if the
theories are kept separate. In short, unification implies that there is a smallest length in
nature. This result is important: the formulation of physics as a set of limit statements
shows that the continuum model of space and time is not completely correct. Continuity
and manifolds are only approximations, valid for large actions, low speeds and small
forces. Formulating general relativity and quantum theory with limit statements makes
this especially clear.
The existence of a force limit in nature implies that no physical system can be smaller
than a Schwarzschild black hole of the same mass. In particular, point particles do not
exist. The density limit makes the same point. In addition, elementary particles are predicted to be larger than the corrected Planck length. So far, this prediction has not been
tested by observations, as the scales in question are so small that they are beyond experimental reach. Detecting the sizes of elementary particles for example, with electric
dipole measurements would make it possible to check all limits directly.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 55

Those are my principles, and if you dont like

them ... well, I have others.
Groucho Marx**

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

tion has guided many physicists: physics requires difficult mathematics, and unification
requires even more difficult mathematics.
For example, for over thirty years, Albert Einstein searched with his legendary intensity for the final theory by exploring more and more complex equations. He did so even
on his deathbed!* Also most theoretical physicists in the year 2000 held the prejudice
that unification requires difficult mathematics. This prejudice is a consequence of over a
century of flawed teaching of physics. Flawed teaching is thus one of the reasons that the
search for a final theory was not successful for so long.
The summary of physics with limit statements shows that nature and physics are simple. In fact, the essence of the important physical theories is extremely simple: special
relativity, general relativity, thermodynamics and quantum theory are each based on a
simple inequality.
The summary of a large part of physics with inequalities is suggestive. The summary
makes us dream that the description of the remaining parts of physics gauge fields,
elementary particles and the final theory might be equally simple. This dream thus
contrasts with the silent assumption that unification requires difficult mathematics. Let
us continue to explore where the dream of simplicity leads us to.

pl anck limits for all physical observables

37

to restrict our aim somewhat.

The Planck limits mentioned so far apply to all physical systems, whether composite
or elementary. Other limits apply only to elementary systems. In quantum theory, the
distance limit is a size limit only for composite systems. A particle is elementary if its size
l is smaller than any measurable dimension. In particular, it must be smaller than the
reduced Compton wavelength:
for elementary particles:

.
mc

(32)

Using this limit, we find the well-known mass, energy and momentum limits that are
valid only for elementary particles:
for elementary particles: m

for elementary particles:

Ref. 27

c 5
= 9.8 108 J = 0.60 1019 GeV
4G
c 3
= 3.2 kg m/s = 0.60 1019 GeV/c
4G

(33)

Virtual particles a new definition

Vol. II, page 70

Vol. IV, page 190

In fact, there are elementary particles that exceed all three limits that we have encountered so far. Nature does have particles which move faster than light, which show actions
below the quantum of action, and which experience forces larger than the force limit.
We know from special relativity that the virtual particles exchanged in collisions move
faster than light. We know from quantum theory that the exchange of a virtual particle
implies actions below the minimum action. Virtual particles also imply an instantaneous
change of momentum; they thus exceed the force limit.
In short, virtual particles exceed all the limits that hold for real elementary particles.

The (corrected) Planck limits are statements about properties of nature. There is no way
to measure values exceeding these limits, with any kind of experiment. Naturally, such a
claim provokes the search for counter-examples and leads to many paradoxes.

The minimum action may come as a surprise at first, because angular momentum and
* Sections called Curiosities can be skipped at first reading.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Curiosities and fun challenges about Planck limits*

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

These elementary-particle limits are the (corrected) Planck mass, Planck energy and
Planck momentum. They were discussed in 1968 by Andrei Sakharov, though with different numerical factors. They are regularly cited in elementary particle theory. All known
measurements comply with them.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

for elementary particles: E

c
= 1.1 108 kg = 0.60 1019 GeV/c2
4G

38

2 physics in limit statements

spin have the same unit as action; and nature contains particles with spin 0 or with spin
1/2 . A minimum action indeed implies a minimum angular momentum. However, the
angular momentum in question is total angular momentum, including the orbital part
with respect to the observer. The measured total angular momentum of a particle is never
smaller than , even if the spin is smaller.

In terms of mass flows, the power limit implies that flow of water through a tube is limited
in throughput. The resulting limit dm/dt c 3 /4G for the change of mass with time
seems to be unrecorded in the research literature of the twentieth century.

one sees directly that a minimum action and a maximum rate of change of mass imply
a minimum distance. In other words, quantum theory and general relativity force us to
conclude that in nature there is a minimum distance. In other words, at Planck scales the
term point in space has no theoretical or experimental basis.

With the single-particle limits, the entropy limit leads to an upper limit for temperature:
T

c 5
= 0.71 1032 K .
4Gk 2

(35)

How can the maximum force be determined by gravity alone, which is the weakest interaction? It turns out that in situations near the maximum force, the other interactions are
usually negligible. This is the reason why gravity must be included in a unified description of nature.

free pdf le available at [Link]

This corresponds to the temperature at which the energy per degree of freedom is given
by the (corrected) Planck energy c 5 /4G . A more realistic value would have to take
account of the number of degrees of freedom of a particle at Planck energy. This would
change the numerical factor. However, no system that is even near this temperature value
has been studied yet. Only Planck-size horizons are expected to realize the temperature
limit, but nobody has managed to explore them experimentally, so far.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Vol. II, page 103

A further way to deduce the minimum length using the limit statements which structure
this adventure is the following. General relativity is based on a maximum force in nature,
or alternatively, on a maximum mass change per time, whose value is given by dm/dt =
c 3 /4G. Quantum theory is based on a minimum action W in nature, given by . Since a
distance d can be expressed as
W
,
(34)
d2 =
dm/dt

pl anck limits for all physical observables

Challenge 13 e

39

At first sight, it seems that electric charge can be used in such a way that the acceleration of a charged body towards a charged black hole is increased to a value, when multiplied with the mass, that exceeds the force limit. However, the changes in the horizon
for charged black holes prevent this.

The gravitational attraction between two masses never yields force values high enough
to exceed the force limit. Why? First of all, masses m and M cannot come closer together
than the sum of their horizon radii. Using F = GmM/r 2 with the distance r given by the
(naive) sum of the two black hole radii as r = 2G(M + m)/c 2 , we get
F

Mm
c4
,
4G (M + m)2

(36)

Ref. 28

An absolute power limit implies a limit on the energy that can be transported per unit
time through any imaginable surface. At first sight, it may seem that the combined power
emitted by two radiation sources that each emit 3/4 of the maximum value should give

free pdf le available at [Link]

This diverges at d = 0, the location of the horizon. However, even a test mass cannot be
smaller than its own gravitational radius. If we want to reach the horizon with a realistic
test mass, we need to choose a small test mass m: only a small mass can get near the
horizon. For vanishingly small masses, however, the resulting force tends to zero. Indeed,
letting the distance tend to the smallest possible value by letting d = 2G(m + M)/c 2
2GM/c 2 requires m 0, which makes the force F(m, d) vanish. If on the other hand, we
remain away from the horizon and look for the maximum force by using a mass as large
as can possibly fit into the available distance (the calculation is straightforward), then
again the force limit is never exceeded. In other words, for realistic test masses, expression
(37) is never larger than c 4 /4G. Taking into account the minimal size of test masses, we
thus see that the maximum force is never exceeded in gravitational systems.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

It is well known that gravity bends space. Therefore, if they are to be fully convincing,
our calculation for two attracting black holes needs to be repeated taking into account
the curvature of space. The simplest way is to study the force generated by a black hole
on a test mass hanging from a wire that is lowered towards a black hole horizon. For an
unrealistic point mass, the force would diverge at the horizon. Indeed, for a point mass
m lowered towards a black hole of mass M at (conventionally defined radial) distance d,
the force would be
GMm
.
(37)
F=
d 2 1 2GM
2
dc

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

which is never larger than the force limit. Thus even two attracting black holes cannot
exceed the force limit in the inverse-square approximation of universal gravity. In short,
the minimum size of masses means that the maximum force cannot be exceeded.

40

Challenge 14 e

2 physics in limit statements

3/2 times the maximum value. However, the combination forms a black hole, or at least
prevents part of the radiation from being emitted by swallowing it between the two
sources.

Challenge 15 e

One possible system that actually achieves the Planck power limit is the final stage of
black hole evaporation. But even in this case, the power limit is not exceeded.

Ref. 19

The power limit is of interest if applied to the universe as a whole. Indeed, it can be used
to explain Olbers paradox: the sky is dark at night because the combined luminosity of
all light sources in the universe cannot be brighter than the maximum value.

Page 33
Challenge 16 s

The force limit and its solid state analogy might be seen to suggest that the appearance of
matter might be natures way of preventing space from ripping apart. Does this analogy
make sense?

Ref. 29

Ref. 30

The existence of a smallest length and a corresponding shortest time interval implies
that no surface is physical if any part of it requires a localization in space-time to scales
below the minimum length. (In addition, a physical surface must not cross any horizon.)
Only by insisting on this condition can we eliminate unphysical examples that contravene the force and power limits. For example, this condition was overlooked in Boussos
early discussion of Bekensteins entropy bound though not in his more recent ones.

free pdf le available at [Link]

In fact, the connection between minimum length and gravity is not new. Already in 1967,
Andrei Sakharov pointed out that a minimum length implies gravity. He showed that
regularizing quantum field theory on curved space with a cut-off at small distances will
induce counter-terms that include to lowest order the cosmological constant and then
the EinsteinHilbert action of general relativity.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

The maximum force limit states that the stress-energy tensor, when integrated over any
physical surface, does not exceed the limit value. No such integral, over any physical
surface, of any tensor component in any coordinate system, can exceed the force limit,
provided that it is measured by a nearby observer or a test body with a realistic proper
size. The maximum force limit thus applies to any component of any force vector, as
well as to its magnitude. It applies to gravitational, electromagnetic, and nuclear forces;
and it applies to all realistic observers. It is not important whether the forces are real or
fictitious; nor whether we are discussing the 3-forces of Galilean physics or the 4-forces
of special relativity. Indeed, the force limit applied to the zeroth component of the 4-force
is the power limit.

pl anck limits for all physical observables

41

Our discussion of limits can be extended to include electromagnetism. Using the (lowenergy) electromagnetic coupling constant , the fine structure constant, we get the following limits for physical systems interacting electromagnetically:
electric charge:

q 40 c = e = 0.16 aC

electric field:

c7
c4
= 1.9 1062 V/m
=
64o G 2
4Ge

(39)

magnetic field:

c5
c3
= 6.3 1053 T
=
640 G 2
4Ge

(40)

voltage:

c4
1 c 5
=
= 6.1 1027 V
160 G
e 4G

(41)

inductance:

(42)

With the additional assumption that in nature at most one particle can occupy one Planck
volume, we get
9
o c 5
c
=
e
= 4.7 1084 C/m3
16G 3
64G 3 3

capacitance:

C 40

4G
4G
= e 2 5 = 2.6 1047 F
3
c
c

(43)
(44)

For the case of a single conduction channel, we get

e2
= 0.24 mS

(46)

electric conductivity:

G 40 c =
I

0 c 6
c5
= e
= 1.5 1024 A
G
4G

(47)

The magnetic field limit is significant in the study of extreme stars and black holes. The
maximum electric field plays a role in the theory of gamma-ray bursters. For current,
conductivity and resistance in single channels, the limits and their effects were studied
extensively in the 1980s and 1990s.
The observation of quarks and of collective excitations in semiconductors with charge
e/3 does not necessarily invalidate the charge limit for physical systems. In neither case
is there is a physical system defined as localized massenergy interacting incoherently
with the environment with charge e/3.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 32

(45)

electric current:

Ref. 31

1
= 2 = 4.1 k
40 c e

electric resistance:

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

charge density:

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

4G
1 4G3
1

=
= 4.4 1040 H
4o
c7
e2
c5

(38)

42

2 physics in limit statements

The general relation that to every limit value in nature there is a corresponding indeterminacy relation is valid also for electricity. Indeed, there is an indeterminacy relation for
capacitors, of the form
C U e
(48)
where e is the positron charge, C capacity and U potential difference. There is also an
indeterminacy relation between electric current I and time t
I t e .
Ref. 33

(49)

Both these relations may be found in the research literature.

Vol. II, page 103

Size and energy dependence

Vol. IV, page 148

* Quantum theory refines this definition: a physical system is a part of nature that in addition interacts
incoherently with its environment. In the following discussion we will assume that this condition is satisfied.

free pdf le available at [Link]

While looking for additional limits in nature, we note a fundamental fact. Any upper
limit for angular momentum, and any lower limit for power, must be system-dependent.
Such limits will not be absolute, but will depend on properties of the system. Now, a
physical system is a part of nature characterized by a boundary and its content.* Thus
the simplest properties shared by all systems are their size (characterized in the following
by the diameter) L and their energy E. With these characteristics we can deduce systemdependent limits for every physical observable. The general method is straightforward:
we take the known inequalities for speed, action, power, charge and entropy, and then
extract a limit for any observable, by inserting the length and energy as required. We
then have to select the strictest of the limits we find.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

In our quest to understand motion, we have focused our attention on the four fundamental limitations to which motion is subject. Special relativity posits a limit to speed, namely
the speed of light c. General relativity limits force and power respectively by c 4 /4G and
c 5 /4G, and quantum theory introduces a smallest value for action. Nature imposes
the lower limit k on entropy. If we include the limit e on electric charge changes, these
limits induce extremal values for all physical observables, given by the corresponding
(corrected) Planck values.
A question arises: does nature also impose limits on physical observables at the opposite end of the measurement scale? For example, there is a highest force and a highest
power in nature. Is there also a lowest force and a lowest power? Is there also a lowest
speed?
We will show that there are indeed such limits, for all observables. We give the general
method to generate such bounds, and explore several examples. This exploration will take
us on an interesting survey of modern physics; we start by deducing system-dependent
limits and then go on to the cosmological limits.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

cosmolo gical limits for all physical observables

cosmolo gical limits for all physical observables

43

Angular momentum and action

Challenge 17 e

Ref. 34

Indeed, in nature there do not seem to be any exceptions to this limit on angular momentum. In no known system, from atoms to molecules, from ice skaters to galaxies, does
the angular momentum exceed this value. Even the most violently rotating objects, the
so-called extremal black holes, are limited in angular momentum by D LE/c. (Actually, this limit is correct for black holes only if the energy is taken as the irreducible mass
times c 2 ; if the usual mass is used, the limit is too large by a factor of 4.) The limit deduced
from general relativity, given by D L2 c 3 /4G, is not stricter than the one just given. By
the way, no system-dependent lower limit for angular momentum can be deduced.
The maximum value for angular momentum is also interesting when it is seen as an
action limit. Action is the time integral of the difference between kinetic and potential
energy. Since nature always seeks to minimize the action W, it seems strange to search
for systems, of size L, that maximize action. You might check for yourself that the action
limit
W LE/c
(51)
is not exceeded in any physical process.

Speed times mass times length is an action. Since action values in nature are limited from
below by , we get a limit for the speed of a system:
system c 2

Challenge 19 e

(52)

This is not a new result; it is just a form of the indeterminacy relation of quantum theory.
It gives a minimum speed for any system of energy E and diameter L. Even the extremely
slow radius change of a black hole by evaporation just realizes this minimal speed.
Continuing with the same method, we also find that the limit deduced from general
relativity, (c 2 /4G)(L/E), gives no new information. Therefore, no system-dependent
upper speed limit exists.
Incidentally, the limits are not unique. Other limits can be found in a systematic way.
Upper limits can be multiplied, for example, by factors of (L/E)(c 4 /4G) or (LE)(2/c),
yielding less strict upper limits. A similar rule can be given for lower limits.*

* The strictest upper limits are those with the smallest exponent for length, and the strictest lower limits are
those with the largest exponent of length.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Challenge 20 e

1
.
LE

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Speed

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 18 e

It only takes a moment to check that the ratio of angular momentum D to energy E times
length L has the dimensions of inverse speed. Since speeds are limited by the speed of
light, we get
1
(50)
Dsystem LE .
c

44

2 physics in limit statements

Force, power and luminosity

We have seen that force and power are central to general relativity. The force exerted
by a system is the flow of momentum out of the system; emitted power is the flow of
energy out of the system. Thanks to the connection W = F LT between action W, force
F, distance L and time T, we can deduce
Fsystem

1
.
2c T 2

(53)

Experiments do not reach this limit. The smallest forces measured in nature are those
in atomic force microscopes, where values as small as 1 aN are observed. But even these
values are above the lower force limit.
The power P emitted by a system of size L and mass M is limited by
M
M
Psystem 2G 3 .
L
L

(54)

The strange charm of the entropy bound

Ref. 35

In 1973, Bekenstein discovered a famous limit that connects the entropy S of a physical
system with its size and mass. No system has a larger entropy than one bounded by a
horizon. The larger the horizon surface, the larger the entropy. We write
S
Slimit

A
A limit

(55)

kc 3
A,
4G

(56)

where A is the surface of the system. Equality is realized only for black holes. The old
question of the origin of the factor 4 in the entropy of black holes is thus answered here:
it is due to the factor 4 in the force or power bound in nature. Time will tell whether this
explanation will be generally accepted.
We can also derive a more general relation by using a mysterious assumption, which

free pdf le available at [Link]

which gives

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

The limit on the left is the upper limit for any engine or lamp, as deduced from relativity;
not even the universe exceeds it. The limit on the right is the minimum power emitted
by any system through quantum gravity effects. Indeed, no physical system is completely
tight. Even black holes, the systems with the best ability to keep components inside their
enclosure, radiate. The power radiated by black holes should just meet this limit, provided the length L is taken to be the circumference of the black hole. Thus the claim of
the quantum gravity limit is that the power emitted by a black hole is the smallest power
that is emitted by any composite system of the same surface gravity. (However, the numerical factors in the black hole power appearing in the research literature are not yet
consistent.)

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

c3

cosmolo gical limits for all physical observables

45

we will discuss afterwards. We assume that the limits for vacuum are opposite to those
for matter. We can then write c 2 /4G M/L for the vacuum. Using
S
[Link]

[Link] A [Link]

[Link]
L

(57)

we get
S

Ref. 30

This is called Bekensteins entropy bound. No exception has ever been found or constructed, despite many attempts. Again, the limit value itself is only realized for black
holes.
We need to explain the strange assumption used above. We are investigating the entropy of a horizon. Horizons are not matter, but limits to empty space. The entropy of
horizons is due to the large number of virtual particles found at them. In order to deduce the maximum entropy of expression (57) one therefore has to use the properties of
the vacuum. In other words, either we use a mass-to-length ratio for vacuum above the
Planck limit, or we use the Planck entropy as the maximum value for vacuum.
Other, equivalent limits for entropy can be found if other variables are introduced. For
example, since the ratio of the shear viscosity to the volume density of entropy (times
k) has the dimensions of action, we can directly write
S

k
V .

(59)

Curiosities and fun challenges about system-dependent limits to

observables
Also the system-dependent limit values for all physical observables, like the Planck values, yield a plethora of interesting questions. We study a few examples.

The content of a system is characterized not only by its mass and charge, but also by
its strangeness, isospin, colour charge, charge and parity. Can you deduce the limits for

free pdf le available at [Link]

Again, equality is only attained in the case of black holes. In time, no doubt, the list of
similar bounds will grow longer.
Is there also a smallest, system-dependent entropy? So far, there does not seem to be a
system-dependent minimum value for entropy: the present approach gives no expression
that is larger than k.
The establishment of the entropy limit is an important step towards making our description of motion consistent. If space-time can move, as general relativity maintains,
it also has an entropy. How could entropy be limited if space-time were continuous?
Clearly, because of the existence of a minimum distance and minimum time in nature,
space-time cannot be continuous, but must have a finite number of degrees of freedom,
and thus a finite entropy.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Challenge 21 e

(58)

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 36

kc
2kc
ML =
MR .

46

Challenge 22 r

2 physics in limit statements

these quantities?

Challenge 23 s

In our discussion of black hole limits, we silently assumed that they interact, like any
thermal system, in an incoherent way with the environment. Which of the results of this
section change when this condition is dropped, and how? Which limits can be overcome?

Challenge 24 e

Can you find a general method to deduce all limits of observables?

Nd.o.f. 10132 .

(60)

Compare this with the number NPl. vol. of Planck volumes in the universe
NPl. vol. 10183

(61)

and with the number Npart. of particles in the universe

(62)

We see that particles are only a tiny fraction of what moves around. Most motion must
be movement of space-time. At the same time, space-time moves far less than might be
naively expected. To find out how all this happens is the challenge of the unified description of motion.

A lower limit for the temperature of a thermal system can be found using the idea that
the number of degrees of freedom of a system is limited by its surface, or more precisely,
by the ratio between the surface and the Planck surface. We get the limit
4G M
.
kc L2

(63)

Alternatively, using the method given above, we can use the limit on the thermal energy
kT/2 c/2L (the thermal wavelength must be smaller than the size of the system)
together with the limit on mass c 2 /4G M/L, and deduce the same result.
We have met the temperature limit already: when the system is a black hole, the limit
yields the temperature of the emitted radiation. In other words, the temperature of black
holes is the lower limit for all physical systems for which a temperature can be defined,

free pdf le available at [Link]

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Npart. 1091 .

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 25 e

Bekensteins entropy bound leads to some interesting speculations. Let us speculate that
the universe itself, being surrounded by a horizon, meets the Bekenstein bound. The
entropy bound gives a bound to all degrees of freedom inside a system: it tells us that the
number Nd.o.f. of degrees of freedom in the universe is roughly

cosmolo gical limits for all physical observables

Challenge 26 s
Vol. II, page 60

Challenge 27 ny

47

provided they share the same boundary gravity. The latter condition makes sense: boundary gravity is accessible from the outside and describes the full physical system, since it
depends on both its boundary and its content. So far, no exception to this claim is known.
All systems from everyday life comply with it, as do all stars. Even the coldest known
systems in the universe, namely BoseEinstein condensates and other cold matter produced in laboratories, are much hotter than the limit, and thus much hotter than black
holes of the same surface gravity. (We saw earlier that a consistent Lorentz transformation for temperature is not possible; so the minimum temperature limit is only valid for
an observer at the same gravitational potential as the system under consideration and
stationary relative to it.)
There seems to be no consistent way to define an upper limit for a size-dependent
temperature. Limits for other thermodynamic quantities can be found, but we will not
discuss them here.

Challenge 28 s

4Ge M 2
.
c Q 2 L2

(65)

Again, this limit is satisfied by all known systems in nature.

Similar limits can be found for the other electromagnetic observables. In fact, several
of the limits given earlier are modified when electric charge is included. Does the size
limit change when electric charge is taken into account? In fact, an entire research field
is dedicated to deducing and testing the most general limits valid in nature.

Cosmology in one statement

We now continue our exploration of limits to the largest systems possible. In order to do
that, we have a simple look at cosmology.
Cosmology results from the equations of general relativity when the cosmological
constant is included. Cosmology can thus be summarized by any sufficiently general

free pdf le available at [Link]

Many cosmological limits have not been discussed here nor anywhere else. The following
could all be worth a publication: What is the limit for momentum? Energy? Pressure?
Acceleration? Mass change? Lifetime?

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

We write the field limit in terms of the elementary charge e, though it might be more appropriate to write it using the fine structure constant via e = 40 c . In observations,
the electric field limit has never been exceeded.
For the magnetic field we get

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

When electromagnetism plays a role in a system, the system also needs to be characterized by a charge Q. Our method then gives the following lower limit for the electric
field E:
M2
(64)
E 4Ge 2 2 .
Q L

48

2 physics in limit statements

statement that includes the cosmological constant . The simplest statement can be deduced from the observation that the present distance R0 of the night sky horizon is about
R0 1/ . From this we can summarize cosmology by the inequality
l

Challenge 29 s

1
.

(66)

This statement contains all of cosmology; at present, the precise numerical factor is not
of importance. This statement must be added as a fifth statement on physics to the four
fundamental Planck limits.
By the way, can you show that the cosmological constant is observer-invariant?
The cosmological limits to observables

4G/c
= Lcorr. Planck c 7 1053 m/s .
Luniverse

(67)

It has never been reached or approached by any observation.

The negative energy volume density c 4 /4G introduced by the positive cosmological constant corresponds to a negative pressure (both quantities have the same dimensions). When multiplied by the minimum area it yields a force value
c
= 4.8 1079 N .
2

(68)

Apart from the numerical factor, this is the cosmological force limit, the smallest possible
force in nature. This is also the gravitational force between two corrected Planck masses
located at the cosmological distance /4 .
As a note, we are led the fascinating conjecture that the full theory of general relativity,
including the cosmological constant, is defined by the combination of a maximum and
a minimum force in nature.

free pdf le available at [Link]

F=

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

particle

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

From the system-dependent limits for speed, action, force and entropy we can deduce
system-dependent limits for all other physical observables. In addition, we note that the
system-dependent limits can (usually) be applied to the universe as a whole; we only need
to insert the size and energy content of the universe. Usually, we can do this through a
limit process, even though the universe itself is not a physical system. In this way, we get
an absolute limit for every physical observable that contains the cosmological constant
and that is on the opposite end of the Planck limit for that observable. We can call these
limits the cosmological limits.
The simplest cosmological limit is the upper limit to length in the universe. Since the
cosmological length limit also implies a maximum possible Compton wavelength, we
get a minimum particle mass and energy. We also get an cosmological lower limit on
luminosity, etc.
For single particles, we find the absolute lower speed limit, the cosmological speed
limit, given by

cosmolo gical limits for all physical observables

Challenge 30 e

49

Another note concerns the importance of black hole limits for the universe itself. The
observed average mass density of the universe is not far from the corresponding black
hole limit. The black hole lifetime limit might thus provide an upper limit for the full
lifetime of the universe. However, the age of the universe is far from that limit by a large
factor. In fact, since the universes size and age are increasing, the lifetime limit is pushed
further into the future with every second that passes. The universe evolves so as to escape
its own decay.
In summary, nature provides two limits for each observable: a Planck limit and a cosmological limit. The existence of two limits for each observable, a lower and an upper one,
has important consequences that we will explore now.
Limits to measurement precision and their challenge to thought

No real numbers

Vacuum and mass: two sides of the same coin

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 55

There is a limit to the precision of length measurements in nature. This limit is valid both
for length measurements of empty space and for length measurements of matter (or radiation). Now let us recall what we do when we measure the length of a table with a ruler.
To find the ends of the table, we must be able to distinguish the table from the surrounding air. In more precise terms, we must be able to distinguish matter from vacuum.
Whenever we want high measurement precision, we need to approach Planck scales.
But at Planck scales, the measurement values and the measurement errors are of the
same size. In short, at Planck scales, the intrinsic measurement limitations of nature imply that we cannot say whether we are measuring vacuum or matter. We will check this
conclusion in detail later on.
In fact, we can pick any other observable that distinguishes vacuum from matter
for example, colour, mass, size, charge, speed or angular momentum and we have the
same problem: at Planck scales, the limits to observables lead to limits to measurement
precision, and therefore, at Planck scales it is impossible to distinguish between matter
and vacuum. At Planck scales, we cannot tell whether a box is full or empty.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Because of the fundamental limits to measurement precision, the measured values of physical observables do not require the full set of real numbers. In fact, limited precision implies
that observables cannot be described by the real numbers! This staggering result appears
whenever quantum theory and gravity are brought together. But there is more.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

We now know that in nature, every physical measurement has a lower and an upper
bound. One of the bounds is cosmological, the other is given by the (corrected) Planck
unit. As a consequence, for every observable, the smallest relative measurement error
that is possible in nature is the ratio between the Planck limit and the cosmological limit.
In particular, we have to conclude that all measurements are limited in precision.
All limits, those to observables and those to measurement precision, only appear
when quantum theory and gravity are brought together. But the existence of these limits,
and in particular the existence of limits to measurement precision, forces us to abandon
some cherished assumptions.

50

Ref. 37

Page 77

2 physics in limit statements

To state the conclusion in the sharpest possible terms: vacuum and matter do not differ
at Planck scales. This counter-intuitive result is one of the charms of the search for a
final, unified theory. It has inspired many researchers in the field and some have written
best-sellers about it. Brian Greene was particularly successful in presenting this side of
quantum geometry to the wider public.
Limited measurement precision also implies that at the Planck energy it is impossible
to speak about points, instants, events or dimensionality. Similarly, at the Planck length
it is impossible to distinguish between positive and negative time values: so particles and
antiparticles are not clearly distinguished at Planck scales. All these conclusions are so
far-reaching that we must check them in more detail. We will do this shortly.
Measurement precision and the existence of sets

Page 55

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 55

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 55

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 55

In physics, it is generally assumed that nature is a set of components. These components,

called elements by mathematicians, are assumed to be separable from each other. This
tacit assumption is introduced in three main situations: it is assumed that matter consists
of separable particles, that space-time consists of separable events or points, and that the
set of states consists of separable initial conditions. Until the year 2000, physics has built
the whole of its description of nature on the concept of a set.
A fundamental limit to measurement precision implies that nature is not a set of such
separable elements. Precision limits imply that physical entities can be distinguished only
approximately. The approximate distinction is only possible at energies much lower than
the Planck energy c 5 /4G . As humans, we do live at such small energies, and we can
safely make the approximation. Indeed, the approximation is excellent in practice; we do
not notice any error. But at Planck energy, distinction and separation is impossible in
principle. In particular, at the cosmic horizon, at the big bang, and at Planck scales, any
precise distinction between two events, two points or two particles becomes impossible.
Another way to reach this result is the following. Separation of two entities requires
different measurement results for example, different positions, different masses or different velocities. Whatever observable is chosen, at the Planck energy the distinction becomes impossible because of the large measurements errors. Only at everyday energies
is a distinction approximately possible. Any distinction between two physical systems
for example, between a toothpick and a mountain is possible only approximately: at
Planck scales, a boundary cannot be drawn.
A third argument is the following. In order to count any entities in nature a set of
particles, a discrete set of points, or any other discrete set of physical observables the
entities have to be separable. But the inevitable measurement errors contradict separability. Thus at the Planck energy it is impossible to count physical objects with precision.
Nature has no parts.
In summary, at Planck scales, perfect separation is impossible in principle. We cannot
distinguish observations. At Planck scales it is impossible to split nature into separate entities. In nature, elements of sets cannot be defined. Neither discrete nor continuous sets
can be constructed. Nature does not contain sets or elements.
Since sets and elements are only approximations, the concept of a set, which assumes
separable elements, is too specialized to describe nature. Nature cannot be described at
Planck scales i.e., with full precision if any of the concepts used for its description

summary on limits in nature

Page 104

51

presupposes sets. However, all concepts used in the past 25 centuries to describe nature
space, time, particles, phase space, observables, wave functions, Hilbert space, Fock
space, Riemannian space, particle space, loop space or moduli space are based on sets.
They must all be abandoned at Planck energy.
In short, nature is one and has no parts. No correct mathematical model of nature can
be based on sets. But none of the approaches used in the twentieth century in theoretical
physics has abandoned sets. This requirement is thus very powerful; indeed, it will guide
us in the search for the unification of relativity and quantum theory. The requirement
will even solve Hilberts sixth problem.

summary on limits in nature

free pdf le available at [Link]

All these limits are observer-invariant. The invariance of the limits suggests interesting
thought experiments, none of which leads to their violation.
The invariant limits imply that in nature every physical observable is bound on one
end by the corresponding (corrected) Planck unit and on the other end by a cosmological
limit. Every observable in nature has an upper and lower limit value.
The existence of lower and upper limit values to all observables implies that measurement precision is limited. As a consequence, matter and vacuum are indistinguishable,
the description of space-time as a continuous manifold of points is not correct, and nature can be described by sets only approximately.
Since the most precise physical theories known, quantum theory and general relativity,
can be reduced to limit statements, there is a good chance that the final, unified theory
of physics will require an equally simple description. Natures limits thus suggest that
the mathematics of the final, unified theory might be simple. In addition, natures limits
imply that Planck units are the key to the final theory.
At this point of our adventure, many questions are still open. Answering any of the
open issues of the millennium list still seems out of reach. But this impression is too pessimistic. Our discussion implies that we only need to find a description of nature that
is simple and without sets. And a natural way to avoid the use of sets is a description of
empty space, radiation and matter as being made of common constituents. But before we
explore this option, we check the conclusions of this chapter in another way. In particular, as a help to more conservative physicists, we check all conclusions we found so far
without making use of the maximum force principle.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 18

The speed limit is equivalent to special relativity.

The force limit is equivalent to general relativity.
The action limit is equivalent to quantum theory.
The entropy limit is equivalent to thermodynamics.
The distance limit is equivalent to cosmology.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

If we exclude gauge interactions, we can summarize the rest of physics in a few limit
statements.

2 physics in limit statements

52

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

Chapter 3

GENER AL R EL ATIVIT Y V ERSUS

QUANTUM THEORY

free pdf le available at [Link]

* One needs to replace habits of thought by necessities of thought.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Vol. I, page 230

he two accurate descriptions of motion available in the year 2000, namely

hat of general relativity and that of the standard model, are both useful and
horoughly beautiful. This millennium description of motion is useful because
its consequences are confirmed by all experiments, to the full measurement precision.
We are able to describe and understand all examples of motion that have ever been encountered. We can use this understanding to save lives, provide food and enjoy life. We
have thus reached a considerable height in our mountain ascent. Our quest for the full
description of motion is not far from completion.
The results of twentieth century physics are also beautiful. By this, physicists just mean
that they can be phrased in simple terms. (This is a poor definition of beauty, but physicists are rarely experts on beauty. Nevertheless, if a physicist has some other concept of
beauty in physics, avoid him, because in that case he is really talking nonsense.) The simplicity of twentieth-century physics is well-known: all motion observed in nature minimizes action. Since in physics, action is a measure of change, we can say that all motion
observed in nature minimizes change. In particular, every example of motion due to general relativity or to the standard model of particle physics minimizes action; both theories
can thus be described concisely with the help of a Lagrangian.
On the other hand, some important aspects of any type of motion, the masses of the
involved elementary particles and the strength of their coupling, are unexplained by general relativity and by the standard model of particle physics. The same applies to the origin of all the particles in the universe, their initial conditions, and the dimensionality of
space-time. Obviously, the millennium description of physics is not yet complete.
The remaining part of our adventure will be the most demanding. In the ascent of any
high mountain, the head gets dizzy because of the lack of oxygen. The finite amount of
energy at our disposal requires that we leave behind all unnecessary baggage and everything that slows us down. In order to determine what is unnecessary, we need to focus on
what we want to achieve. Our aim is the precise description of motion. But even though
general relativity and quantum theory are extremely precise, useful and simple, we do
carry a burden: the two theories and their concepts contradict each other.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Man mu die Denkgewohnheiten durch

Denknotwendigkeiten ersetzen.*
Albert Einstein

54

3 general rel ativit y versus quantum theory

The contradictions

Ref. 38
Vol. II, page 235

In classical physics and in general relativity, the vacuum, or empty space, is a region with
no mass, no energy and no momentum. If particles or gravitational fields are present, the
energy density is not zero, space is curved and there is no complete vacuum.
In everyday life, vacuum has an energy density that cannot be distinguished from
zero. However, general relativity proposes a way to check this with high precision: we
measure the average curvature of the universe. Nowadays, cosmological measurements
performed with dedicated satellites reveal an average energy density E/V of the intergalactic vacuum with the value of
E
0.5 nJ/m3 .
V

Vol. V, page 116

Vol. V, page 122

In short, cosmological data show that the energy density of intergalactic space is not
exactly zero; nevertheless, the measured value is extremely small and can be neglected
in all laboratory experiments.
On the other hand, quantum field theory tells a different story on vacuum energy density. A vacuum is a region with zero-point fluctuations. The energy content of a vacuum
is the sum of the zero-point energies of all the fields it contains. Indeed, the Casimir
effect proves the reality of these zero-point energies. Following quantum field theory,
their energy density is given, within one order of magnitude, by

Page 37

Ref. 40

The approximation is valid for the case in which the cut-off frequency max is much larger
than the rest mass m of the particles corresponding to the field under consideration. The
limit considerations given above imply that the cut-off energy has to be of the order of
the Planck energy c 5 /4G , about 0.6 1019 GeV= 1.0 GJ. That would give a vacuum
energy density of
E
10111 J/m3 ,
(71)
V
which is about 10120 times higher than the experimental measurement. In other words,
something is slightly wrong in the calculation due to quantum field theory.*
General relativity and quantum theory contradict each other in other ways. Gravity
is curved space-time. Extensive research has shown that quantum field theory, which
describes electrodynamics and nuclear forces, fails for situations with strongly curved
space-time. In these cases the concept of particle is not precisely defined. Quantum field
theory cannot be extended to include gravity consistently, and thus to include general relativity. Without the concept of the particle as a discrete entity, we also lose the ability to
perform perturbation calculations and these are the only calculations possible in quan* It is worthwhile to stress that the slight mistake lies in the domain of quantum field theory. There is no
mistake and no mystery, despite the many claims to the contrary found in newspapers and in bad research
articles, in general relativity. This well-known point is made especially clear by Bianchi and Rovelli.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 41

(70)

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

E 4h max 3
h 4
3
d = 3 max
.
V
c
c
0

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 39

(69)

general rel ativit y versus quantum theory

Vol. V, page 271

Vol. V, page 42

Vol. II, page 274

Ref. 42, Ref. 43

Ref. 46

Ref. 47

All contradictions between general relativity and quantum mechanics have the same origin. In 20th-century physics, motion is described in terms of objects, made up of particles,
and space-time, made up of events. Let us see how these two concepts are defined.
* John Archibald Wheeler (19112008), was a physicist and influential teacher who worked on general relativity.
** As we will see below, the strand model provides a way to incorporate fermions into an extremely accurate approximation of general relativity, without requiring any topology change. This effectively invalidates
Wheelers argument.

free pdf le available at [Link]

The origin of the contradictions

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 44, Ref. 45

tum field theory. In short, quantum theory only works because it assumes that gravity
does not exist. Indeed, the gravitational constant G does not appear in any consistent
quantum field theory.
On the other hand, general relativity neglects the commutation rules between physical
quantities discovered in experiments on a microscopic scale. General relativity assumes
that the classical notions of position and momentum of material objects are meaningful.
It thus ignores Plancks constant , and only works by neglecting quantum effects.
The concept of measurement also differs. In general relativity, as in classical physics,
it is assumed that arbitrary precision of measurement is possible for example, by using
finer and finer ruler marks. In quantum mechanics, on the other hand, the precision of
measurement is limited. The indeterminacy relation yields limits that follow from the
mass M of the apparatus.
The contradictions also concern the concept of time. According to relativity and classical physics, time is what is read from clocks. But quantum theory says that precise clocks
do not exist, especially if gravitation is taken into account. What does waiting 10 minutes mean, if the clock goes into a quantum-mechanical superposition as a result of its
coupling to space-time geometry? It means nothing.
Similarly, general relativity implies that space and time cannot be distinguished,
whereas quantum theory implies that matter does make a distinction between them.
Quantum theory is a theory of admittedly weird local observables. In general relativity, there are no local observables, as Einsteins hole argument shows.
The contradiction between the two theories is shown most dramatically by the failure
of general relativity to describe the pair creation of particles with spin 1/2, a typical and
essential quantum process. John Wheeler* and others have argued that, in such a case, the
topology of space necessarily has to change; in general relativity, however, the topology
of space is fixed. Equivalently, quantum theory says that matter is made of fermions, but
fermions cannot be incorporated into general relativity.**
Another striking contradiction was pointed out by Jrgen Ehlers. Quantum theory is
built on point particles, and point particles move on time-like world lines. But following
general relativity, point particles have a singularity inside their black hole horizon; and
singularities always move on space-like world lines. The two theories thus contradict each
other at smallest distances.
No description of nature that contains contradictions can lead to a unified description or to a completely correct description. To eliminate the contradictions, we need to
understand their origin.

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55

56

Ref. 48

3 general rel ativit y versus quantum theory

The domain of contradictions: Planck scales

rS = 2Gm/c 2 .

Challenge 31 e

The gravitational constant G and the speed of light c act as conversion constants. Indeed,
as the Schwarzschild radius of an object is approached, the difference between general
relativity and the classical 1/r 2 description of gravity becomes larger and larger. For example, the barely measurable gravitational deflection of light by the Sun is due to the
light approaching the Sun to within 2.4 105 times its Schwarzschild radius. Usually, we
are forced to stay away from objects at a distance that is an even larger multiple of the
Schwarzschild radius, as shown in Table 2. Only for this reason is general relativity unnecessary in everyday life. We recall that objects whose size is given by their Schwarzschild
radius are black holes; smaller objects cannot exist.
* In the following, we use the terms vacuum and empty space interchangeably.

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Ref. 42, Ref. 49

(72)

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Despite their contradictions and the underlying circular definition, both general relativity and quantum theory are successful theories for the description of nature: they agree
with all data. How can this be?
Each theory of modern physics provides a criterion for determining when it is necessary and when classical Galilean physics is no longer applicable. These criteria are the
basis for many arguments in the following chapters.
General relativity shows that it is necessary to take into account the curvature of empty
space* and space-time whenever we approach an object of mass m to within a distance
of the order of the Schwarzschild radius rS , given by

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

A particle and in general any object is defined as a conserved entity that has a
position and that can move. In fact, the etymology of the word object is connected to the
latter property. In other words, a particle is a small entity with conserved mass, charge,
spin and so on, whose position can vary with time.
An event is a point in space and time. In every physics text, time is defined with the
help of moving objects, usually called clocks, or moving particles, such as those emitted by light sources. Similarly, length is defined in terms of objects, either with an oldfashioned ruler or in terms of the motion of light, which is itself motion of particles.
Modern physics has sharpened our definitions of particles and space-time. Quantum
mechanics assumes that space-time is given (as a symmetry of the Hamiltonian), and
studies the properties of particles and their motion, both for matter and for radiation.
Quantum theory has deduced the full list of properties that define a particle. General relativity, and especially cosmology, takes the opposite approach: it assumes that the properties of matter and radiation are given (for example, via their equations of state), and
describes in detail the space-time that follows from them, in particular its curvature.
However, one fact remains unchanged throughout all these advances: in the millennium description of nature, the two concepts of particle and of space-time are each defined
with the help of the other. To eliminate the contradictions between quantum mechanics
and general relativity, and to formulate a complete theory, we must eliminate this circular
definition.

general rel ativit y versus quantum theory

57

TA B L E 2 The size, Schwarzschild radius and Compton wavelength of some objects appearing in nature.
The lengths in quotation marks make no physical sense, as explained in the text.

DiMass m
ameter
d

S c h wa r z - R a t i o
schild
d/rS
r a d i u s rS

C o m p t o n R at i o
d/C
wav e length
C (red.)

galaxy
neutron star
Sun
Earth
human
molecule
atom (12 C)
proton p
pion
up-quark u
electron e
neutrino e

1 Zm 5 1040 kg
10 km 2.8 1030 kg
1.4 Gm 2.0 1030 kg
13 Mm 6.0 1024 kg
1.8 m 75 kg
10 nm 0.57 zg
0.6 nm 20 yg
2 fm
1.7 yg
2 fm
0.24 yg
< 0.1 fm 5 1030 kg
< 4 am 9.1 1031 kg
< 4 am < 3 1036 kg

70 Tm
4.2 km
3.0 km
8.9 mm
0.11 ym
8.5 1052 m
3.0 1053 m
2.5 1054 m
3.6 1055 m
7 1057 m
1.4 1057 m
< 5 1063 m

1083 m
1.3 1073 m
1.0 1073 m
5.8 1068 m
4.7 1045 m
6.2 1019 m
1.8 1017 m
2.0 1016 m
1.5 1015 m
7 1014 m
3.9 1013 m
> 1 107 m

107
2.4
4.8 105
1.4 109
1.6 1025
1.2 1043
2.0 1043
8.0 1038
5.6 1039
< 1 1040
< 3 1039
n.a.

10104
8.0 1076
8.0 1081
2.2 1074
3.8 1044
1.6 1010
3.2 107
9.6
1.4
< 0.001
< 1 105
< 3 1011

C =

.
mc

(73)

lPl = G/c 3

= 1.6 1035 m, the Planck length,

tPl = G/c 5

= 5.4 1044 s, the Planck time.

(74)

Whenever we approach objects at these scales, both general relativity and quantum mechanics play a role, and effects of quantum gravity appear. Because the values of the

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In this case, Plancks constant and the speed of light c act as conversion factors to
transform the mass m into a length scale. Of course, this length is only relevant if the
object is smaller than its own Compton wavelength. At these scales we get relativistic
quantum effects, such as particleantiparticle pair creation or annihilation. Table 2 shows
that the approach distance is near to or smaller than the Compton wavelength only in
the microscopic world, so that such effects are not observed in everyday life. Only for
this reason we do not need quantum field theory to describe common observations.
Combining concepts of quantum field theory and general relativity is required in situations where both conditions are satisfied simultaneously. The necessary approach distance for such situations is calculated by setting rS = 2C (the factor 2 is introduced for
simplicity). We find that this is the case when lengths or times are (of the order of)

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Similarly, quantum mechanics shows that Galilean physics must be abandoned and
quantum effects must be taken into account whenever an object is approached to within
distances of the order of the (reduced) Compton wavelength C , given by

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Object

58

Challenge 32 e

3 general rel ativit y versus quantum theory

Resolving the contradictions

General relativity is built on the assumption that space is a continuum of points. Already at school we learn that lines, surfaces and areas are made of points. We take this as
granted, because we imagine that finer and finer measurements are always possible. And

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The origin of points

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

The contradictions between general relativity and quantum theory have little practical
consequences. Therefore, for a long time, the contradictions were accommodated by
keeping the two theories separate. One often hears the statement that quantum mechanics is valid at small scales and general relativity is valid at large scales. This attitude is
acceptable as long as we remain far from the Planck length. However, this accomodating
attitude also prevents us from resolving the circular definition, the contradictions and
therefore, the millennium issues.
The situation resembles the well-known drawing, Figure 2, by Maurits Escher (b. 1898
Leeuwarden, d. 1972 Hilversum) in which two hands, each holding a pencil, seem to
be drawing each other. If one hand is taken as a symbol of vacuum and the other as a
symbol of particles, with the act of drawing taken as the act of defining, the picture gives
a description of twentieth-century physics. The apparent circular definition is solved by
recognizing that the two concepts (the two hands) both originate from a third, hidden
concept. In the picture, this third entity is the hand of the artist. In physics, the third
concept is the common origin of vacuum and particles.
We thus conclude that the contradictions in physics and the circular definition are
solved by common constituents for vacuum and matter. In order to find out what these
common constituents are and what they are not, we must explore the behaviour of nature
at the Planck scales.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Planck dimensions are extremely small, this level of sophistication is unnecessary in

everyday life, in astronomy and even in particle physics.
In the millennium description of nature, all the contradictions and also the circular
definition just mentioned are effective only at Planck scales. You can check this yourself.
This is the reason that general relativity and quantum theory work so well in practice.
However, to answer the questions posed at the beginning why do we live in three dimensions, why are there three interactions, and why is the proton 1836.15 times heavier
than the electron? we require a precise and complete description of nature. To answer
these questions, we must understand physics at Planck scales.
In summary, general relativity and quantum theory do contradict each other. However, the domains where these contradictions play a role, the Planck scales, are not accessible by experiment. As a consequence, the contradictions and our lack of knowledge of
how nature behaves at the Planck scales have only one effect: we do not see the solutions
to the millennium issues.
We note that some people argue that the Planck scales specify only one of several domains of nature where quantum mechanics and general relativity apply simultaneously.
They mention horizons and the big bang as separate domains. However, it is more appropriate to argue that horizons and the big bang are situations where Planck scales are
essential.

general rel ativit y versus quantum theory

59

F I G U R E 2 Tekenen by Maurits

General relativity and quantum theory contradict each other. In practice however, this
happens only at Planck scales. The reason for the contradiction is the insistence on a
circular definition of space and particles. Only such a circular definition allows us to
define points and point particles.
In order to solve the contradictions and to understand nature at Planck scales, we
must introduce common constituents for space and particles. But common constituents
have an important consequence: common constituents force us to stop using points to
describe nature. We now explore this connection.

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Summary on the clash between the two theories

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

all experiments so far agree with the assumption. Fact is: in this reasoning, we first idealized measurement rulers which are made of matter and then deduced that points
in space exist.
Quantum theory is built on the assumption that elementary particles are point-like.
We take this as granted, because we imagine that collisions at higher and higher energy
are possible that allow elementary particles to get as close as possible. And all experiments so far agree with the assumption. Fact is: in this reasoning, we first imagined infinite energy and momentum values which is a statement on time and space properties
and then deduce that point particles exist.
In short, only the circular definition of space and matter allows us to define points and
point particles! This puts us in a strange situation. On the one hand, experiment tells us
that describing nature with space points and with point particles works. On the other
hand, reason tells us that this is a fallacy and cannot be correct at Planck scales. We need
a solution.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Escher, 1948 a metaphor for the

way in which particles and
space-time are usually dened: each
with the help of the other
( M.C. Escher Heirs).

3 general rel ativit y versus quantum theory

60

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

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Chapter 4

D OES MAT TER DI FFER FROM

VAC UUM?

Vol. II, page 24

Farewell to instants of time

Ref. 50, Ref. 51

Ref. 52, Ref. 53

Ref. 54

* Moses Maimonides (b. 1135 Cordoba, d. 1204 Egypt) was a physician, philosopher and influential theologian.

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Measurement limits appear most clearly when we investigate the properties of clocks and
metre rules. Is it possible to construct a clock that is able to measure time intervals shorter
than the Planck time? Surprisingly, the answer is no, even though the timeenergy indeterminacy relation Et seems to indicate that by making E large enough, we can
make t arbitrary small.
Every clock is a device with some moving parts. Parts can be mechanical wheels, particles of matter in motion, changing electrodynamic fields (i.e., photons), or decaying
radioactive particles. For each moving component of a clock the indeterminacy relation
applies. As explained most clearly by Michael Raymer, the indeterminacy relation for
two non-commuting variables describes two different, but related, situations: it makes
a statement about standard deviations of separate measurements on many identical systems; and it describes the measurement precision for a joint measurement on a single
system. In what follows, we will consider only the second situation.
For a clock to be useful, we need to know both the time and the energy of each hand.
Otherwise it would not be a recording device. More generally, a clock must be a classical system. We need the combined knowledge of the non-commuting variables for each
moving component of the clock. Let us focus on the component with the largest time indeterminacy t. It is evident that the smallest time interval t that can be measured by

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Time is composed of time atoms ... which in

fact are indivisible.
Maimonides*

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

he appearance of the quantum of action in the description of motion leads

o limitations for all measurements: Heisenbergs indeterminacy relations.
he indeterminacy relations, when combined with the effects of gravitation,
imply an almost unbelievable series of consequences for the behaviour of nature at
Planck scales. The most important consequences are the necessity to abandon points,
instants and events, and the equivalence of vacuum and matter. These surprising and important conclusions follow from simple arguments based on the indeterminacy relations,
the Compton wavelength and the Schwarzschild radius.

62

4 d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

a clock is always larger than the quantum limit, i.e., larger than the time indeterminacy
t for the most uncertain component. Thus we have
t t

,
E

(75)

where E is the energy indeterminacy of the moving component, and E must be

smaller than the total energy E = c 2 m of the component itself.* Furthermore, a clock
provides information, so signals have to be able to leave it. Therefore the clock must not
be a black hole: its mass m must be smaller than a black hole of its size, i.e., m c 2 l/G,
where l is the size of the clock (neglecting factors of order unity). Finally, for a sensible
measurement of the time interval t, the size l of the clock must be smaller than c t,
because otherwise different parts of the clock could not work together to produce the
same time display.** If we combine all these conditions, we get
G
c 5 t

(76)

or
t

Vol. II, page 158

Ref. 49

Ref. 55, Ref. 56

Ref. 57, Ref. 58

In summary, from three simple properties of any clock namely, that it is only a single
clock, that we can read its dial, and that it gives sensible read-outs we conclude that
clocks cannot measure time intervals shorter than the Planck time. Note that this argument
is independent of the nature of the clock mechanism. Whether the clock operates by
gravitational, electrical, mechanical or even nuclear means, the limit still applies.***
The same conclusion can be reached in other ways. For example, any clock small
enough to measure small time intervals necessarily has a certain energy indeterminacy
due to the indeterminacy relation. Meanwhile, on the basis of general relativity, any energy density induces a deformation of space-time, and signals from the deformed region
arrive with a certain delay due to that deformation. The energy indeterminacy of the
source leads to an indeterminacy in the deformation, and thus in the delay. The expression from general relativity for the deformation of the time part of the line element due to
a mass m is t = mG/l c 3 . From the massenergy relation, we see that an energy spread

* Physically, this condition means being sure that there is only one clock: if E > E, it would be impossible
to distinguish between a single clock and a clockanticlock pair created from the vacuum, or a component
together with two such pairs, and so on.
** It is amusing to explore how a clock larger than c t would stop working, as a result of the loss of rigidity
in its components.
*** Gravitation is essential here. The present argument differs from the well-known study on the limitations
of clocks due to their mass and their measuring time which was published by Salecker and Wigner and
summarized in pedagogical form by Zimmerman. In our case, both quantum mechanics and gravity are
included, and therefore a different, lower, and more fundamental limit is found. Also the discovery of black
hole radiation does not change the argument: black hole radiation notwithstanding, measurement devices
cannot exist inside black holes.

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Challenge 33 s

(77)

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 59

G
= tPl .
c5

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

63

E produces an indeterminacy t in the delay:

t =

(78)

Farewell to points in space

Our greatest pretenses are built up not to hide

the evil and the ugly in us, but our emptiness.
The hardest thing to hide is something that is
not there.
Eric Hoffer,* The Passionate State of Mind

* Eric Hoffer (b. 1902 New York City, d. 1983 San Francisco), philosopher.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 23

In a similar way, we can deduce that it is impossible to make a metre rule, or any other
length-measuring device, that is able to measure lengths shorter than the Planck length.
Obviously, we can already deduce this from lPl = c tPl , but an independent proof is also
possible.
For any length measurement, joint measurements of position and momentum are necessary. The most straightforward way to measure the distance between two points is to
put an object at rest at each position. Now, the minimal length l that can be measured
must be larger than the position indeterminacy of the two objects. From the indeterminacy relation we know that neither objects position can be determined with a precision
l better than that given by l p = , where p is the momentum indeterminacy. The

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

This determines the precision of the clock. Furthermore, the energy indeterminacy of
the clock is fixed by the indeterminacy relation for time and energy E /t, which is
in turn fixed by the precision of the clock. Combining all this, we again find the relation
t tPl for the minimum measurable time.
We are forced to conclude that in nature there is a minimum time interval. In other
words, at Planck scales the term instant of time has no theoretical or experimental basis.
But let us go on. Special relativity, quantum mechanics and general relativity all rely
on the idea that time can be defined for all points of a given reference frame. However,
two clocks a distance l apart cannot be synchronized with arbitrary precision. Since the
distance between two clocks cannot be measured with an error smaller than the Planck
length lPl , and transmission of signals is necessary for synchronization, it is not possible
to synchronize two clocks with a better precision than lPl /c = tPl , the Planck time. So
use of a single time coordinate for a whole reference frame is only an approximation.
Reference frames do not have a single time coordinate at Planck scales.
Moreover, since the time difference between events can only be measured within a
Planck time, for two events distant in time by this order of magnitude, it is not possible
to say with complete certainty which of the two precedes the other. But if events cannot
be ordered, then the very concept of time, which was introduced into physics to describe
sequences, makes no sense at Planck scales. In other words, after dropping the idea of a
common time coordinate for a complete frame of reference, we are forced to drop the
idea of time at a single point as well. The concept of proper time loses its meaning at
Planck scales.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 60

E G
.
l c5

64

4 d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

requirement that there be only one object at each end (avoiding pair production from
the vacuum) means that p < mc: together, these requirements give
l l

.
mc

(79)

Furthermore, the measurement cannot be performed if signals cannot leave the objects;
thus, they cannot be black holes. Therefore their masses must be small enough for their
Schwarzschild radius rS = 2Gm/c 2 to be less than the distance l separating them. Again
omitting the factor of 2, we get
l

Ref. 23
Ref. 61
Ref. 62, Ref. 63

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Length measurements are limited by the Planck length.

Another way to deduce this limit reverses the roles of general relativity and quantum
theory. To measure the distance between two objects, we have to localize the first object
with respect to the other within a certain interval x. The corresponding energy indeterminacy obeys E = c(c 2 m2 + (p)2 )1/2 c/x. However, general relativity shows that
a small volume filled with energy changes the curvature of space-time, and thus changes
the metric of the surrounding space. For the resulting distance change l, compared
with empty space, we find the expression l GE/c 4 . In short, if we localize the first
particle in space with a precision x, the distance to a second particle is known only with
precision l. The minimum length l that can be measured is obviously larger than either of these quantities; inserting the expression for E, we find again that the minimum
measurable length l is given by the Planck length.
We note that every length measurement requires a joint measurement of position and
momentum. This is particularly obvious if we approach a metre ruler to an object, but it
is equally true for any other length measurement.
We note that, since the Planck length is the shortest possible length, there can be
no observations of quantum-mechanical effects for a situation where the corresponding de Broglie or Compton wavelength is smaller than the Planck length. In proton
proton collisions we observe both pair production and interference effects. In contrast,
the Planck limit implies that in everyday, macroscopic situations, such as carcar collisions, we cannot observe embryoantiembryo pair production and quantum interference effects.
Another way to convince oneself that points have no meaning is to observe that a point
is an entity with vanishing volume; however, the minimum volume possible in nature is
3
the Planck volume VPl = lPl
.
We conclude that the Planck units not only provide natural units; they also provide
within a factor of order one the limit values of space and time intervals.
In summary, from two simple properties common to all length-measuring devices,
namely that they are discrete and that they can be read, we arrive at the conclusion that
lengths smaller than the Planck length cannot be measured. Whatever method is used, be it
a metre rule or time-of-flight measurement, we cannot overcome this fundamental limit.
It follows that the concept of a point in space has no experimental basis.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 25

(80)

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 42, Ref. 49

G
= lPl .
c3

d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

65

The limitations on length measurements imply that we cannot speak of continuous

space, except in an approximate sense. As a result of the lack of measurement precision
at Planck scales, the concepts of spatial order, of translation invariance, of isotropy of the
vacuum and of global coordinate systems have no experimental basis.
The generalized indeterminacy relation
Ref. 23

The limit values for length and time measurements are often expressed by the so-called
generalized indeterminacy relation
G
(p)2
c3

(81)

px /2 + f

2
lPl
(p)2 ,

(82)

or

Challenge 34 e

Ref. 66, Ref. 67

Ref. 68

Farewell to space-time continuity

Ich betrachte es als durchaus mglich, dass die Physik nicht auf dem Feldbegriff
begrndet werden kann, d.h. auf kontinuierlichen Gebilden. Dann bleibt von
meinem ganzen Luftschloss inklusive Gravitationstheorie nichts bestehen.*
Albert Einstein, 1954, in a letter to Michele Besso.

* I consider it as quite possible that physics cannot be based on the field concept, i.e., on continuous structures. In that case, nothing remains of my castle in the air, gravitation theory included.

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Ref. 69

We remember that quantum mechanics begins with the realization that the classical concept of action makes no sense below the value of /2; similarly, unified theories begin
with the realization that the classical concepts of time and length make no sense below
Planck scales. However, the 20th-century description of nature does contain such small
values: it involves intervals smaller than the smallest measurable one. Therefore, the continuum description of space-time has to be abandoned in favour of a more appropriate
description.
The minimum length distance, the minimum time interval, and equivalently, the new,
generalized indeterminacy relation appearing at Planck scales show that space, time and

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 23
Ref. 64, Ref. 65

where f is a numerical factor of order unity. A similar expression holds for the time
energy indeterminacy relation. The first term on the right-hand side is the usual
quantum-mechanical indeterminacy. The second term is negligible for everyday energies, and is significant only near Planck energies; it is due to the changes in space-time
induced by gravity at these high energies. You should be able to show that the generalized
principle (81) implies that x can never be smaller than f 1/2 lPl .
The generalized indeterminacy relation is derived in exactly the same way in which
Heisenberg derived the original indeterminacy relation px /2, namely by studying
the scattering of light by an object under a microscope. A careful re-evaluation of the
process, this time including gravity, yields equation (81). For this reason, all descriptions
that unify quantum mechanics and gravity must yield this relation, and indeed all known
approaches do so.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

px /2 + f

66

4 d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

in particular, space-time, are not well described as a continuum. Inserting cp E

/t into equation (81), we get
xt G/c 4 = tPl lPl ,

(83)

which of course has no counterpart in standard quantum mechanics. This shows that
also space-time events do not exist. The concept of an event, being a combination of a
point in space and an instant of time, loses its meaning for the description of nature at
Planck scales.
Interestingly, the view that continuity must be abandoned is almost one hundred years
old. Already in 1917, Albert Einstein wrote in a letter to Werner Dllenbach:
Ref. 70

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

* If the molecular conception of matter is the right (appropriate) one, i.e., if a part of the world is to be
represented by a finite number of moving points, then the continuum of the present theory contains too
great a manifold of possibilities. I also believe that this too great is responsible for our present means of
description failing for quantum theory. The questions seems to me how one can formulate statements about
a discontinuum without using a continuum (space-time) as an aid; the latter should be banned from the
theory as a supplementary construction not justified by the essence of the problem, which corresponds to
nothing real. But unfortunately we still lack the mathematical form. How much have I already plagued
myself in this direction!

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Wenn die molekulare Auffassung der Materie die richtige (zweckmssige) ist, d.h. wenn ein Teil Welt durch eine endliche Zahl bewegter Punkte
darzustellen ist, so enthlt das Kontinuum der heutigen Theorie zu viel Mannigfaltigkeit der Mglichkeiten. Auch ich glaube, dass dieses zu viel daran
schuld ist, dass unsere heutige Mittel der Beschreibung an der Quantentheorie scheitern. Die Frage scheint mir, wie man ber ein Diskontinuum Aussagen formulieren kann, ohne ein Kontinuum (Raum-Zeit) zu Hilfe zu nehmen; letzteres wre als eine im Wesen des Problems nicht gerechtfertigte
zustzliche Konstruktion, der nichts Reales entspricht, aus der Theorie zu
verbannen. Dazu fehlt uns aber leider noch die mathematische Form. Wie
viel habe ich mich in diesem Sinne schon geplagt!
Allerdings sehe ich auch hier prinzipielle Schwierigkeiten. Die Elektronen (als Punkte) wren in einem solchen System letzte Gegebenheiten (Bausteine). Gibt es berhaupt letzte Bausteine? Warum sind diese alle von gleicher Grsse? Ist es befriedigend zu sagen: Gott hat sie in seiner Weisheit alle
gleich gross gemacht, jedes wie jedes andere, weil er so wollte; er htte sie
auch, wenn es ihm gepasst htte, verschieden machen knnen. Da ist man
bei der Kontinuum-Auffassung besser dran, weil man nicht von Anfang an
die Elementar-Bausteine angeben muss. Ferner die alte Frage vom Vakuum!
Aber diese Bedenken mssen verblassen hinter der blendenden Tatsache:
Das Kontinuum ist ausfhrlicher als die zu beschreibenden Dinge...
Lieber Dllenbach! Was hilft alles Argumentieren, wenn man nicht bis zu
einer befriedigenden Auffassung durchdringt; das aber ist verteufelt schwer.
Es wird einen schweren Kampf kosten, bis man diesen Schritt, der uns da
vorschwebt, wirklich gemacht haben wird. Also strengen Sie Ihr Gehirn an,
vielleicht zwingen Sie es.*

d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

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Yet I also see difficulties of principle. In such a system the electrons (as points) would be the ultimate
entities (building blocks). Do ultimate building blocks really exist? Why are they all of equal size? Is it
satisfactory to say: God in his wisdom made them all equally big, each like every other one, because he
wanted it that way; he could also have made them, if he had wanted, all different. With the continuum
viewpoint one is better off, because one doesnt have to prescribe elementary building blocks from the outset.
Furthermore, the old question of the vacuum! But these considerations must pale beside the dazzling fact:
The continuum is more ample than the things to be described...
Dear Dllenbach! All arguing does not help if one does not achieve a satisfying conception; but this is
devilishly difficult. It will cost a difficult fight until the step that we are thinking of will be realized. Thus,
squeeze your brain, maybe you can force it.
Compare this letter to what Einstein wrote almost twenty and almost forty years later.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 82

The second half of this text will propose a way to rise to the challenge. At this point
however, we first complete the exploration of the limitations of continuum physics.
In 20th century physics, space-time points are idealizations of events but this idealization is inadequate. The use of the concept of point is similar to the use of the concept
of aether a century ago: it is impossible to measure or detect. Like the aether, also
points lead reason astray.
All paradoxes resulting from the infinite divisibility of space and time, such as Zenos
argument on the impossibility of distinguishing motion from rest, or the BanachTarski
paradox, are now avoided. We can dismiss them straight away because of their incorrect
premises concerning the nature of space and time.
The consequences of the Planck limits for measurements of time and space can be
expressed in other ways. It is often said that given any two points in space or any two
instants of time, there is always a third in between. Physicists sloppily call this property
continuity, while mathematicians call it denseness. However, at Planck scales this property cannot hold, since there are no intervals smaller than the Planck time. Thus points
and instants are not dense, and between two points there is not always a third. This results
again means that space and time are not continuous. Of course, at large scales they are
approximately continuous, in the same way that a piece of rubber or a liquid seems
continuous at everyday scales, even though it is not at a small scale. But in nature, space,
time and space-time are not continuous entities.
But there is more to come. The very existence of a minimum length contradicts the
theory of special relativity, in which it is shown that lengths undergo Lorentz contraction
when the frame of reference is changed. There is only one conclusion: special relativity
(and general relativity) cannot be correct at very small distances. Thus, space-time is not
Lorentz-invariant (nor diffeomorphism-invariant) at Planck scales. All the symmetries
that are at the basis of special and general relativity are only approximately valid at Planck
scales.
The imprecision of measurement implies that most familiar concepts used to describe
spatial relations become useless. For example, the concept of a metric loses its usefulness
at Planck scales, since distances cannot be measured with precision. So it is impossible
to say whether space is flat or curved. The impossibility of measuring lengths exactly is
equivalent to fluctuations of the curvature, and thus of gravity.
In short, space and space-time are not smooth at Planck scales. This conclusion has
important implications. For example, the conclusion implies that certain mathematical
solutions found in books on general relativity, such as the EddingtonFinkelstein coordinates and the KruskalSzekeres coordinates do not describe nature! Indeed, these co-

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 23, Ref. 71

67

68

4 d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

ordinate systems, which claim to show that space-time goes on behind the horizon of a
black hole, are based on the idea that space-time is smooth everywhere. However, quantum physics shows that space-time is not smooth at the horizon, but fluctuates wildly
there. In short, quantum physics confirms what common sense already knew: behind a
horizon, nothing can be observed, and thus there is nothing there.
Farewell to dimensionality

Ref. 72

* For example, we can determine the dimension using only the topological properties of space. If we draw a
so-called covering of a topological space with open sets, there are always points that are elements of several
sets of the covering. Let p be the maximal number of sets of which a point can be an element in a given
covering. The minimum value of p over all possible coverings, minus one, gives the dimension of the space.
In fact, if physical space is not a manifold, the various methods for determining the dimensionality may
give different answers. Indeed, for linear spaces without norm, the dimensionality cannot be defined in a
unique way. Different definitions (fractal dimension, Lyapunov dimension, etc.) are possible.
** Where does the incorrect idea of continuous space-time have its roots? In everyday life, as well as in

free pdf le available at [Link]

The reasons for the problems with space-time become most evident when we remember
Euclids well-known definition: A point is that which has no part. As Euclid clearly understood, a physical point, as an idealization of position, cannot be defined without some
measurement method. Mathematical points, however, can be defined without reference
to a metric. They are just elements of a set, usually called a space. (A measurable or
metric space is a set of points equipped with a measure or a metric.)
In the case of physical space-time, the concepts of measure and of metric are more
fundamental than that of a point. Confusion between physical and mathematical space
and points arises from the failure to distinguish a mathematical metric from a physical
length measurement.**

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Farewell to the space-time manifold

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Even the number of spatial dimensions makes no sense at Planck scales. Let us remind
ourselves how to determine this number experimentally. One possible way is to determine how many points we can choose in space such that all the distances between them
are equal. If we can find at most n such points, the space has n 1 dimensions. But if
reliable length measurement at Planck scales is not possible, there is no way to determine
reliably the number of dimensions of space with this method.
Another way to check for three spatial dimensions is to make a knot in a shoe string
and glue the ends together: since it stays knotted, we know that space has three dimensions, because there is a mathematical theorem that in spaces with greater or fewer than
three dimensions, knots do not exist. Again, at Planck scales, we cannot say whether a
string is knotted or not, because measurement limits at crossings make it impossible to
say which strand lies above the other.
There are many other methods for determining the dimensionality of space.* In all
cases, the definition of dimensionality is based on a precise definition of the concept of
neighbourhood. At Planck scales, however, length measurements do not allow us to say
whether a given point is inside or outside a given region. In short, whatever method we
use, the lack of precise length measurements means that at Planck scales, the dimensionality of physical space is not defined.

d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

Vol. I, page 57
Ref. 73

69

Vol. V, page 350

physics, space-time is a book-keeping device introduced to describe observations. Its properties are extracted from the properties of observables. Since observables can be added and multiplied, like numbers,
we infer that they can take continuous values, and, in particular, arbitrarily small values. It is then possible
to define points and sets of points. A special field of mathematics, topology, shows how to start from a set of
points and construct, with the help of neighbourhood relations and separation properties, first a topological
space, then, with the help of a metric, a metric space. With the appropriate compactness and connectedness
relations, a manifold, characterized by its dimension, metric and topology, can be constructed.
* A manifold is what looks locally like a Euclidean space. The exact definition can be found in the previous
volume.

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If space and time are not continuous, no quantities defined as derivatives with respect
to space or time are precisely defined. Velocity, acceleration, momentum, energy and
so on are only well defined under the assumption of continuity. That important tool,
the evolution equation, is based on derivatives and can thus no longer be used. Therefore the Schrdinger and Dirac equations lose their basis. Concepts such as derivative,
divergence-free and source free lose their meaning at Planck scales.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Farewell to observables, symmetries and measurements

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Perhaps the most beautiful way to make this point is the BanachTarski theorem,
which clearly shows the limits of the concept of volume. The theorem states that a sphere
made up of mathematical points can be cut into five pieces in such a way that the pieces
can be put together to form two spheres, each of the same volume as the original one.
However, the necessary cuts are infinitely curved and detailed: the pieces are wildly
disconnected. For physical matter such as gold, unfortunately or fortunately the existence of a minimum length, namely the atomic distance, makes it impossible to perform
such a cut. For vacuum, the puzzle reappears. For example, the energy of zero-point
fluctuations is given by the density times the volume; following the BanachTarski theorem, the zero-point energy content of a single sphere should be equal to the zero-point
energy of two similar spheres each of the same volume as the original one. The paradox
is resolved by the Planck length, which provides a fundamental length scale even for vacuum, thus making infinitely complex cuts impossible. Therefore, the concept of volume
is only well defined at Planck scales if a minimum length is introduced.
To sum up, physical space-time cannot be a set of mathematical points.
But there are more surprises. At Planck scales, since both temporal and spatial order
break down, there is no way to say if the distance between two nearby space-time regions
is space-like or time-like. At Planck scales, time and space cannot be distinguished from
each other.
In addition, we cannot state that the topology of space-time is fixed, as general relativity implies. The topology changes, mentioned above, that are required for particle
reactions do become possible. In this way another of the contradictions between general
relativity and quantum theory is resolved.
In summary, space-time at Planck scales is not continuous, not ordered, not endowed
with a metric, not four-dimensional, and not made up of points. It satisfies none of the
defining properties of a manifold.* We conclude that the concept of a space-time manifold
has no justification at Planck scales. This is a strong result. Even though both general
relativity and quantum mechanics use continuous space-time, the combined theory does
not.

70

4 d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

Ref. 75
Ref. 76
Ref. 77

Let us take a breath. Can a space-time lattice be an alternative to continuity?

Discrete models of space-time have been studied since the 1940s. Recently, the idea
that space-time could be described as a lattice like a crystal has been explored most
notably by David Finkelstein and by Gerard t Hooft. The idea of space-time as a lattice
is based on the idea that, if there is a minimum distance, then all distances are multiples
of this minimum.

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Ref. 74

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Can space-time be a lattice?

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

All physical observables are defined using length and time measurements. Each physical unit is a product of powers of length and time (and mass) units. (In the SI system,
electrical quantities have a separate base quantity, the ampere, but the argument still
holds: the ampere is itself defined in terms of a force, which is measured using the three
base units of length, time and mass.) Since time and length are not continuous, at Planck
scales, observables cannot be described by real numbers.
In addition, if time and space are not continuous, the usual expression for an observable field, A(t, x), does not make sense: we have to find a more appropriate description.
Physical fields cannot exist at Planck scales. Quantum mechanics also relies on the possibility to add wavefunctions; this is sometimes called the superposition principle. Without
fields and superpositions, all of quantum mechanics comes crumbling down.
The lack of real numbers has severe consequences. It makes no sense to define multiplication of observables by real numbers, but only by a discrete set of numbers. Among
other implications, this means that observables do not form a linear algebra. Observables are not described by operators at Planck scales. In particular, the most important
observables are the gauge potentials. Since they do not form an algebra, gauge symmetry
is not valid at Planck scales. Even innocuous-looking expressions such as [xi , x j ] = 0 for
xi = x j , which are at the root of quantum field theory, become meaningless at Planck
scales. Since at those scales superpositions cannot be backed up by experiment, even the
famous WheelerDeWitt equation, often assumed to describe quantum gravity, cannot
be valid.
Similarly, permutation symmetry is based on the premise that we can distinguish two
points by their coordinates, and then exchange particles between those locations. As we
have just seen, this is not possible if the distance between the two particles is very small.
We conclude that permutation symmetry has no experimental basis at Planck scales.
Even discrete symmetries, like charge conjugation, space inversion and time reversal, cannot be correct in this domain, because there is no way to verify them exactly by
measurement. CPT symmetry is not valid at Planck scales.
Finally we note that all types of scaling relations break down at small scales, because
of the existence of a smallest length. As a result, the renormalization group breaks down
at Planck scales.
In summary, due to the impossibility of accurate measurements, all symmetries break
down at Planck scales. (For example, supersymmetry cannot be valid at Planck scale.) All
these results are consistent: if there are no symmetries at Planck scales, there are also no
observables, since physical observables are representations of symmetry groups. In fact,
the limitations on time and length measurements imply that the concept of measurement
has no significance at Planck scales.

d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

Ref. 78

71

In order to get an isotropic and homogeneous situation for large, everyday scales, the
structure of space-time cannot be periodic, but must be random. But not only must it be
random in space, it must also be fluctuating in time. In fact, any fixed structure for spacetime would violate the result that there are no lengths smaller than the Planck length:
as a result of the Lorentz contraction, any moving observer would find lattice distances
smaller than the Planck value. Worse still, the fixed lattice idea conflicts with general
relativity, in particular with the diffeomorphism-invariance of the vacuum.
Thus, space-time cannot be a lattice. A minimum distance does exist in nature; however, we cannot hope that all other distances are simple multiples of it. We will discover
more evidence for this negative conclusion later on.
But in fact, many discrete models of space and time have a much bigger limitation.
Any such model has to answer a simple question: Where is a particle during the jump
from one lattice point to the next? This simple question eliminates most naive space-time
models.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 26

Given that space-time is not a set of points or events, it must be something else. We have
three hints at this stage. The first is that in order to improve our description of motion
we must abandon points, and with them, abandon the local description of nature. Both
quantum mechanics and general relativity assume that the phrase observable at a point
has a precise meaning. Because it is impossible to describe space as a manifold, this
expression is no longer useful. The unification of general relativity and quantum physics
forces the adoption of a non-local description of nature at Planck scales. This is the first
hint.
The existence of a minimum length implies that there is no way to physically distinguish between locations that are even closer together. We are tempted to conclude that
no pair of locations can be distinguished, even if they are one metre apart, since on any
path joining two points, no two locations that are close together can be distinguished.
The problem is similar to the question about the size of a cloud or of an atom. If we
measure water density or electron density, we find non-vanishing values at any distance
from the centre of the cloud or the atom; however, an effective size can still be defined,
because it is very unlikely that the effects of the presence of a cloud or of an atom can
be seen at distances much larger than this effective size. Similarly, we can guess that two
points in space-time at a macroscopic distance from each other can be distinguished because the probability that they will be confused drops rapidly with increasing distance.
In short, we are thus led to a probabilistic description of space-time. This is the second
hint. Space-time becomes a macroscopic observable, a statistical or thermodynamic limit
of some microscopic entities. This is our second hint.
We note that a fluctuating structure for space-time also avoids the problems of fixed
structures with Lorentz invariance. In summary, the experimental observations of special relativity Lorentz invariance, isotropy and homogeneity together with the notion
of a minimum distance, point towards a description of space-time as fluctuating. This is
the third hint.
Several independent research efforts in quantum gravity have independently confirmed that a non-local and fluctuating description of space-time at Planck scales resolves

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

A glimpse of quantum geometry

72

4 d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

the contradictions between general relativity and quantum theory. These are our first results on quantum geometry. To clarify the issue, we turn to the concept of the particle.
Farewell to point particles

Vol. V, page 254

Page 57

Ref. 79

(84)

In other words, there is no way to observe that an object is smaller than the Planck length.
Thus, in principle there is thus no way to deduce from observations that a particle is pointlike. The term point particle makes no sense at all.
Of course, there is a relation between the existence of a minimum length for empty
space and the existence of a minimum length for objects. If the term point of space is
meaningless, then the term point particle is also meaningless. And again, the lower limit

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G
= lPl .
c3

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

d>

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Vol. IV, page 104

In every example of motion, some object is involved. One of the important discoveries of
the natural sciences was that all objects are composed of small constituents, called elementary particles. Quantum theory shows that all composite, non-elementary objects have a
finite, non-vanishing size. The naive statement is: if a particle is elementary if it behaves
like a point particle. At present, only the leptons (electron, muon, tau and the neutrinos),
the quarks, the radiation quanta of the electromagnetic, weak and strong nuclear interactions (the photon, the W and Z bosons, and the gluons) and the Higgs boson have been
found to be elementary. Protons, atoms, molecules, cheese, people, galaxies and so on
are all composite, as shown in Table 2.
Although the naive definition of elementary particle as point particle is all we need in
the following argument, the definition is not precise. It seems to leave open the possibility
that future experiments could show that electrons or quarks are not elementary. This is
not so! In fact, the precise definition is the following: any particle is elementary if it is
smaller than its own Compton wavelength. If such a small particle were composite, there
would be a lighter particle inside it, which would have a larger Compton wavelength than
the composite particle. This is impossible, since the size of a composite particle must
be larger than the Compton wavelength of its components. (The alternative possibility
that all components are heavier than the composite does not lead to satisfying physical
properties: for example, it leads to intrinsically unstable components.)
The size of an object, such as those given in Table 2, is defined as the length at which
differences from point-like behaviour are observed. The size d of an object is determined
by measuring how it scatters a beam of probe particles. For example, the radius of the
atomic nucleus was determined for the first time in Rutherfords experiment using alpha
particle scattering. In daily life as well, when we look at objects, we make use of scattered
photons. In general, in order for scattering to be useful, the effective wavelength =
/m of the probe must be smaller than the object size d to be determined. We thus
need d > = /m /mc. In addition, in order for a scattering experiment to be
possible, the object must not be a black hole, since, if it were, it would simply swallow
the approaching particle. This means that its mass m must be smaller than that of a
black hole of the same size; in other words, from equation (72) we must have m < dc 2 /G.
Combining this with the previous condition we get, for the size d of an object, the relation

d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

Ref. 80

on particle size results from the combination of quantum theory and general relativity.*
The minimum size for particles can be tested. A property connected with the size is
the electric dipole moment. This describes the deviation of its charge distribution from
spherical. Some predictions from the standard model of elementary particles give as an
upper limit for the electron dipole moment de a value of
|de |
< 1039 m ,
e

Ref. 81

(85)

where e is the charge of the electron. This predicted value is ten thousand times smaller
than the Planck length lPl . Since the Planck length is the smallest possible length, we
seem to have a contradiction here. However, a more careful and recent prediction from
the standard model only states
(86)

which is not in contradiction with the minimal length. The experimental limit in 2013 is
|de |
< 8.7 1031 m .
e

(87)

The experimental limit is approaching the Planck length. In summary, no point particle
and no particle smaller than the Planck length is known.

* We note that the existence of a minimum size for a particle has nothing to do with the impossibility, in
quantum theory, of localizing a particle to within less than its Compton wavelength.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Planck scales have other strange consequences. In quantum field theory, the difference
between a virtual particle and a real particle is that a real particle is on shell, obeying
E 2 = m2 c 4 + p2 c 2 , whereas a virtual particle is off shell. Because of the fundamental
limits of measurement precision, at Planck scales we cannot determine whether a particle
is real or virtual.
That is not all. Antimatter can be described as matter moving backwards in time.
Since the difference between backwards and forwards cannot be determined at Planck
scales, matter and antimatter cannot be distinguished at Planck scales.
Every particle is characterized by its spin. Spin describes two properties of a particle:
its behaviour under rotations (and thus, if the particle is charged, its behaviour in magnetic fields) and its behaviour under particle exchange. The wave function of a particle
with spin 1 remains invariant under a rotation of 2, whereas that of a particle with spin
1/2 changes sign. Similarly, the combined wave function of two particles with spin 1 does
not change sign under exchange of particles, whereas for two particles with spin 1/2 it
does.
We see directly that both transformations are impossible to study at Planck scales.
Given the limit on position measurements, the position of a rotation axis cannot be

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Farewell to particle properties

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

|de |
< 3 1023 m ,
e
Ref. 82

73

74

4 d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

F I G U R E 3 Andrei Sakharov (19211989).

The size d of any elementary particle must by definition be smaller than its own (reduced)
Compton wavelength /mc. Moreover, the size of a particle is always larger than the
Planck length: d > lPl . Combining these two requirements and eliminating the size d,
we get a constraint on the mass m of any elementary particle, namely
m<

(88)

The limit mPl , the so-called Planck mass, corresponds roughly to the mass of a human
embryo that is ten days old, or equivalently, to that of a small flea. In short, the mass
of any elementary particle must be smaller than the Planck mass. This fact was already
noted as well known by Andrei Sakharov* in 1968; he explains that these hypothetical
particles are sometimes called maximons. And indeed, the known elementary particles
* Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov, Soviet nuclear physicist (b. 1921 Moscow, d. 1989 Moscow). One of the
keenest thinkers in physics, Sakharov, among others, invented the Tokamak, directed the construction of
nuclear bombs, and explained the matterantimatter asymmetry of nature. Like many others, he later campaigned against nuclear weapons, a cause for which he was put into jail and exile, together with his wife,
Yelena Bonner. He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1975.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 27

=
= mPl = 2.2 108 kg = 1.2 1019 GeV/c2 .
c lPl
G

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

A mass limit for elementary particles

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 35 e

well defined, and rotations become impossible to distinguish from translations. Similarly, positional imprecision makes it impossible to determine precise separate positions
for exchange experiments; at Planck scales it is impossible to say whether particle exchange has taken place or not, and whether the wave function has changed sign or not.
In short, at Planck scales, spin cannot be defined or measured, and neither fermion nor boson behaviour can be defined or measured. In particular, this implies that supersymmetry
cannot be valid at Planck scales.
Due to measurement limitations, also spatial parity cannot be defined or measured at
Planck scales.
We have thus shown that at Planck scales, particles do not interact locally, are not
point-like, cannot be distinguished from antiparticles, cannot distinguished from virtual particles, have no definite spin and have no definite spatial parity. We deduce that
particles do not exist at Planck scales. Let us explore the remaining concept: particle mass.

d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

Ref. 83

75

all have masses well below the Planck mass. (In fact, the question why their masses are
so very much smaller than the Planck mass is one of the most important questions of
high-energy physics. We will come back to it.)
There are many other ways to arrive at the mass limit for particles. For example, in
order to measure mass by scattering and that is the only way for very small objects
the Compton wavelength of the scatterer must be larger than the Schwarzschild radius;
otherwise the probe will be swallowed. Inserting the definitions of the two quantities and
neglecting the factor 2, we again get the limit m < mPl . In fact it is a general property
of descriptions of nature that a minimum space-time interval leads to an upper limit for
masses of elementary particles.
Farewell to massive particles and to massless vacuum
The Planck mass divided by the Planck volume, i.e., the Planck density, is given by

Challenge 36 e

c5
= 5.2 1096 kg/m3
G2

(89)

and is a useful concept in the following. One way to measure the (gravitational) mass M
enclosed in a sphere of size R, and thus (roughly) of volume R3 , is to put a test particle in
orbit around it at that same distance R. Universal gravitation then gives for the mass M
the expression M = R 2 /G, where is the speed of the orbiting test particle. From < c,
we deduce that M < c 2 R/G; since the minimum value for R is the Planck distance, we
get (again neglecting factors of order unity) a limit for the mass density , namely
(90)

In other words, the Planck density is the maximum possible value for mass density.
Interesting things happen when we try to determine the error M of a mass measurement in a Planck volume. Let us return to the mass measurement by an orbiting probe.
From the relation GM = r 2 we deduce by differentiation that GM = 2 r + 2r >
2r = 2GM/. For the error in the velocity measurement we have the indeterminacy relation /mr + /MR /MR. Inserting this in the previous inequality,
and again forgetting the factor of 2, we find that the mass measurement error M of a
mass M enclosed in a volume of size R is subject to the condition

.
cR

(91)

Note that for everyday situations, this error is extremely small, and other errors, such as
the technical limits of the balance, are much larger.
To check this result, we can explore another situation. We even use relativistic expressions, in order to show that the result does not depend on the details of the situation or
the approximations. Imagine having a mass M in a box of size R, and weighing the box
with a scale. (It is assumed that either the box is massless or that its mass is subtracted by
the scale.) The mass error is given by M = E/c 2 , where E is due to the indeterminacy

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copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

< Pl .

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Pl =

76

4 d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

F I G U R E 4 A thought experiment

showing that at Planck scales, matter

and vacuum cannot be distinguished.

.
cR
(empty box)

(92)

We see directly that for sizes R of the order of the Planck scales, the two limits coincide;
in other words, we cannot distinguish a full box from an empty box in that case.
To be sure of this strange result, we check whether it also occurs if, instead of measuring the gravitational mass, as we have just done, we measure the inertial mass. The
inertial mass for a small object is determined by touching it: physically speaking, by performing a scattering experiment. To determine the inertial mass inside a region of size

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copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

c2R
G
(full box)

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

in the kinetic energy of the mass inside the box. Using the expression E 2 = m2 c 4 + p2 c 2 ,
we get that M p/c, which again reduces to equation (91). Now that we are sure of
the result, let us continue.
From equation (91) we deduce that for a box of Planck dimensions, the mass measurement error is given by the Planck mass. But from above we also know that the mass
that can be put inside such a box must not be larger than the Planck mass. Therefore,
for a box of Planck dimensions, the mass measurement error is larger than (or at best
equal to) the mass contained in it: M MPl . In other words, if we build a balance
with two boxes of Planck size, one empty and the other full, as shown in Figure 4, nature
cannot decide which way the balance should hang! Note that even a repeated or a continuous measurement will not resolve the situation: the balance will change inclination
at random, staying horizontal on average.
The argument can be rephrased as follows. The largest mass that we can put in a box
of size R is a black hole with a Schwarzschild radius of the same value; the smallest mass
present in such a box corresponding to what we call a vacuum is due to the indeterminacy relation and is given by the mass with a Compton wavelength that matches the
size of the box. In other words, inside any box of size R we have a mass m, the limits of
which are given by:

d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

77

R, a probe must have a wavelength smaller than R, and a correspondingly high energy.
A high energy means that the probe also attracts the particle through gravity. (We thus
find the intermediate result that at Planck scales, inertial and gravitational mass cannot be
distinguished. Even the balance experiment shown in Figure 4 illustrates this: at Planck
scales, the two types of mass are always inextricably linked.) Now, in any scattering experiment, for example in a Compton-type experiment, the mass measurement is performed
by measuring the wavelength change of the probe before and after the scattering. The
mass indeterminacy is given by
M
=
.
(93)
M

Matter and vacuum are indistinguishable

free pdf le available at [Link]

Vol. V, page 122

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 84

We can put these results in another way. On the one hand, if we measure the mass of
a piece of vacuum of size R, the result is always at least /cR: there is no possible way
to find a perfect vacuum in an experiment. On the other hand, if we measure the mass
of a particle, we find that the result is size-dependent: at Planck scales it approaches the
Planck mass for every type of particle, be it matter or radiation.
To use another image, when two particles approach each other to a separation of the
order of the Planck length, the indeterminacy in the length measurements makes it impossible to say whether there is something or nothing between the two objects. In short,
matter and vacuum are interchangeable at Planck scales. This is an important result: since
mass and empty space cannot be differentiated, we have confirmed that they are made
of the same fabric, of the same constituents. This idea, already suggested above, is now
common to all attempts to find a unified description of nature.
This approach is corroborated by attempts to apply quantum mechanics in highly
curved space-time, where a clear distinction between vacuum and particles is impossible, as shown by the FullingDaviesUnruh effect. Any accelerated observer, and any
observer in a gravitational field, detects particles hitting him, even if he is in a vacuum.
The effect shows that for curved space-time the idea of vacuum as particle-free space
does not work. Since at Planck scales it is impossible to say whether or not space is flat,
it is impossible to say whether it contains particles or not.
In short, all arguments lead to the same conclusion: vacuum, i.e., empty space-time,
cannot be distinguished from matter at Planck scales. Another common way to express

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

In order to determine the mass in a Planck volume, the probe has to have a wavelength of
the Planck length. But we know from above that there is always a minimum wavelength
indeterminacy, given by the Planck length lPl . In other words, for a Planck volume the
wavelength error and thus the mass error is always as large as the Planck mass itself:
M MPl . Again, this limit is a direct consequence of the limit on length and space
measurements.
This result has an astonishing consequence. In these examples, the measurement error
is independent of the mass of the scatterer: it is the same whether or not we start with a
situation in which there is a particle in the original volume. We thus find that in a volume
of Planck size, it is impossible to say whether or not there is something there when we
probe it with a beam!

78

4 d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

Nature's energy scale

Eeveryday

EPlanck

F I G U R E 5 Planck effects make the

energy axis an approximation.

Curiosities and fun challenges on Planck scales

As usual, Lenin was wrong. And this is not so much because the world contains moving
matter, moving radiation, moving vacuum and moving horizons, which is not exactly
what Lenin claimed. Above all, at Planck scales, there is no matter, no radiation, no
horizon, no space and no time. These concepts only appear at low energy. The rest of
our adventure clarifies how.

If measurements become impossible near Planck energy, we cannot even draw a diagram
with an energy axis reaching that value. A way out is shown Figure 5. The energy of
elementary particles cannot reach the Planck energy.

By the standards of particle physics, the Planck energy is rather large. Suppose we wanted

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Observers are made of matter. Observers are not made of radiation. Observers are not
made of vacuum. Observers are thus biased, because they take a specific standpoint.
But at Planck scales, vacuum, radiation and matter cannot be distinguished. Two consequences follow: first, only at Planck scales would a description be free of any bias in
favour of matter. Secondly, on the other hand, observers do not exist at all at Planck
energy. Physics is thus only possible below Planck energy.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

There is nothing in the world but matter in

motion, and matter in motion cannot move
otherwise than in space and time.
Lenin, Materialism and empirio-criticism.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

this state of affairs is to say that when a particle of Planck energy travels through space it
will be scattered by the fluctuations of space-time itself, as well as by matter, and the two
cases are indistinguishable. These surprising results rely on a simple fact: whatever definition of mass we use, it is always measured via combined length and time measurements.
(This is even the case for normal weighing scales: mass is measured by the displacement
of some part of the machine.) Mass measurement is impossible at Planck scales. The error
in such mass measurements makes it impossible to distinguish vacuum from matter. In
particular, the concept of particle is not applicable at Planck scale.

d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

Challenge 37 s

79

to impart this amount of energy to protons using a particle accelerator. How large would
a Planck accelerator have to be?

Challenge 38 s

By the standards of everyday life, the Planck energy is rather small. Measured in litres of
gasoline, how much fuel does it correspond to?

Challenge 39 s

Do the large errors in mass measurements imply that mass can be negative at Planck
energy?

We now have a new answer to the old question: why is there something rather than
nothing? At Planck scales, there is no difference between something and nothing. We
can now honestly say about ourselves that we are made of nothing.

Challenge 40 r
Ref. 85
Page 262

Special relativity implies that no length or energy can be invariant. Since we have come
to the conclusion that the Planck energy and the Planck length are invariant, it appears
that there must be deviations from Lorentz invariance at high energy. What effects would
follow? What kind of experiment could measure them? If you have a suggestion, publish it! Several attempts are being explored. We will settle the issue later on, with some
interesting insights.

Ref. 67

Challenge 41 s

Of course, the idea that vacuum is not empty is not new. More than two thousand years
ago, Aristotle argued for a filled vacuum, although his arguments were incorrect as seen

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 86

Quantum mechanics alone gives, via the Heisenberg indeterminacy relation, a lower
limit to the spread of measurements, but, strangely enough, not on their precision, i.e.,
not on the number of significant digits. Wolfgang Jauch gives an example: atomic lattice
constants are known to a much higher precision than the positional indeterminacy of
single atoms inside the crystal.
It is sometimes claimed that measurement indeterminacies smaller than the Planck
values are possible for large enough numbers of particles. Can you show why this is
incorrect, at least for space and time?

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

The usual concepts of matter and of radiation are not applicable at Planck scales. Usually,
it is assumed that matter and radiation are made up of interacting elementary particles.
The concept of an elementary particle implies an entity that is discrete, point-like, real
and not virtual, has a definite mass and a definite spin, is distinct from its antiparticle,
and, most of all, is distinct from vacuum, which is assumed to have zero mass. All these
properties are lost at Planck scales. At Planck scales, the concepts of mass, vacuum, elementary particle, radiation and matter do not make sense.

80

4 d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

from todays perspective. Also in the fourteenth century there was much discussion on
whether empty space was composed of indivisible entities, but the debate died down
again.

Challenge 42 s

A Planck-energy particle falling in a gravitational field would gain energy. But the Planck
energy is the highest energy in nature. What does this apparent contradiction imply?

Ref. 59

One way to generalize the results presented here is to assume that, at Planck energy, nature is event-symmetric, i.e., symmetric under exchange of any two events. This idea,
developed by Phil Gibbs, provides an additional formulation of the strange behaviour of
nature at extreme scales.

Because there is a minimum length in nature, so-called singularities do not exist. The
issue, hotly debated for decades in the twentieth century, thus becomes uninteresting.

Vol. V, page 139

Vol. I, page 26

If vacuum and matter cannot be distinguished, we cannot distinguish between objects

and their environment. However, this was one of the starting points of our journey. Some
interesting adventures still await us!

Challenge 43 d

Is there a smallest possible momentum? And a smallest momentum error?

free pdf le available at [Link]

Vol. III, page 299

We have seen earlier that characterizing nature as made up of particles and vacuum creates problems when interactions are included. On the one hand interactions are the difference between the parts and the whole, while on the other hand, according to quantum
theory, interactions are exchanges of particles. This apparent contradiction can be used
to show that something is counted twice in the usual characterization of nature. However,
when matter and space-time are both made of the same constituents the contradiction
is resolved.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 87

Since mass and energy density are limited, any object of finite volume has only a finite
number of degrees of freedom. Calculation of the entropy of black holes has already
shown us that entropy values are always finite. This implies that perfect baths do not
exist. Baths play an important role in thermodynamics (which must therefore be viewed
as only an approximation), and also in recording and measuring devices: when a device
measures, it switches from a neutral state to a state in which it shows the result of the
measurement. In order not to return to the neutral state, the device must be coupled to
a bath. Without a bath, a reliable measuring device cannot exist. In short, perfect clocks
and length-measuring devices do not exist, because nature puts a limit on their storage
ability.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Vol. II, page 265

d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

81

Page 381

Page 269

The impossibility of distinguishing matter and vacuum implies a lack of information at

Planck scales. In turn, this implies an intrinsic basic entropy associated with any part of
the universe at Planck scales. We will come back to this topic shortly, when we discuss
the entropy of black holes.

Challenge 45 s

Challenge 46 e

If the dimensionality of space is undefined at Planck scales, what does this mean for
superstrings?

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When can matter and vacuum be distinguished? At what energy? This issue might be
compared to the following question: Can we distinguish between a liquid and a gas by
looking at a single atom? No, only by looking at many. Similarly, we cannot distinguish
between matter and vacuum by looking at one point, but only by looking at many. We
must always average. However, even averaging is not completely successful. Distinguishing matter from vacuum is like distinguishing clouds from the clear sky: like clouds,
matter has no precise boundary.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 111

If matter and vacuum cannot be distinguished, then each has the properties of the other.
For example, since space-time is an extended entity, matter and radiation are also extended entities. Furthermore, as space-time is an entity that reaches the borders of the
system under scrutiny, particles must also do so. This is our first hint at the extension of
matter; we will examine this argument in more detail shortly.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 44 s

Given that time becomes an approximation at Planck scales, can we still ask whether
nature is deterministic?
Let us go back to the basics. We can define time, because in nature change is not random, but gradual. What is the situation now that we know that time is only approximate?
Is non-gradual change possible? Is energy conserved? In other words, are surprises possible in nature?
It is correct to say that time is not defined at Planck scales, and that therefore that
determinism is an undefinable concept, but it is not a satisfying answer. What happens
at everyday scales? One answer is that at our everyday scales, the probability of surprises
is so small that the world indeed is effectively deterministic. In other words, nature is not
really deterministic, but the departure from determinism is not measurable, since every
measurement and observation, by definition, implies a deterministic world. The lack of
surprises would be due to the limitations of our human nature more precisely, of our
senses and brain.
Can you imagine any other possibility? In truth, it is not possible to prove these answers at this point, even though the rest of our adventure will do so. We need to keep
any possible alternative in mind, so that we remain able to check the answers.

82

Vol. I, page 27

4 d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

Since vacuum, particles and fields are indistinguishable at Planck scales, at those scales
we also lose the distinction between states and permanent, intrinsic properties of physical systems. This is a strong statement: the distinction was the starting point of our
exploration of motion; the distinction allowed us to distinguish systems from their environment.
In other words, at Planck scales we cannot talk about motion. This is a strong statement. But it is not unexpected. We are searching for the origin of motion, and we are
prepared to encounter such difficulties.
Common constituents

Page 66

* Yet it has been suggested that the introduction of a space-time continuum, in view of the molecular
structure of all events in the small, may possibly be considered as contrary to nature. Perhaps the success of
Heisenbergs method may point to a purely algebraic method of description of nature, to the elimination of
continuous functions from physics. Then, however, one must also give up, in principle, the use of the spacetime continuum. It is not inconceivable that human ingenuity will some day find methods that will make it
possible to proceed along this path. Meanwhile, however, this project resembles the attempt to breathe in
an airless space.
See also what Einstein thought twenty years before. The new point is that he believes that an algebraic
description is necessary. He repeats the point in the next quote.

free pdf le available at [Link]

In this rapid journey, we have destroyed all the experimental pillars of quantum theory:
the superposition of wavefunctions, space-time symmetry, gauge symmetry, renormalization symmetry and permutation symmetry. We also have destroyed the foundations
of special and general relativity, namely the concepts of the space-time manifold, fields,
particles and mass. We have even seen that matter and vacuum cannot be distinguished.
It seems that we have lost every concept used for the description of motion, and thus
made its description impossible. It seems that we have completely destroyed our two

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

One can give good reasons why reality cannot at all be represented by a
continuous field. From the quantum phenomena it appears to follow with
certainty that a finite system of finite energy can be completely described by a
finite set of numbers (quantum numbers). This does not seem to be in
accordance with a continuum theory, and must lead to an attempt to find a
purely algebraic theory for the description of reality. But nobody knows how to
obtain the basis of such a theory.
Albert Einstein, 1955, the last sentences of The Meaning of Relativity Including
the Relativistic Theory of the Non-Symmetric Field, fifth edition. These were also
his last published words.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Es ist allerdings darauf hingewiesen worden, dass bereits die Einfhrung eines
raum-zeitlichen Kontinuums angesischts der molekularen Struktur allen
Geschehens im Kleinen mglicherweise als naturwidrig anzusehen sei.
Vielleicht weise der Erfolg von Heisenbergs Methode auf eine rein algebraische
Methode der Naturbeschreibung, auf die Ausschaltung kontinuierlicher
Funktionen aus der Physik hin. Dann aber muss auch auf die Verwendung des
Raum-Zeit-Kontinuums prinzipiell verzichtet werden. Es ist nicht undenkbar,
dass der menschliche Scharfsinn einst Methoden finden wird, welche die
Beschreitung dieses Weges mglich machen. Einstweilen aber erscheint dieses
Projekt hnlich dem Versuch, in einem luftleeren Raum zu atmen.*
Albert Einstein, 1936, in Physik und Realitt.

d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

Page 65

83

castles in the air, general relativity and quantum theory. And it seems that we are trying
to breathe in airless space. Is this pessimistic view correct, or can we save the situation?
First of all, since matter and radiation are not distinguishable from vacuum, the quest
for unification in the description of elementary particles is correct and necessary. There
is no alternative to tearing down the castles and to continuing to breathe.
Secondly, after tearing down the castles, the invariant Planck limits c, and c 4 /4G
still remain as a foundation.
Thirdly, after tearing down the castles, one important result appears. Since the concepts of mass, time and space cannot be distinguished from each other, a new, single
entity or concept is necessary to define both particles and space-time. In short, vacuum
and particles must be made of common constituents. In other words, we are not in airless
space, and we uncovered the foundation that remains after we tore down the castles. Before we go on exploring these common constituents, we check what we have deduced so
far against experiment.

Challenge 47 r

Ref. 92, Ref. 91

Ref. 90

Ref. 92, Ref. 93

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Ref. 89, Ref. 90

This energy value is between 1.4 1019 GeV and over 1022 GeV for the best measurement
to date. This is between just above the Planck energy and over one thousand times the
Planck energy. However, despite this high characteristic energy, no dispersion has been
found: even after a trip of ten thousand million years, all light arrives within one or two
seconds.
Another candidate experiment is the direct detection of distance fluctuations between
bodies. Gravitational wave detectors are sensitive to extremely small noise signals in
length measurements. There should be a noise signal due to the distance fluctuations in-

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 88

A race is going on both in experimental and in theoretical physics: to be the first to

suggest and to be the first to perform an experiment that detects a quantum gravity effect.
Here are some proposals.
At Planck scales, space fluctuates. We might think that the fluctuations of space could
blur the images of faraway galaxies, or destroy the phase relation between the photons.
However, no blurring is observed, and the first tests show that light from extremely distant galaxies still interferes. The precise prediction of the phase washing effect is still
being worked out; whatever the exact outcome, the effect is too small to be measured.
Another idea is to measure the speed of light at different frequencies from faraway
light flashes. There are natural flashes, called gamma-ray bursts, which have an extremely
broad spectrum, from 100 GeV down to visible light at about 1 eV. These flashes often
originate at cosmological distances d. Using short gamma-ray bursts, it is thus possible
to test precisely whether the quantum nature of space-time influences the dispersion of
light signals when they travel across the universe. Planck-scale quantum gravity effects
might produce a dispersion. Detecting a dispersion would confirm that Lorentz symmetry breaks down at Planck scales.
The difference in arrival time t between two photon energies E1 and E2 defines a
characteristic energy by
(E E2 )d
.
(94)
Echar = 1
ct

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Experimental predictions

84

Ref. 94

Page 63
Ref. 95

Ref. 92

Ref. 95

This expression is deduced simply by combining the measurement limit of a ruler, from
quantum theory, with the requirement that the ruler not be a black hole. The sensitivity of
the detectors to noise might reach the required level later in the twenty-first century. The
noise induced by quantum gravity effects has also been predicted to lead to detectable
quantum decoherence and vacuum fluctuations. However, no such effect has been found
yet.
A further candidate experiment for measuring quantum gravity effects is the detection of the loss of CPT symmetry at high energies. Especially in the case of the decay of
certain elementary particles, such as neutral kaons, the precision of experimental measurement is approaching the detection of Planck-scale effects. However, no such effect
has been found yet.
Another possibility is that quantum gravity effects may change the threshold energy at
which certain particle reactions become possible. It may be that extremely high-energy
photons or cosmic rays will make it possible to prove that Lorentz invariance is indeed
broken at Planck scales. However, no such effect has been found yet.
In the domain of atomic physics, it has also been predicted that quantum gravity
effects will induce a gravitational Stark effect and a gravitational Lamb shift in atomic
transitions. However, no such effect has been found yet.
Other proposals start from the recognition that the bound on the measurability of
observables also puts a bound on the measurement precision for each observable. This
bound is of no importance in everyday life, but it is important at Planck energy. One
proposal is to search for a minimal noise in length measurements, e.g., in gravitational
wave detectors. But no such noise has been found yet.
In summary, the experimental detection of quantum gravity effects might be possible,
despite their weakness, at some time during the twenty-first century. The successful prediction and detection of such an effect would be one of the highlights of physics, as it
would challenge the usual description of space and time even more than general relativity did. On the other hand, most unified models of physics predict the absence of any
measurable quantum gravity effect.

Combining quantum theory and general relativity leads us to several important results
on the description of nature:

Ref. 98

Vacuum and particles mix at Planck scales, because there is no conceivable way to distinguish whether a Planck-sized region is part of a particle or of empty space. Matter,
radiation and vacuum cannot be distinguished at Planck scales. Equivalently, empty
space and particles are made of fluctuating common constituents.
The constituents of vacuum and particles cannot be points. There is no conceivable
way to prove that points exist, because the smallest measurable distance in nature is

free pdf le available at [Link]

Summary on particles and vacuum

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 97

duced near Planck energy. The indeterminacy in measurement of a length l is predicted

to be
l 2/3
l
Pl .
(95)
l
l

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 96

4 d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

d oes mat ter differ from vacuum?

85

the Planck length.

Particles, vacuum and continuous space do not exist at Planck scales. They disappear
in a yet unclear Planck scale mixture.
The three independent Planck limits c, and c 4 /4G remain valid also in domains
where quantum theory and general relativity are combined.

Page 51

All these results must be part of the final theory that we are looking for. Generally speaking, we found the same conclusions that we found already in the chapter on limit statements. We thus continue along the same path that we took back then: we explore the
universe as a whole.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014
free pdf le available at [Link]

Chapter 5

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENC E BET WEEN

THE UNIVERSE AND NOTHING?

Cosmological scales

Antiquity

The description of motion requires the application of general relativity whenever the
scale d of the situation is of the order of the Schwarzschild radius, i.e., whenever
d rS = 2Gm/c 2 .

Challenge 48 s

(96)

Obviously, for the total mass of the universe this condition is not fulfilled. However, we
are not interested in the motion of the universe itself; we are interested in the motion
of its components. In the description of these components, quantum theory is required
whenever pair production and annihilation play a role. This is the case in the early his* The frontier is the really productive place of understanding. Paul Tillich (b. 1886 Starzeddel,
d. 1965 Chicago), theologian, socialist and philosopher.
** Here are lions. Written across unknown and dangerous regions on ancient maps.

free pdf le available at [Link]

It is straightforward to confirm that, with the usually quoted mass m and size d of everything visible in the universe, this condition is indeed fulfilled. We do need general
relativity, and thus curved space-time, when talking about the whole of nature.
Similarly, quantum theory is required for the description of the motion of an object
whenever we approach it within a distance d of the order of the (reduced) Compton
wavelength C , i.e., whenever

.
(97)
d C =
mc

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Hic sunt leones.**

his strange question is the topic of the current leg of our mountain ascent. In
he last section we explored nature in the vicinity of Planck scales. In fact,
he other limit, namely the description of motion at large, cosmological scales,
is equally fascinating. As we proceed, many incredible results will appear, and at the end
we will discover a surprising answer to the question in the title.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Die Grenze ist der eigentlich fruchtbare Ort der

Erkenntnis.*
Paul Tillich, Auf der Grenze.

what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

87

tory of the universe and near the horizon, i.e., for the most distant events that we can
observe in space and time. We are thus obliged to include quantum theory in any precise description of the universe.
Since at cosmological scales we need both quantum theory and general relativity, we
start our investigation with the study of time, space and mass, by asking at large scales
the same questions that we asked above at Planck scales.
Maximum time

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

* This implies that so-called oscillating universe models, in which it is claimed that before the big bang
there were other phenomena, cannot be justified on the basis of nature or observations. They are based on
beliefs.
** Oscar Wilde, (b. 1854 Dublin, d. 1900 Paris), poet and playwright, equally famous for his wit.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Does the universe have a definite age?

One should never trust a woman who tells one

her real age. A woman who would tell one that,
would tell one anything.
Oscar Wilde**

Vol. II, page 298

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 49 s

Is it possible to measure time intervals of any imaginable size? General relativity shows
that in nature there is a maximum time interval, with a value of about fourteen thousand million years, or 430 Ps, providing an upper limit to the measurement of time. It is
called the age of the universe, and has been deduced from two sets of measurements: the
expansion of space-time and the age of matter.
We are all familiar with clocks that have been ticking for a long time: the hydrogen
atoms in our body. All hydrogen atoms were formed just after the big bang. We can
almost say that the electrons in these atoms have been orbiting their nuclei since the
dawn of time. In fact, the quarks inside the protons in these atoms have been moving a
few hundred thousand years longer than the electrons.
We thus have an upper time limit for any clock made of atoms. Even clocks made of
radiation (can you describe one?) yield a similar maximum time. The study of the spatial
expansion of the universe leads to the same maximum age. No clock or measurement
device was ticking longer ago than this maximum time, and no clock could provide a
record of having done so.
In summary, it is not possible to measure time intervals greater than the maximum
one, either by using the history of space-time or by using the history of matter or radiation.* The maximum time is thus rightly called the age of the universe. Of course, this is
not a new idea; but looking at the age issue in more detail does reveal some surprises.

In light of all measurements, it may seem silly to question the age of the universe. The
age value is found in many books and tables and its precise determination is one of the
most important quests in modern astrophysics. But is this quest reasonable?
In order to measure the duration of a movement or the age of a system, we need a clock
that is independent of that movement or system, and thus outside the system. However,
there are no clocks outside the universe, and no clock inside it can be independent. In
fact we have just seen that no clock inside the universe can run throughout its full history,
in particular, through its earliest history.

88

5 what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

K<

(98)

as a limit for the surface curvature K in nature. In other words, the universe has never
been a point, never had zero age, never had infinite density, and never had infinite curvature. It is not difficult to get a similar limit for temperature or any other physical quantity
near the big bang. In short, since events do not exist, the big bang cannot have been an
event. There never was an initial singularity or a beginning of the universe.
In summary, the situation is consistently muddled. Neither the age of the universe
nor its origin makes sense. What is going wrong? Or rather, how are things going wrong?
What happens if instead of jumping directly to the big bang, we approach it as closely as
possible? The best way to clarify the issue is to ask about the measurement error in our
statement that the universe is fourteen thousand million years old. This turns out to be
a fascinating topic.
How precise can age measurements be?

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No woman should ever be quite accurate about

her age. It looks so calculating.
Oscar Wilde

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Challenge 50 s

c3
= 0.39 1070 m2
G

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Time can be defined only if it is possible to distinguish between matter and space.
Given this distinction, we can talk either about the age of space, by assuming that matter
provides suitable and independent clocks as is done in general relativity or about the
age of matter, such as stars or galaxies, by assuming that the extension of space-time, or
possibly some other matter, provides a good clock. Both possibilities are being explored
experimentally in modern astrophysics and both give the same result, of about fourteen
thousand million years, which was mentioned above. Despite this correspondence, for
the universe as a whole, an age cannot be defined, because there is no clock outside it.
The issue of the starting point of time makes this difficulty even more apparent. We
may imagine that going back in time leads to only two possibilities: either the starting
instant t = 0 is part of time or it is not. (Mathematically, this means that the segment
representing time is either closed or open.) Both these possibilities imply that it is possible to measure arbitrarily small times; but we know from the combination of general
relativity and quantum theory that this is not the case. In other words, neither possibility
is correct: the beginning cannot be part of time, nor can it not be part of it. There is only
one solution to this contradiction: there was no beginning at all.
Indeed, a minimum length, or equivalently, a minimum action, both imply that there
is a maximum curvature for space-time. Curvature can be measured in several ways: for
example, surface curvature is an inverse area. Within a factor of order one, we find

what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

Ref. 55, Ref. 56

The first way to measure the age of the universe* is to look at clocks in the usual sense of
the word, namely at clocks made of matter. As explained in the part on quantum theory,
Salecker and Wigner showed that a clock built to measure a total time T with a precision
t has a minimum mass m given by
m>

Ref. 94

89

T
.
c 2 (t)2

(99)

A simple way to incorporate general relativity into this result was suggested by Ng and
van Dam. Any clock of mass m has a minimum resolution t due to the curvature of
space that it introduces, given by
Gm
(100)
t > 3 .
c

T<

(101)

Does time exist?

Ref. 99

Time is waste of money.

Oscar Wilde

* Note that the age t0 is not the same as the Hubble time T = 1/H0 . The Hubble time is only a computed
quantity and (almost) always larger than the age; the relation between the two depends on the values of
the cosmological constant, the density and other properties of the universe. For example, for the standard
hot big bang scenario, i.e., for the matter-dominated Einsteinde Sitter model, we have the simple relation
T = (3/2) t0 .

free pdf le available at [Link]

where tPl = G/c 5 = 5.4 1044 s is the Planck time. (As usual, we have omitted factors
of order one in this and in all the following results of this chapter.) In other words, the
higher the accuracy of a clock, the shorter the time during which it works dependably.
The precision of a clock is limited not only by the expense of building it, but also by
nature itself. Nevertheless, it is easy to check that for clocks used in daily life, this limit
is not even remotely approached. For example, you may wish to calculate how precisely
your own age can be specified.
As a consequence of the inequality (101), a clock trying to achieve an accuracy of one
Planck time can do so for at most one Planck time! A real clock cannot achieve Plancktime accuracy. If we try to go beyond the limit (101), fluctuations of space-time hinder the
working of the clock and prevent higher precision. With every Planck time that passes,
the clock accumulates a measurement error of at least one Planck time. Thus, the total
measurement error is at least as large as the measurement itself. This conclusion is also
valid for clocks based on radiation.
In short, measuring age with a clock always involves errors. Whenever we try to reduce these errors to the smallest possible level, the Planck level, the clock becomes so
imprecise over large times that age measurements become impossible.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Challenge 51 e

(t)3
,
2
tPl

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

If m is eliminated, these two results imply that a clock with a precision t can only measure times T up to a certain maximum value, namely

90

Vol. I, page 40

Challenge 52 e

What is the error in the measurement of the age of the universe?

Challenge 54 e

Inserting the age of the universe for T, we find that no time interval can be measured
with a precision of more than about 40 decimals.
To clarify the issue, we can calculate the error in measurement as a function of the
observation energy Emeas , the energy of the measurement probe. There are two limit

free pdf le available at [Link]

It is now straightforward to apply our discussion about the measurement of time to the
age of the universe. The inequality (101) implies that the highest precision possible for a
clock is about 1023 s, or about the time light takes to move across a proton. The finite
age of the universe also yields a maximum relative measurement precision. Inequality
(101) can be written as
t 2/3
t
> Pl .
(102)
T
T

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 65
Challenge 53 e

Ever since people began to study physics, the concept of time has designated what is
measured by a clock. But the inequality (101) for a maximum clock time implies that
perfect clocks do not exist, and thus that time is only an approximate concept: perfect
time does not exist. Thus, in nature there is no idea of time, in the Platonic sense. In fact,
the discussion so far can be seen as proof that combining quantum theory and general
relativity, because of the resulting measurement errors, prevents the existence of perfect
or ideal examples of any classical observable or any everyday concept.
Time does not exist. Yet it is obviously a useful concept in everyday life. The key to
understanding this is measurement energy. Any clock in fact, any system of nature is
characterized by a simple number, namely the highest ratio of its kinetic energy to the
rest energy of its components. In daily life, this ratio is about 1 eV/10 GeV = 1010 . Such
low-energy systems are well suited for building clocks. The more precisely the motion
of the main moving part the pointer of the clock can be kept constant and monitored, the higher the precision of the clock. To achieve very high precision, the pointer
must have very high mass. Indeed, in any clock, both the position and the speed of the
pointer must be measured, and the two measurement errors are related by the quantummechanical indeterminacy relation x > /m. High mass implies low intrinsic fluctuation. Furthermore, in order to screen the pointer from outside influences, even more
mass is needed. This connection between mass and accuracy explains why more accurate
clocks are usually more expensive.
The standard indeterminacy relation m x > is valid only at everyday energies.
However, we cannot achieve ever higher precision simply by increasing the mass without
limit, because general relativity changes the indeterminacy relation to x > /m +
G()2 m/c 3 . The additional term on the right-hand side, negligible at everyday scales,
is proportional to energy. Increasing it by a large amount limits the achievable precision
of the clock. The smallest measurable time interval turns out to be the Planck time.
In summary, time exists, as a good approximation, only for low-energy systems. Any
increase in precision beyond a certain limit requires an increase in the energy of the
components; at Planck energy, this increase will prevent an increase in precision.

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5 what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

91

Relative
measurement error
1

quantum
error

total
error
quantum
gravity
error

Emin
E
Energy

Eopt

EPl

FIGURE 6

cases. For low energies, the error is due to quantum effects and is given by
1
t

T
Emeas

(103)

t Emeas

T
EPl

(104)

free pdf le available at [Link]

so that the total error varies as shown in Figure 6. In particular, very high energies do not
reduce measurement errors: any attempt to reduce the measurement error for the age of
the universe below 1023 s would require energies so high that the limits of space-time
would be reached, making the measurement itself impossible. We reached this conclusion through an argument based on clocks made of particles. We will see below that
trying to determine the age of the universe from its expansion leads to the same limitation.
Imagine observing a tree which, as a result of some storm or strong wind, has fallen
towards second tree, touching it at the very top, as shown in Figure 7. It is possible to
determine the heights of both trees by measuring their separation and the angles at the
base. The error in the heights will depend on the errors in measurement of the separation
and angles.
Similarly, the age of the universe can be calculated from the present distance and
speed of objects such as galaxies observed in the night sky. The present distance
d corresponds to separation of the trees at ground level, and the speed to the angle
between the two trees. The Hubble time T of the universe (which is usually assumed to
be larger than the age of the universe) then corresponds to the height at which the two

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

which decreases with increasing measurement energy. For high energies, however, the
error is due to gravitational effects and is given by

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Measurement
errors as a
function of
measurement
energy.

92

5 what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

d
F I G U R E 7 Trees and galaxies.

l 2/3
d
> Pl
T
d

(107)

* At higher red-shifts, the speed of light, as well as the details of the expansion, come into play. To continue
with the analogy of the trees, we find that the trees are not straight all the way up to the top and that they
grow on a slope, as suggested by Figure 8.

free pdf le available at [Link]

It is worthwhile to explore this in more detail. For any measurement of T, we have to

choose the object, i.e., a distance d, as well as an observation time t, or, equivalently,
an observation energy E = 2/t. We will now investigate the consequences of these
choices for equation (106), always taking into account both quantum theory and general
relativity.
At everyday energies, the result of the determination of the age of the universe t0 is
about (13.8 0.1) 109 Ga. This value is deduced by measuring red-shifts, i.e., velocities,
and distances, using stars and galaxies in distance ranges, from some hundred thousand
light years up to a red-shift of about 1. Measuring red-shifts does not produce large velocity errors. The main source of experimental error is the difficulty in determining the
distances of galaxies.
What is the smallest possible error in distance? Obviously, inequality (102) implies

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

In simple terms, this is the method used to determine the age of the universe from the
expansion of space-time, for galaxies with red-shifts below unity.* The (positive) measurement error T becomes
T d
=
+
.
(106)
T
d

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

trees meet. This age in a naive sense, the time since the galaxies separated is given,
within a factor of order one, by
d
(105)
T= .

what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

big bang

93

space

4ct0/9
light cone:
what we
can see

time

other galaxies
in the night sky
t0

our galaxy

galaxies.

Challenge 55 e

Challenge 56 e

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 99

free pdf le available at [Link]

thus giving the same indeterminacy in the age of the universe as the one we found above
in the case of material clocks.
We can try to reduce the age error in two ways: by choosing objects at either small or
large distances. Let us start with small distances. In order to get high precision at small
distances, we need high observation energies. It is fairly obvious that at observation
energies near the Planck value, T/T approaches unity. In fact, both terms on the righthand side of equation (106) become of order one. At these energies, approaches c
and the maximum value for d approaches the Planck length, for the same reason that
at Planck energy the maximum measurable time is the Planck time. In short, at Planck
scales it is impossible to say whether the universe is old or young.
Let us consider the other extreme, namely objects extremely far away, say with a redshift of z 1. Relativistic cosmology requires the diagram of Figure 7 to be replaced by
the more realistic diagram of Figure 8. The light onion replaces the familiar light cone
of special relativity: light converges near the big bang. In this case the measurement error
for the age of the universe also depends on the distance and velocity errors. At the largest
possible distances, the signals an object sends out must be of high energy, because the
emitted wavelength must be smaller than the universe itself. Thus, inevitably, we reach
Planck energy. However, we have seen that in such high-energy situations, both the emitted radiation and the object itself are indistinguishable from the space-time background.
In other words, the red-shifted signal we would observe today would have a wavelength
as large as the size of the universe, with a correspondingly small frequency.
There is another way to describe the situation. At Planck energy or near the horizon,
the original signal has an error of the same size as the signal itself. When measured at
the present time, the red-shifted signal still has an error of the same size as the signal. As
a result, the error in the horizon distance becomes as large as the value to be measured.
In short, even if space-time expansion and large scales are used, the instant of the socalled beginning of the universe cannot be determined with an error smaller than the

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

F I G U R E 8 The speed and distance of remote

94

Challenge 57 ny

5 what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

age of the universe itself: a result we also found at Planck distances. If we aim for perfect
precision, we just find that the universe is 13.8 13.8 thousand million years old! In
other words, in both extremal situations, it is impossible to say whether the universe has a
non-vanishing age.
We have to conclude that the anthropocentric concept of age does not make any
sense for the universe as a whole. The usual textbook value is useful only for ranges of
time, space and energy in which matter and space-time are clearly distinguished, namely
at everyday, human-scale energies; the value has no more general meaning.
You may like to examine the issue of the fate of the universe using the same arguments.
But we will now continue on the path outlined at the start of this chapter; the next topic
on this path is the measurement of length.
Maximum length

Ref. 99

Ref. 100
Vol. II, page 298

Ref. 99

Astronomers and Hollywood films answer this question in the affirmative. Indeed, the
distance to the horizon of the universe is often included in tables. Cosmological models specify that the scale factor R, which fixes the distance to the horizon, grows with
the
* In cosmology, we need to distinguish between the scale factor R, the Hubble radius c/H = cR/R,
horizon distance h and the size d of the universe. The Hubble radius is a computed quantity giving the
distance at which objects move away with the speed of light. The Hubble radius is always smaller than the
horizon distance, at which in the standard Einsteinde Sitter model, for example, objects move away with
twice the speed of light. However, the horizon itself moves away with three times the speed of light.

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Is the universe really a big place?

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 99

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Vol. II, page 235

General relativity shows that the horizon distance, i.e., the distance of objects with infinite
red-shift, is finite. In the usual cosmological model, for hyperbolic (open) and parabolic
(marginal) evolutions of the universe, the size of the universe is assumed infinite.* For
elliptical evolution, the total size is finite and depends on the curvature. However, in this
case also the present measurement limit yields a minimum size for the universe many
times larger than the horizon distance.
Quantum field theory, on the other hand, is based on flat and infinite space-time. Let
us see what happens when the two theories are combined. What can we say about measurements of length in this case? For example, would it be possible to construct and use
a metre rule to measure lengths larger than the distance to the horizon?
Admittedly, we would have no time to push the metre rule out up to the horizon,
because in the standard big bang model the horizon moves away from us faster than the
speed of light. (We should have started using the metre rule right at the big bang.) But
just for fun, let us assume that we have actually managed to do this. How far away can
we read off distances? In fact, since the universe was smaller in the past, and since every
observation of the sky is an observation of the past, Figure 8 shows that the maximum
spatial distance away from us at which an object can be seen is only 4ct0 /9. Obviously,
for space-time intervals, the maximum remains ct0 .
Thus, in all cases it turns out to be impossible to measure lengths larger than the
horizon distance, even though general relativity sometimes predicts such larger distances.
This result is unsurprising, and in obvious agreement with the existence of a limit for
measurements of time intervals. The real surprises come next.

what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

95

time t; for the case of the standard mass-dominated Einsteinde Sitter model, i.e., for a
vanishing cosmological constant and flat space, we have
R(t) = C t 2/3 ,

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

Challenge 59 e

where the numerical constant C relates the commonly accepted horizon distance to the
commonly accepted age. Indeed, observation shows that the universe is large, and is
getting larger. But let us investigate what happens if we add some quantum theory to this
result from general relativity. Is it really possible to measure the distance to the horizon?
We look first at the situation at high (probe) energies. We saw above that space-time
and matter are not distinguishable at Planck scales. Therefore, at Planck energy we cannot state whether or not objects are localized. At Planck scales, the distinction between
matter and vacuum so basic to our thinking disappears.
Another way to say this is that we cannot claim that space-time is extended at Planck
scales. Our concept of extension derives from the possibility of measuring distances and
time intervals, and from observations such as the ability to align several objects behind
one another. Such observations are not possible at Planck scales and energies, because
of the inability of probes to yield useful results. In fact, all of the everyday observations
from which we deduce that space is extended are impossible at Planck scales, where the
basic distinction between vacuum and matter, namely between extension and localization,
disappears. As a consequence, at Planck energy the size of the universe cannot be measured. It cannot even be called larger than a matchbox.
The problems encountered with probes of high probe energies have drastic consequences for the size measurement of the universe. All the arguments given above for
the errors in measurement of the age can be repeated for the distance to the horizon. To
reduce size measurement errors, a measurement probe needs to have high energy. But
at high energy, measurement errors approach the value of the measurement results. At
the largest distances and at Planck energy, the measurement errors are of the same magnitude as the measured values. If we try to determine the size of the universe with high
precision, we get no precision at all.
The inability to get precise values for the size of the universe should not come unexpected. For a reliable measurement, the standard must be different, independent, and
outside the system to be measured. For the universe this is impossible.
Studying the size of the big bang also produces strange results. The universe is said to
have been much smaller near the big bang because, on average, all matter is moving away
from all other matter. But if we try to follow the path of matter into the past with high
precision, using Planck energy probes, we get into trouble: since measurement errors are
as large as measurement data, we cannot claim that the universe was smaller near the big
bang than it is today: there is no way to reliably distinguish size values.
There are other confirmations too. If we had a metre rule spanning the whole universe,
even beyond the horizon, with zero at the place where we live, what measurement error
would it produce for the horizon? It does not take long to work out that the expansion
of space-time, from Planck scales to the present size, implies an expansion in the error
from Planck size to a length of the order of the present distance to the horizon. Again,
the error is as large as the measurement result. And again, the size of the universe turns

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 58 e

(108)

96

5 what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

out not to be a meaningful property.

Since this reasoning also applies if we try to measure the diameter of the universe
instead of its radius, it is impossible to say whether the antipodes in the sky really are
distant from each other!
We can summarize the situation by noting that anything said about the size of the
universe is as limited as anything said about its age. The height of the sky depends on
the observation energy. If we start measuring the sky at standard observation energies,
and try to increase the precision of measurement of the distance to the horizon, the
measurement error increases beyond all bounds. At Planck energy, the volume of the
universe is indistinguishable from the Planck volume and vice versa.
The boundary of space is the sky a surface?

Page 82

* The measurement errors also imply that we cannot say anything about translational symmetry at cosmological scales. Can you confirm this? In addition, at the horizon it is impossible to distinguish between
spacelike and timelike distances. Even worse, concepts such as mass or momentum become muddled at
the horizon. This means that, as at Planck energy, we are unable to distinguish between object and background, and between state and intrinsic properties. We thus confirm the point made above.

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Challenge 60 ny

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 55

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 61 s

The horizon of the universe essentially, the black part of the night sky is a fascinating entity. Everybody interested in cosmology wants to know what happens there. In
newspapers the horizon is sometimes called the boundary of space. Some surprising insights which have not yet made it to the newspapers appear when we combine general
relativity and quantum mechanics.
We have seen that the errors in measuring the distance of the horizon are substantial.
They imply that we cannot pretend that all points of the sky are equally far away from us.
Thus we cannot say that the sky is a surface; it could be a volume. In fact, there is no way
to determine the dimensionality of the horizon, nor the dimensionality of space-time
near the horizon.*
Thus measurements do not allow us to determine whether the boundary is a point, a
surface, or a line. It may be a very complex shape, even knotted. In fact, quantum theory
tells us that it must be all of these from time to time: that the sky fluctuates in height and
shape.
In short, measurement errors prevent the determination of the topology of the sky. In
fact, this is not a new result. As is well known, general relativity is unable to describe
particleantiparticle pair creation particles with spin 1/2. The reason for this inability is
the change in space-time topology required by such processes. The universe is full of
these and many other quantum processes; they imply that it is impossible to determine
or define the microscopic topology for the universe and, in particular, for the horizon.
Can you find at least two other arguments to confirm this conclusion?
Worse still, quantum theory shows that space-time is not continuous at a horizon: this
can easily be deduced using the Planck-scale arguments from the previous section. Time
and space are not defined at horizons.
Finally, there is no way to decide by measurement whether the various points on the
horizon are different from each other. On the horizon, measurement errors are of the
same order as the size of the horizon. The distance between two points in the night sky
is thus undefined. Therefore it is unclear what the diameter of the horizon is.

what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

97

In summary, the horizon has no specific distance or shape. The horizon, and thus the
universe, cannot be shown to be manifolds. This unexpected result leads us to a further
question.
Does the universe have initial conditions?
Ref. 101

Page 18

Vol. II, page 298

The total number of stars in the universe, about 10231 , is included in every book on
cosmology. A smaller number can be counted on clear nights. But how dependable is
the statement?
We can ask the same question about particles instead of stars. The commonly quoted
numbers are 10801 baryons and 10891 photons. However, the issue is not simple. Neither quantum theory nor general relativity alone make predictions about the number
of particles, either inside or outside the horizon. What happens if we combine the two
theories?
In order to define the number of particles in a region, quantum theory first of all re-

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Does the universe contain particles and stars?

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 285

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 55

One often reads about the quest for the initial conditions of the universe. But before
joining this search, we should ask whether and when such initial conditions make any
sense.
Obviously, our everyday description of motion requires knowledge of initial conditions, which describe the state of a system, i.e., all those aspects that differentiate it from
a system with the same intrinsic properties. Initial conditions like the state are attributed to a system by an outside observer.
Quantum theory tells us that initial conditions, or the state of a system, can only be
defined by an outside observer with respect to an environment. It is already difficult
to be outside the universe but even inside the universe, a state can only be defined if
matter can be distinguished from vacuum. This is impossible at Planck energy, near the
big bang, or at the horizon. Thus the universe has no state. This means also that it has
no wave function.
The limits imposed by the Planck values confirm this conclusion in other ways. First
of all, they show that the big bang was not a singularity with infinite curvature, density
or temperature, because infinitely large values do not exist in nature. Secondly, since
instants of time do not exist, it is impossible to define the state of any system at a given
time. Thirdly, as instants of time do not exist, neither do events, and so the big bang was
not an event, and neither an initial state nor an initial wave function can be ascribed to
the universe. (Note that this also means that the universe cannot have been created.)
In short, there are no initial conditions for the universe. Initial conditions make sense
only for subsystems, and only far from Planck scales. Thus, for initial conditions to exist,
the system must be far from the horizon and it must have evolved for some time after
the big bang. Only when these two requirements are fulfilled can objects move in space.
Of course, this is always the case in everyday life. The lack of initial conditions means
that we have solved the first issue from the millennium list.
At this point in our mountain ascent, where neither time nor length is clearly defined
at cosmological scales, it should come as no surprise that there are similar difficulties
concerning the concept of mass.

98

Vol. IV, page 112

Challenge 62 e

Does the universe have mass?

Vol. II, page 298

For the universe, if the standard horizon distance R0 of 13 800 million light years is inserted, the value becomes about 10142 kg/m3 . This describes the density of the vacuum.
In other words, the universe, with a textbook density of about 1026 kg/m3 , seems to be

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Mass distinguishes objects from the vacuum. The average mass density of the universe,
about 1026 kg/m3 , is often cited in texts. Is it different from a vacuum? Quantum theory
shows that, as a result of the indeterminacy relation, even an empty volume of size R has
a mass. For a zero-energy photon inside such a vacuum, we have E/c = p > /x, so
that in a volume of size R, we have a minimum mass of at least mmin (R) = h/cR. For a
spherical volume of radius R there is thus a minimal mass density given approximately
by
m (R)

min min3
= 4 .
(109)
R
cR

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

quires a vacuum state to be defined. The number of particles is defined by comparing

the system with the vacuum. If we neglect or omit general relativity by assuming flat
space-time, this procedure poses no problem. However, if we include general relativity,
and thus a curved space-time, especially one with a strangely behaved horizon, the answer is simple: there is no vacuum state with which we can compare the universe, for two
reasons. First, nobody can explain what an empty universe would look like. Secondly,
and more importantly, there is no way to define a state of the universe. The number of
particles in the universe thus becomes undefinable. Only at everyday energies and for
finite dimensions are we able to speak of an approximate number of particles.
In the case of the universe, a comparison with the vacuum is also impossible for purely
practical reasons. The particle counter would have to be outside the system. (Can you
confirm this?) In addition, it is impossible to remove particles from the universe.
The impossibility of defining a vacuum state, and thus the number of particles in the
universe, is not surprising. It is an interesting exercise to investigate the measurement
errors that appear when we try to determine the number of particles despite this fundamental impossibility.
Can we count the stars? In principle, the same conclusion applies as for particles.
However, at everyday energies the stars can be counted classically, i.e., without taking
them out of the volume in which they are enclosed. For example, this is possible if
the stars are differentiated by mass, colour or any other individual property. Only near
Planck energy or near the horizon are these methods inapplicable. In short, the number
of stars is only defined as long as the observation energy is low, i.e., as long as we stay
away from Planck energy and from the horizon.
So, despite appearances on human scales, there is no definite number of particles in
the universe. The universe cannot be distinguished from vacuum by counting particles.
Even though particles are necessary for our own existence and functioning, a complete
count of them cannot be made.
This conclusion is so strange that we should try to resist it. Let us try another method
of determining the content of matter in the universe: instead of counting particles in the
universe, let us weigh the universe.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 63 s

5 what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

Vol. I, page 96
Vol. II, page 63

Challenge 65 e

clearly different from vacuum. But are we sure?

We have just deduced that the radius of the horizon is undefined: depending on the
observation energy, it can be as small as the Planck length. This implies that the density
of the universe lies somewhere between the lowest possible value, given by the density of
vacuum min just mentioned, and the highest possible one, namely the Planck density.*
In short, the total mass of the universe depends on the energy of the observer.
Another way to measure the mass of the universe would be to apply the original definition of mass, as given in classical physics and as modified by special relativity. Thus, let
us try to collide a standard kilogram with the universe. It is not hard to see that whatever
we do, using either low or high energies for the standard kilogram, the mass of the universe cannot be constrained by this method. We would need to produce or to measure a
velocity change for the rest of the universe after the collision. To hit all the mass in
the universe at the same time, we need high energy; but then we are hindered by Planck
energy effects. In addition, a properly performed collision measurement would require
a mass outside the universe, which is rather difficult to achieve.
Yet another way to measure the mass would be to determine the gravitational mass
of the universe through straightforward weighing. But the lack of balances outside the
universe makes this an impractical solution, to say the least.
Another way out might be to use the most precise definition of mass provided by general relativity, the so-called ADM mass. However, the definition of this requires a specified
behaviour at infinity, i.e., a background, which the universe lacks.
We are then left with the other general-relativistic method: determining the mass of
the universe by measuring its average curvature. Let us take the defining expressions for
average curvature for a region of size R, namely

Challenge 66 e
Ref. 102

1
2
rcurvature

3 4R2 S 15 4R3 /3 V
=
.
4
R4
4
R5

(111)

We have to insert the horizon radius R0 and either its surface area S0 or its volume V0 .
However, given the error margins on the radius and the volume, especially at Planck
energy, we again find no reliable result for the radius of curvature.
An equivalent method starts with the usual expression provided by Rosenfeld for the
indeterminacy in the scalar curvature for a region of size R, namely
>

(112)

However, this expression also shows that the error in the radius of curvature behaves like
the error in the distance to the horizon.

Challenge 64 e

Vol. V, page 138

* In fact, at everyday energies the density of the universe lies midway between the two values, yielding the
strange relation
2
2
m02 /R02 mPl
/RPl
= c 4 /G 2 .
(110)
But this fascinating relation is not new. The approximate equality can be deduced from equation 16.4.3
(p. 620) of Steven Weinberg, Gravitation and Cosmology, Wiley, 1972, namely Gnb m p = 1/t02 . The
relation is required by several cosmological models.

free pdf le available at [Link]

2
16lPl
.
R4

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Vol. II, page 182

99

100

Challenge 67 s

5 what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

We find that at Planck energy, the average radius of curvature of nature lies between
infinity and the Planck length. This implies that the mass density of the universe lies
between the minimum value and the Planck value. There is thus no method to determine
the mass of the universe at Planck energy. (Can you find one?)
In summary, mass measurements of the universe vary with the energy scale. Both at
the lowest and at the highest energies, a precise mass value cannot be determined. The
concept of mass cannot be applied to the universe as a whole: the universe has no mass.
Do symmetries exist in nature?

Nothing could mean no matter. But we have just seen that this distinction cannot be made at Planck scales. So either the boundary will not exist at all or it will
encompass the horizon as well as the whole universe.
Nothing could mean no space-time. We then have to look for those domains where
space and time cease to exist. These occur at Planck scales and at the horizon. Again,
either the boundary will not exist or it will encompass the whole universe.

free pdf le available at [Link]

It is common to take boundary and horizon as synonyms in the case of the universe,
because they are the same for all practical purposes. Knowledge of mathematics does
not help us here: the properties of mathematical boundaries for example, that they
themselves have no boundary are not applicable to the universe, since space-time is
not continuous. We need other, physical arguments.
The boundary of the universe is supposed to represent the boundary between something and nothing. There are three possible interpretations of nothing:

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Does the universe have a boundary?

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 68 e

We have already seen that at the horizon, space-time translation symmetry breaks down.
Let us have a quick look at the other symmetries.
What happens to permutation symmetry? Permutation is an operation on objects in
space-time. It thus necessarily requires a distinction between matter, space and time. If
we cannot distinguish positions, we cannot talk about exchange of particles. Therefore, at
the horizon, general relativity and quantum theory together make it impossible to define
permutation symmetry.
Let us explore CPT symmetry. As a result of measurement errors or of limiting maximum or minimum values, it is impossible to distinguish between the original and the
transformed situations. Therefore we cannot claim that CPT is a symmetry of nature at
horizon scales. In other words, matter and antimatter cannot be distinguished at the
horizon.
Also gauge symmetry is not valid at horizon scale, as you may wish to check in detail yourself. For its definition, the concept of gauge field requires a distinction between
time, space and mass; at the horizon this is impossible. We therefore also deduce that at
the horizon, concepts such as algebras of observables cannot be used to describe nature.
Renormalization breaks down too.
All symmetries of nature break down at the horizon. None of the vocabulary we use to
talk about observations including terms such as such as magnetic field, electric field,
potential, spin, charge, or speed can be used at the horizon.

what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

101

Nothing could mean neither space-time nor matter. The only possibility is a boundary that encloses domains beyond the Planck scales and beyond the horizon; but again,
such a boundary would also encompass all of nature.

Challenge 69 s

Ref. 103

Is the universe a set?

Cicero

* The mistress and queen of all things is reason. Tusculanae Disputationes, 2.21.47. Marcus Tullius Cicero
(10643 bce), was an influential lawyer, orator and politician at the end of the Roman republic.

free pdf le available at [Link]

We are used to thinking of the universe the sum of all matter and all space-time. In doing so, we imply that the universe is a set of mutually distinct components. This idea
has been assumed in three situations: in claiming that matter consists of particles; that
space-time consists of events (or points); and that different states consist of different initial conditions. However, our discussion shows that the universe is not a set of such
distinguishable elements. We have encountered several proofs: at the horizon, at the big
bang and at Planck scales, it becomes impossible to distinguish between events, between
particles, between observables, and between space-time and matter. In those domains,
distinctions of any kind become impossible. We have found that distinguishing between
two entities for example, between a toothpick and a mountain is only approximately
possible. It is approximately possible because we live at energies well below the Planck energy. The approximation is so good that we do not notice the error when we distinguish
cars from people and from toothpicks. Nevertheless, our discussion of the situation at
Planck energy shows that a perfect distinction is impossible in principle. It is impossible
to split the universe into separate parts.
Another way to reach this result is the following. Distinguishing between two entities
requires different measurement results: for example, different positions, masses or sizes.
Whatever quantity we choose, at Planck energy the distinction becomes impossible. Only
at everyday energies is it approximately possible.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Domina omnium et regina ratio.*

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

This is puzzling. When combining quantum theory and relativity, we do not seem to
be able to find a conceptual definition of the horizon that distinguishes it from what
it includes. A distinction is possible in general relativity alone, and in quantum theory
alone; but as soon as we combine the two, the boundary becomes indistinguishable from
its content. The interior of the universe cannot be distinguished from its horizon. There is
no boundary of the universe.
The difficulty in distinguishing the horizon from its contents suggests that nature may
be symmetric under transformations that exchange interiors and boundaries. This idea
is called holography, because it vaguely recalls the working of credit-card holograms. It
is a busy research field in high-energy physics.
We note that if the interior and the boundary of the universe cannot be distinguished,
the constituents of nature can neither be points nor tiny objects of any kind. The constituents of nature must be extended. But before we explore this topic, we continue with
our search for differences between the universe and nothing. The search leads us to our
next question.

102

Vol. III, page 304

Challenge 71 s

free pdf le available at [Link]

* Some people knew this long before physicists. For example, the belief that the universe is or contains
information was ridiculed most thoroughly in the popular science-fiction parody by Douglas Adams,
The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy, 1979, and its sequels.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Challenge 70 e

In short, since the universe contains no distinguishable parts, there are no elements in
nature. Simply put: the universe is not a set. We envisaged this possibility earlier on; now
it is confirmed. The concepts of element and set are already too specialized to describe
the universe. The universe must be described by a mathematical concept that does not
contain any set. The new concept must be more general than that of a set.
This is a powerful result: a precise description of the universe cannot use any concept
that presupposes the existence of sets. But all the concepts we have used so far to describe
nature, such as space-time, metric, phase space, Hilbert space and its generalizations, are
based on elements and sets. They must all be abandoned at Planck energies, and in any
precise description.
Elements and sets must be abandoned. Note that this radical conclusion is deduced
from only two statements: the necessity of using quantum theory whenever the dimensions are of the order of the Compton wavelength, and of using general relativity whenever the dimensions are of the order of the Schwarzschild radius. Together, they mean
that no precise description of nature can contain elements and sets. The difficulties in
complying with this result explain why the unification of the two theories has not so
far been successful. Not only does unification require that we stop using space, time
and mass for the description of nature; it also requires that all distinctions, of any kind,
should be only approximate. But all physicists have been educated on the basis of exactly
the opposite creed!
Many past speculations about the final unified description of nature depend on sets.
In particular, all studies of quantum fluctuations, mathematical categories, posets, involved mathematical spaces, computer programs, Turing machines, Gdels incompleteness theorem, creation of any sort, space-time lattices, quantum lattices and Bohms unbroken wholeness presuppose sets. In addition, all speculations by cosmologists about the
origin of the universe presuppose sets. But since these speculations presuppose sets, they
are wrong. You may also wish to check the religious explanations you know against this
criterion. In fact, no approach used by theoretical physicists up to the year 2000 satisfied
the requirement that elements and sets must be abandoned.
The task of abandoning sets is not easy. This is shown with a simple test: do you know
of a single concept not based on elements or sets?
In summary, the universe is not a set. In particular, the universe is not a physical
system. Specifically, it has no state, no intrinsic properties, no wave function, no initial
conditions, no density, no mass, no entropy and no cosmological constant. The universe
is thus neither thermodynamically closed nor open; and it contains no information. All
thermodynamic quantities, such as entropy, temperature and free energy, are defined
using ensembles. Ensembles are limits of systems which are thermodynamically either
open or closed. As the universe is neither open nor closed, no thermodynamic quantity
can be defined for it.* All physical properties are defined only for parts of nature which
are approximated or idealized as sets, and thus are physical systems.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 104

5 what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

103

Curiosities and fun challenges about the universe

Insofern sich die Stze der Mathematik auf die

Wirklichkeit beziehen, sind sie nicht sicher, und
sofern sie sicher sind, beziehen sie sich nicht auf
die Wirklichkeit.*
Albert Einstein

Die ganzen Zahlen hat der liebe Gott gemacht,

alles andere ist Menschenwerk.**
Leopold Kronecker

Ref. 105

In 2002, Seth Lloyd estimated how much information the universe can contain, and how
many calculations it has performed since the big bang. This estimate is based on two
ideas: that the number of particles in the universe is a well-defined quantity, and that the
universe is a computer, i.e., a physical system. We now know that neither assumption
is correct. The universe contains no information. Conclusions such as this one show the
power of the criteria that we have deduced for any precise or complete description of
motion.

* In so far as mathematical statements describe reality, they are not certain, and as far as they are certain,
they are not a description of reality.
** God made the integers, all else is the work of man. Leopold Kronecker (b. 1823 Liegnitz, d. 1891 Berlin)
was a well-known mathematician. Among others, the Kronecker delta and the Kronecker product are
named for him.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Challenge 72 s

Astronomers regularly take pictures of the cosmic background radiation and its variations. Is it possible that these photographs will show that the spots in one direction of
the sky are exactly the same as those in the diametrically opposite direction?

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

If vacuum cannot be distinguished from matter or radiation, and if the universe cannot
be distinguished from nothing, then it is incorrect to claim that the universe appeared
from nothing. The naive idea of creation is a logical impossibility. Creation results
from a lack of imagination.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

In mathematics, 2 + 2 = 4. This statement is an idealization of statements such as two

apples plus two apples makes four apples. However, we now know that at Planck energy,
the statement about apples is not a correct statement about nature. At Planck energy,
objects cannot be counted or even defined, because separation of objects is not possible
at that scale. We can count objects only because we live at energies much lower than the
Planck energy.
The statement by Kronecker must thus be amended. Since all integers are low-energy
approximations, and since we always use low-energy approximations when talking or
thinking, we conclude: man also makes the integers.

104

Ref. 106

5 what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

In 1714, the famous scientist and thinker Leibniz (b. 1646 Leipzig, d. 1716 Hannover) published his Monadologie. In it he explores what he calls a simple substance, which he defined to be a substance that has no parts. He called it a monad and describes some of its
properties. However, mainly thanks to his incorrect deductions, the term has not been
generally adopted. What is the physical concept most closely related to that of a monad?

Challenge 73 s

Challenge 74 s

We usually speak of the universe, implying that there is only one of them. Yet there
is a simple case to be made that universe is an observer-dependent concept, since the
idea of all is observer-dependent. Does this mean that there are many universes, or a
multiverse?

Is the radius of the universe observer-invariant?

Challenge 76 e

Is the cosmological constant observer-invariant?

Challenge 77 s

If all particles were removed (assuming one knew where to put them), there wouldnt be
much of a universe left. True?

Can you show that the distinction between matter and antimatter is not possible at the
cosmic horizon? And the distinction between real and virtual particles?

Challenge 79 s

At Planck energy, interactions cannot be defined. Therefore, existence cannot be defined.

In short, at Planck energy we cannot say whether particles exist. True?
Hilberts sixth problem settled

Vol. III, page 272

Ref. 107

* David Hilbert (b. 1862 Knigsberg, d. 1943 Gttingen) was the greatest mathematician of his time. His
textbooks are still in print.

free pdf le available at [Link]

In the year 1900, David Hilbert* gave a famous lecture in which he listed 23 of the great
challenges facing mathematics in the twentieth century. Most of these provided challenges to many mathematicians for decades afterwards. A few are still unsolved, among
them the sixth, which challenged mathematicians and physicists to find an axiomatic
treatment of physics. The problem has remained in the minds of many physicists since
that time.
When we combine quantum theory and general relativity, we must abandon the concept of point particle, of space point and of event. Mathematically speaking, when we
combine quantum theory and general relativity, we find that nature does not contain sets,
and that the universe is not a set. However, all mathematical systems be they algebraic
systems, order systems, topological systems or a mixture of these are based on elements

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Challenge 78 e

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 75 e

what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

The perfect physics book

free pdf le available at [Link]

Vol. I, page 405

A perfect physics book describes all of nature. In particular, a perfect physics book describes itself, its own production, its own author, its own readers and its own contents.
Can such a book exist?
Since the universe is not a set, a perfect physics book can exist, as it does not contradict any property of the universe. Since the universe is not a set and since it contains
no information, the paradox of the perfect physics book disappears. But now a further
question arises.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 205

and sets. Mathematics does not have axiomatic systems without elements or sets. The
reason for this is simple: every (mathematical) concept contains at least one element and
one set. However, nature does not. And since nature does not contain sets, an axiomatic
description of nature is impossible.
All concepts used in physics before the year 2000 depend on elements and sets. For
humans, it is difficult even to think without first defining a set of possibilities. Yet nature
does not contain sets. There is no axiomatic description of nature. And since an axiomatic formulation of physics is impossible, we conclude that the final, unified theory
cannot be based on axioms. This is surprising at first, because separate axiomatic treatments of quantum theory and general relativity are possible. However, axiomatic systems
in physics are always approximate. The need to abandon axioms is one of the reasons why
reaching a unified description of nature is a challenge.
The impossibility of an axiomatic system for physics is also confirmed in another way.
Physics starts with a circular definition: space-time and vacuum are defined with the
help of objects and objects are defined with the help of space-time and vacuum. In fact,
physics has never been axiomatic! Physicists have always had to live with circular definitions.
The situation is similar to a childs description of the sky as made of air and clouds.
Looking closely, we discover that clouds are made up of water droplets. However, there
is air inside clouds, and there is also water vapour away from clouds. When clouds and
air are viewed through a microscope, there is no clear boundary between the two. We
cannot define either of the terms cloud and air without the other.
Like clouds and air, also objects and vacuum are indistinguishable. Virtual particles
are found in vacuum, and vacuum is found inside objects. At Planck scales there is no
clear boundary between the two; we cannot define either of the terms particle and vacuum without the other. But despite the lack of a clean definition, and despite the logical problems that can ensue, in both cases the description works well at large, everyday
scales.
In summary, an axiomatic description of nature is impossible. In particular, the final,
unified theory must contain circular definitions. We will find out how to realize the
requirement later on.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Vol. I, page 406

105

106

5 what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

TA B L E 3 Physical statements about the universe when explored at highest precision, i.e., at Planck

scales

The universe has no beginning.

The universe has no volume.
The universes particle number is undefined.
The universe has no energy.
The universe contains no matter.
The universe has no initial conditions.
The universe has no wave function.
The universe contains no information.
The universe is not open.
The universe does not interact.
The universe cannot be said to exist.
The universe cannot be distinguished from a
single event.
The universe is not composite.
The universe is not a concept.
There is no plural for universe.
The universe was not created.

Does the universe make sense?

Vol. III, page 235

Challenge 81 s

* Thus I have devoted myself to magic, [ ... ] that I understand how the innermost world is held together.
Goethe was a German poet.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Challenge 80 r

Is the universe really the sum of matterenergy and space-time? Or of particles and
vacuum? We have heard these statements so often that we may forget to check them. We
do not need magic, as Faust thought: we only need to list what we have found so far,
especially in this section, in the section on Planck scales, and in the chapter on brain and
language. Table 3 shows the result.
Not only are we unable to state that the universe is made of space-time and matter;
we are unable to say anything about the universe at all! It is not even possible to say that
it exists, since it is impossible to interact with it. The term universe does not allow us to
make a single sensible statement. (Can you find one?) We are only able to list properties
it does not have. We are unable to find any property that the universe does have. Thus,
the universe has no properties! We cannot even say whether the universe is something
or nothing. The universe isnt anything in particular. The term universe has no content.
By the way, there is another well-known, non-physical concept about which nothing
can be said. Many scholars have explored it in detail. What is it?

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Drum hab ich mich der Magie ergeben,

[ ... ]
Da ich erkenne, was die Welt
Im Innersten zusammenhlt.*
Goethe, Faust.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

The universe has no age.

The universe has no size.
The universe has no shape.
The universe has no mass.
The universe has no density.
The universe has no cosmological constant.
The universe has no state.
The universe is not a physical system.
The universe is not isolated.
The universe has no boundaries.
The universe cannot be measured.
The universe cannot be distinguished from
nothing.
The universe contains no moments.
The universe is not a set.
The universe cannot be described.
The universe cannot be distinguished from
vacuum.

what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

Vol. III, page 260

107

In short, the term universe is not at all useful for the description of motion. We
can obtain a confirmation of this strange conclusion from an earlier chapter. There we
found that any concept needs defined content, defined limits and a defined domain of
application. In this section, we have found that the term universe has none of these;
there is thus no such concept. If somebody asks why the universe exists, the answer is:
not only does the use of the word why wrongly suggest that something may exist outside
the universe, providing a reason for it and thus contradicting the definition of the term
universe itself; but more importantly, the universe does not exist, because there is no
such concept as a universe.
In summary, any sentence containing the word universe is meaningless. The word only
seems to express something, but it doesnt.* This conclusion may be interesting, even
strangely beautiful, but does it help us to understand motion more precisely? Yes, it
does.

Extremal scales and open questions in physics

Page 18

* Of course, the term universe still makes sense if it is defined more restrictively: for example, as everything
interacting with a particular human or animal observer in everyday life. But such a definition, equating
universe and environment, is not useful for our quest, as it lacks the precision required for a description
of motion.

free pdf le available at [Link]

At the beginning of this volume, we listed all the fundamental properties of nature that
are unexplained either by general relativity or by quantum theory. We called it the millennium list. The results of this chapter provide us with surprising statements on many
of the items. In fact, many of the statements are not new at all, but are surprisingly familiar. Let us compare systematically the statements from this chapter, on the universe,
with those of the previous chapter, on Planck scales. The comparison is given in Table 4.
First, Table 4 shows that each unexplained property listed there is unexplained at both
limits of nature, the small and the large limit. Worse, many of these unexplained general
properties do not even make sense at the two limits of nature!

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Challenge 82 e

Our discussion of the term universe shows that the term cannot include any element or
set. And the same applies to the term nature. Nature cannot be made of atoms. Nature
cannot be made of space-time points. Nature cannot be made of separate, distinct and
discrete entities.
The difficulties in giving a sharp definition of universe also show that the fashionable
term multiverse makes no sense. There is no way to define such a term, since there is
no empirical way and also no logical way to distinguish one universe from another: the
universe has no boundary.
By taking into account the limits on length, time, mass and all the other quantities we
have encountered, we have reached a number of almost painful conclusions about nature.
However, we have also received something in exchange: all the contradictions between
general relativity and quantum theory that we mentioned at the beginning of this chapter
are now resolved. We changed the contradictions to circular definitions. Although we have
had to leave many cherished habits behind us, in exchange we have the promise of a
description of nature without contradictions. But we get even more.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Abandoning sets and discreteness eliminates contradictions

108

5 what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

TA B L E 4 Properties of nature at maximal, everyday and minimal scales

At
every day
scale

At P l a n c k
scales

requires quantum theory and relativity

intervals can be measured precisely
length and time intervals appear
space-time is not continuous
points and events cannot be distinguished
space-time is not a manifold
space is 3-dimensional
space and time are indistinguishable
initial conditions make sense
space-time fluctuates
Lorentz and Poincar symmetry
CPT symmetry
renormalization
permutation symmetry
interactions and gauge symmetries
number of particles
algebras of observables
matter indistinguishable from vacuum
boundaries exist
nature is a set

true
false
limited
true
true
true
false
true
false
true
do not apply
does not apply
does not apply
does not apply
do not exist
undefined
undefined
true
false
false

false
true
unlimited
false
false
false
true
false
true
false
apply
applies
applies
applies
exist
defined
defined
false
true
true

true
false
limited
true
true
true
false
true
false
true
do not apply
does not apply
does not apply
does not apply
do not exist
undefined
undefined
true
false
false

Secondly, and more importantly, nature behaves in the same way at horizon scales and
at Planck scales. In fact, we have not found any difference between the two cases. (Can
you discover one?) We are thus led to the hypothesis that nature does not distinguish
between the large and the small. Nature seems to be characterized by extremal identity.
Is extremal identity a principle of nature?

All open questions about nature appear at both size extremes.

Any description of nature requires both general relativity and quantum theory.
Nature, or the universe, is not a set.
Initial conditions and evolution equations make no sense at natures limits.
There is a relation between local and global issues in nature.
The concept of universe has no content.

Extremal identity thus looks like a useful hypothesis in the search for a unified description of nature. To be a bit more provocative, it seems that extremal identity may be the

free pdf le available at [Link]

The idea of extremal identity incorporates some rather general points:

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

At h o ri zon scale

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 83 r

P h ys i c a l p r o p e rt y o f n at u r e

what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

Challenge 84 e
Ref. 108

only hypothesis incorporating the idea that the universe is not a set. Therefore, extremal
identity seems to be essential in the quest for unification.
Extremal identity is beautiful in its simplicity, in its unexpectedness and in the richness of its consequences. You might enjoy exploring it by yourself. In fact, the exploration
of extremal identity is currently the subject of much activity in theoretical physics, although often under different names.
The simplest approach to extremal identity in fact, one that is too simple to be correct is inversion. Indeed, extremal identity seems to imply a connection such as
l2
r Pl
r

Ref. 103

Page 82

x x

(113)

relating distances r or coordinates x with their inverse values using the Planck length
lPl . Can this mapping be a symmetry of nature? At every point of space? For example,
if the horizon distance is inserted, the relation (113) implies that lengths smaller than
lPl /1061 1096 m never appear in physics. Is this the case? What would inversion imply
for the big bang?
More involved approaches to extremal identity come under the name of space-time
duality and holography. They are subject of intense research. Numerous fascinating questions are contained in extremal identity; there is a lot of fun ahead of us.
Above all, we need to find the correct version of the inversion relation (113). Inversion
is neither sufficient nor correct. It is not sufficient because it does not explain any of the
millennium issues left open by general relativity and quantum theory. It only relates some
of them, but it does not solve any of them. (You may wish to check this for yourself.)
In other words, we need to find the precise description of quantum geometry and of
elementary particles.
However, inversion is also simply wrong. Inversion is not the correct description of
extremal identity because it does not realize a central result discovered above: it does
not connect states and intrinsic properties, but keeps them distinct. In particular, inversion does not take interactions into account. And most open issues at this point of our
mountain ascent concern the properties and the appearance of interactions.
Summary on the universe
The exploration of the universe allows us to formulate several additional requirements
for the final theory that we are looking for:

free pdf le available at [Link]

Whenever we combine general relativity and quantum theory, the universe teaches
us that it is not a set of parts. For this reason, any sentence or expression containing
the term universe is meaningless whenever full precision is required.
We also learned that a description of nature without sets solves the contradictions between general relativity and quantum theory.
We also found, again, that despite the contradictions between quantum theory and
general relativity, the Planck limits c, and c 4 /4G remain valid.
We then found an intriguing relation between Planck scales and cosmological scales:
they seem to pose the same challenges to their description. There is a tight relation

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Challenge 86 e

or

2
x
lPl

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 85 s

109

110

5 what is the difference bet ween the universe and nothing?

between large and small scales in nature.

To answer the question in the chapter title, there seems to be little difference if any at
all between the universe and nothing. The confusion and tension are increasing. But
in fact we are getting close to our goal, and it is worth continuing.
A physical aphorism
Ref. 55, Ref. 56

Inserting numbers, we find rather precisely that the time T is the present age of the universe. With the right dose of humour we can see this result as a sign that time is now ripe,
after so much waiting, for us to understand the universe down to the Planck scales. We
are thus getting nearer to the top of Motion Mountain. Be prepared for a lot of fun.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 87 s

Here is a humorous proof that we really are near the top of Motion Mountain. Salecker
and Wigner, and then Zimmerman, formulated the fundamental limit for the measurement precision attainable by a clock of mass M. It is given by = T/c 2 M , where
T is the time to be measured. We can then ask what time T can be measured with a
precision of a Planck time tPl , given a clock of the mass of the whole universe. We get a
maximum time of
t 2 c2
(114)
T = Pl M .

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

Chapter 6

THE SHAPE OF POINT S EXTENSION

I N NAT U RE

he usual expressions for the reduced Compton wavelength = /mc and for
he Schwarzschild radius rs = 2Gm/c 2 , taken together, imply the conclusion
hat at Planck energies, what we call space points and point particles must actually be described by extended constituents that are infinite and fluctuating in size. We
will show this result with the following arguments:

free pdf le available at [Link]

* Nothing is so difficult that it could not be investigated. Terence is Publius Terentius Afer (b. c. 190
Carthago, d. 159 bce Greece), important Roman poet. He writes this in his play Heauton Timorumenos,
verse 675.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

1. Any experiment trying to measure the size or the shape of an elementary particle
with high precision inevitably leads to the result that at least one dimension of the
particle is of macroscopic size.
2. There is no evidence that empty space is continuous, but plenty of evidence that it is
not. In particular, in order to build up an entity, such as the vacuum, that is extended
in three dimensions, the constituents must be extended.
3. The existence of minimum measurable distances and time intervals implies the existence of space-time duality: a symmetry between very large and very small distances.
Space-time duality in turn implies that the fundamental constituents that make up
vacuum and matter are extended.
4. The constituents of the universe, and thus of vacuum, matter and radiation, cannot
form a (mathematical) set. But any precise description of nature without sets must
use extended constituents.
5. The BekensteinHawking expression for the entropy of black holes in particular
its surface dependence confirms that both vacuum and particles are composed of
extended constituents.
6. The attempt to extend statistical properties to Planck scales shows that both particles
and space points behave as extended constituents at high energies, namely as braids
or tangles.
7. The belt trick provides a model for fermions that matches observations and again
suggests extended constituents in matter.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Nil tam difficile est, quin quaerendo investigari

possiet.*
Terence

112

6 the shape of points

We finish with some experimental and theoretical checks of extension and an overview
of present research efforts.

Also, die Aufgabe ist nicht zu sehen, was noch

nie jemand gesehen hat, sondern ber dasjenige
was jeder schon gesehen hat zu denken was
noch nie jemand gedacht hat.*
Erwin Schrdinger

the size and shape of elementary particles

Do boxes exist?

The Greeks deduced the existence of atoms by noting that matter cannot be divided indefinitely. There must be uncuttable particles, which they called atoms. Twenty-five cen* Our task is not to see what nobody has ever seen, but to think what nobody has ever thought about
that which everybody has seen already. Erwin Schrdinger (b. 1887 Vienna, d. 1961 Vienna) discovered the
equation that brought him international fame and the Nobel Prize for physics.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Can the Greeks help? The limitations of knives

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

The first and simplest way to determine the size of a compact particle such as a sphere,
or to find at least an upper limit, is to measure the size of a box it fits in. To be sure that
the particle is inside, we must first be sure that the box is tight: that is, whether anything
(such as matter or radiation) can leave the box.
But there is no way to ensure that a box has no holes! We know from quantum physics
that any wall is a finite potential hill, and that tunnelling is always possible. In short, there
is no way to make a completely tight box.
Let us cross-check this result. In everyday life, we call particles small when they
can be enclosed. Enclosure is possible in daily life because walls are impenetrable. But
walls are only impenetrable for matter particles up to about 10 MeV and for photons up
to about 10 keV. In fact, boxes do not even exist at medium energies. So we certainly
cannot extend the idea of box to Planck energy.
Since we cannot conclude that particles are of compact size by using boxes, we need
to try other methods.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Size is the length of vacuum taken by an object. This definition comes naturally in everyday life, quantum theory and relativity. To measure the size of an object as small as an
elementary particle, we need high energy. The higher the energy, the higher the precision
with which we can measure the size.
However, near the Planck energy, vacuum and matter cannot be distinguished: it is
impossible to define the boundary between the two, and thus it is impossible to define
the size of an object. As a consequence, every object, and in particular every elementary
particle, becomes as extended as the vacuum! There is no measurement precision at all
at Planck scales. Can we save the situation? Let us take a step back. Do measurements at
least allow us to say whether particles can be contained inside small spheres?

the size and shape of elementary particles

113

turies later, experiments in the field of quantum physics confirmed the conclusion, but
modified it: nowadays, the elementary particles are the atoms of matter and radiation.
Despite the huge success of the concept of elementary particle, at Planck energy, we
have a different situation. The use of a knife, like any other cutting process, is the insertion of a wall. Walls and knives are potential hills. All potential hills are of finite height,
and allow tunnelling. Therefore a wall is never perfect, and thus neither is a knife. In
short, any attempt to divide matter fails to work when we approach Planck scales. At
Planck energy, any subdivision is impossible.
The limitations of knives and walls imply that at Planck energy, an attempted cut does
not necessarily lead to two separate parts. At Planck energy, we can never state that the
two parts have been really, completely separated: the possibility of a thin connection
between the two parts to the right and left of the blade can never be excluded. In short,
at Planck scales we cannot prove compactness by cutting objects.

Ref. 109

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Vol. I, page 25

free pdf le available at [Link]

To sum up: despite all attempts, we cannot show that elementary particles are point-like;
in fact, elementary particles are not even compact. Are they, at least, of finite size?
To determine the size of a particle, we can try to determine its departure from pointlikeness. Detecting this departure requires scattering. For example, we can suspend the
particle in a trap and then shoot a probe at it. What happens in a scattering experiment at
highest energies? This question has been studied by Leonard Susskind and his colleagues.
When shooting at the particle with a high-energy probe, the scattering process is characterized by an interaction time. Extremely short interaction times imply sensitivity to
size and shape fluctuations, due to the quantum of action. An extremely short interaction time also provides a cut-off for high-energy shape and size fluctuations, and thus
determines the measured size. As a result, the size measured for any microscopic, but
extended, object increases when the probe energy is increased towards the Planck value.
In summary, even though at experimentally achievable energies the size of an elementary particle is always smaller than the measurement limit, when we approach the Planck
energy, the particle size increases beyond all bounds. So at high energies we cannot give
an upper limit to the size of a particle except the universe itself. In other words, since
particles are not point-like at everyday energies, at Planck energy they are enormous:
particles are extended.
Are particles really not of finite, bounded size? Right at the start of our mountain
ascent, we distinguished objects from their environment. Objects are by definition localized, bounded and compact. All objects have a boundary, i.e., a surface which does not
itself have a boundary. Objects are also bounded in abstract ways: also the set of symmetries of an object, such as its geometric symmetry group or its gauge group, is bounded.
In contrast, the environment is not localized, but extended and unbounded. But all these
basic assumptions fail us at Planck scales. At Planck energy, it is impossible to determine
whether something is bounded or compact. Compactness and locality are only approximate properties; they are not applicable at high energies. In particular, the idea of a point
particle is an approximate concept, valid only at low energies.
We conclude that particles at Planck scales are as extended as the vacuum. Let us
perform another check.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Are cross sections finite?

114

6 the shape of points

TA B L E 5 Effects of various camera shutter times on photographs

O b s e r va t i o n p o s s i b i l i t i e s a n d e f f e c t s

1h
1s
20 ms
10 ms

high
high
lower
lower

0.25 ms

lower

1 s
c. 10 ps

very low
lowest

10 fs
100 zs
shorter times

higher
high
very high

1043 s

highest

Ability to see faint quasars at night if motion is compensated

Everyday motion completely blurred
Interruption by eyelids; small changes impossible to see
Effective eye/brain shutter time; tennis ball impossible to see while
hitting it
Shortest commercial photographic camera shutter time; ability to
photograph fast cars
Ability to photograph flying bullets; strong flashlight required
Study of molecular processes; ability to photograph flying light
pulses; laser light required to get sufficient illumination
Light photography impossible because of wave effects
X-ray photography impossible; only -ray imaging left over
Photographs get darker as illumination decreases; gravitational effects significant
Imaging impossible

Can we take a photograph of a point?

Ref. 110
Ref. 47, Ref. 23

Pittacus

* Recognize the right moment. Also rendered as: Recognize thy opportunity. Pittacus () of
Mytilene (c. 650570 BCE ), was a Lesbian tyrant and lawmaker; he was also one of the Seven Sages of
ancient Greece.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Humans or any other types of observers can only observe the world with finite resolution in time and in space. In this respect, humans resemble a film camera. Every camera
has a resolution limit: it can only distinguish two events if they are a certain minimum
distance apart and separated by a certain minimum time. What is the best resolution
possible? The value was (almost) discovered in 1899: the Planck time and the Planck
length. No human, no film camera and no apparatus can measure space or time intervals smaller than the Planck values. But what would happen if we took photographs with
shutter times that approach the Planck time?
Imagine that you have the worlds best shutter and that you are taking photographs
at shorter and shorter times. Table 5 gives a rough overview of the possibilities. When
shutter times are shortened, photographs get darker and sharper. When the shutter time
reaches the oscillation time of light, strange things happen: light has no chance to pass
undisturbed; signal and noise become indistinguishable; and the moving shutter will
produce colour shifts. In contrast to our everyday experience, the photograph would
get more blurred at extremely short shutter times. Photography is impossible not only at
long but also at short shutter times.
The difficulty of taking photographs is independent of the wavelength used. The limits
move, but do not disappear. With a shutter time of , photons of energy lower than /

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

.*

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

D u r at i o n B lu r

the size and shape of elementary particles

115

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Since particles are not point-like, they have a shape. How can we determine it? We determine the shape of an everyday object by touching it from all sides. This works with
plants, people or machines. It even works with molecules, such as water molecules. We
can put them (almost) at rest, for example in ice, and then scatter small particles off them.
Scattering is just a higher-energy version of touching. However, scattering cannot determine shapes of objects smaller than the wavelength of the probes used. To determine the
shape of an object as small as an electron, we need the highest energies available. But we
already know what happens when approaching Planck scales: the shape of a particle becomes the shape of all the space surrounding it. In short, the shape of an electron cannot
be determined in this way.
Another way to determine the shape is to build a tight box around the system under
investigation and fill it with molten wax. We then let the wax cool and observe the hollow
part. However, near Planck energy, boxes do not exist. We are unable to determine the
shape in this way.
A third way to measure the shape of an object is to cut it into pieces and then study
the pieces. As is well known, the term atom just means uncuttable or indivisible. However, neither atoms nor indivisible particles can exist. Indeed, cutting is just a low-energy
version of a scattering process. And the process does not work at high energies. Therefore, there is no way to prove that an object is indivisible at Planck scales. Our everyday

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

What is the shape of an electron?

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

cannot pass the shutter undisturbed.

In short, the blur decreases when shutter times usual in everyday life are shortened,
but increases when shutter times are shortened further towards Planck times. As a result,
there is no way to detect or confirm the existence of point objects by taking pictures.
Points in space, as well as instants of time, are imagined concepts: they do not belong in
a precise description of nature.
At Planck shutter times, only signals with Planck energy can pass through the shutter.
Since at these energies matter cannot be distinguished from radiation or from empty
space, all objects, light and vacuum look the same. It is impossible to say what nature
looks like at very short times.
But the situation is worse than this: a Planck shutter cannot exist at all, as it would
need to be as small as a Planck length. A camera using it could not be built, as lenses do
not work at this energy. Not even a camera obscura without any lens would work,
as diffraction effects would make image production impossible. In other words, the idea
that at short shutter times a photograph of nature shows a frozen image of everyday life,
like a stopped film, is completely wrong. In fact, a shutter does not exist even at medium
energy: shutters, like walls, stop existing at around 10 MeV. At a single instant of time,
nature is not frozen at all. Zeno criticized this idea in his discussions of motion, though
not as clearly as we can do now. At short times, nature is blurred. In particular, point
particles do not exist.
In summary, whatever the intrinsic shape of what we call a point might be, we know
that, being always blurred, it is first of all a cloud. Whatever method is used to photograph an elementary particle, the picture is always extended. Therefore we study the
shape in more detail.

116

Ref. 47

intuition leads us completely astray at Planck energy.

We could try to distinguish transverse and longitudinal shape, with respect to the direction of motion. However, for transverse shape we get the same issues as for scattering;
transverse shape diverges for high energy. And to determine longitudinal shape, we need
at least two infinitely high potential walls. We already know that this is impossible.
A further, indirect way of measuring shapes is to measure the moment of inertia. A
finite moment of inertia means a compact, finite shape. But when the measurement energy is increased towards Planck scales, rotation, linear motion and exchange become
mixed up. We do not get meaningful results.
Yet another way to determine shapes is to measure the entropy of a collection of particles we want to study. This allows us to determine the dimensionality and the number
of internal degrees of freedom. But at high energies, a collection of electrons would become a black hole. We will study this issue separately below, but again we find no new
information.
Are these arguments watertight? We assumed three dimensions at all scales, and that
the shape of the particle itself is fixed. Maybe these assumptions are not valid at Planck
scales? Let us check the alternatives. We have already shown that because of the fundamental measurement limits, the dimensionality of space-time cannot be determined
at Planck scales. Even if we could build perfect three-dimensional boxes, holes could remain in other dimensions. It does not take long to see that all the arguments against
compactness work even if space-time has additional dimensions.
Is the shape of an electron fixed?

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 82

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Only an object composed of localized constituents, such as a house or a molecule, can

have a fixed shape. The smaller the system, the more quantum fluctuations play a role.
No small entity of finite size in particular, no elementary particle can have a fixed
shape. In every thought experiment involving a finite shape, the shape itself fluctuates.
But we can say more.
The distinction between particles and environment rests on the idea that particles
have intrinsic properties. In fact, all intrinsic properties, such as spin, mass, charge, and
parity, are localized. But we have seen that no intrinsic property is measurable or definable at Planck scales. Thus it is impossible to distinguish particles from the environment.
In addition, at Planck energy particles have all the properties that the environment has.
In particular, particles are extended.
In short, we cannot prove by experiments that at Planck energy elementary particles
are finite in size in all directions. In fact, all experiments we can think of are compatible
with extended particles, with infinite size. More precisely, a particle always reaches the
borders of the region of space-time under exploration. In simple words, we can also say
that particles have tails.
Not only are particles extended, but their shape cannot be determined by the methods
just explored. The only remaining possibility is that suggested by quantum theory: the
shape of a particle fluctuates.
We reach the same conclusions for radiation particles. The box argument shows that
radiation particles are also extended and fluctuating.
Incidentally, we have also settled an important question about elementary particles.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 47

6 the shape of points

the shape of points in vacuum

Vol. IV, page 105

Ref. 27

117

We have already seen that any particle that is smaller than its own Compton wavelength
must be elementary. If it were composite, there would be a lighter component inside it;
this lighter particle would have a larger Compton wavelength than the composite particle.
This is impossible, since the size of a composite particle must be larger than the Compton
wavelength of its components.*
However, an elementary particle can have constituents, provided that they are not
compact. The difficulties of compact constituents were described by Andrei Sakharov
in the 1960s. If the constituents are extended, the previous argument does not apply, as
extended constituents have no localized mass. As a result, if a flying arrow Zenos
famous example is made of extended constituents, it cannot be said to be at a given
position at a given time. Shortening the observation time towards the Planck time makes
an arrow disappear in the cloud that makes up space-time.**
Summary of the first argument for extension

the shape of p oints in vacuum

Ref. 112

Thus, since there is an impossibility that [finite]

quantities are built from contacts and points, it
is necessary that there be indivisible material
elements and [finite] quantities.
Aristotle,*** Of Generation and Corruption.

Ref. 111

* Examples are the neutron, positronium, or the atoms. Note that the argument does not change when the
elementary particle itself is unstable, like the muon. The possibility that all components are heavier than
the composite, which would avoid this argument, does not seem to lead to satisfying physical properties:
for example, it leads to intrinsically unstable composites.
** Thus at Planck scales there is no quantum Zeno effect.
*** Aristotle (b. 384/3 Stageira, d. 322 bce Chalkis), Greek philosopher and scientist.

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We are used to the idea that empty space is made of spatial points. However, at Planck
scales, no measurement can give zero length, zero mass, zero area or zero volume. There
is no way to state that something in nature is a point without contradicting experimental
results.
Furthermore, the idea of a point is an extrapolation of what is found in small empty

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Challenge 88 e

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 47

In summary, point particles do not exist at Planck scales. At Planck scales, all thought
experiments suggest that matter and radiation are made of extended and fluctuating constituents of infinite size.
We note directly that for extended constituents the requirement of a non-local description is satisfied; in addition, for fluctuating constituents the requirement of a statistical
description of the vacuum is satisfied. The argument forbidding composition of elementary particles is circumvented, as extended constituents have no mass. Thus the concept
of Compton wavelength cannot be defined or applied to extended constituents, and elementary particles can have constituents if these constituents are extended. But if the
constituents are extended, how can compact, point-like particles be formed from them?
We will look at a few options shortly.

118

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* Imagining the vacuum as a collection of compact constituents, such as spheres, with Planck size in all
directions would avoid the BanachTarski paradox, but would not allow us to deduce the number of dimensions of space and time. It would also contradict all the other results of this section. Therefore we do
not explore it further.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 113
Challenge 89 s

boxes getting smaller and smaller. But we have just seen that at high energies small boxes
cannot be said to be empty. In fact, boxes do not exist at all, as they can never have
impenetrable walls at high energies.
Also, the idea of a point as a limiting subdivision of empty space is untenable. At
small distances, space cannot be subdivided, as division requires some sort of dividing
wall, which is impossible.
Even the idea of repeatedly putting a point between two others cannot be applied. At
high energy, it is impossible to say whether a point is exactly on the line connecting the
outer two points; and near Planck energy, there is no way to find a point between them
at all. In fact, the term in between makes no sense at Planck scales.
We thus find that space points do not exist, just as point particles do not exist. But
there are other reasons why space cannot be made of points. In order to form space.
points need to be kept apart somehow. Indeed, mathematicians have a strong argument
for why physical space cannot be made of mathematical points: the properties of mathematical spaces described by the BanachTarski paradox are quite different from those
of the physical vacuum. The BanachTarski paradox states that a sphere made of mathematical points can be cut into five pieces which can be reassembled into two spheres
each of the same volume as the original sphere. Mathematically, there are sets of points
for which the concept of volume makes no sense. Physically speaking, we conclude that
the concept of volume does not exist for continuous space; it is only definable if an intrinsic length exists. And in nature, an intrinsic length exists for matter and for vacuum: the
Planck length. And any concept with an intrinsic length must be described by one or several extended constituents.* In summary, in order to build up space, we need extended
constituents.
Also the number of space dimensions is problematic. Mathematically, it is impossible to define the dimension of a set of points on the basis of the set structure alone. Any
compact one-dimensional set has as many points as any compact three-dimensional set
indeed, as any compact set of any dimensionality greater than zero. To build up the physical three-dimensional vacuum, we need constituents that organize their neighbourhood.
The fundamental constituents must possess some sort of ability to form bonds, which
will construct or fill precisely three dimensions. Bonds require extended constituents.
A collection of tangled constituents extending to the maximum scale of the region under consideration would work perfectly. Of course, the precise shape of the fundamental
constituents is not yet known. In any case, we again find that any constituents of physical
three-dimensional space must be extended.
In summary, we need extension to define dimensionality and to define volume. This
result is not surprising. We deduced above that the constituents of particles are extended.
Since vacuum is not distinguishable from matter, we would expect the constituents of
vacuum to be extended as well. Stated simply, if elementary particles are not point-like,
then points in the vacuum cannot be either.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 47

6 the shape of points

the shape of points in vacuum

119

Measuring the void

What is the maximum number of particles that fit inside a piece

of vacuum?

Summary of the second argument for extension

Vol. I, page 315

Ref. 114

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In summary, Planck scales imply that space is made of extended constituents of infinite
size. Space is not made of points, but of a web.
More than two thousand years ago, the Greeks argued that matter must be made of
particles because salt can be dissolved in water and because fish can swim through water.
Now that we know more about Planck scales, we have to reconsider this argument. Like
fish swimming through water, particles can move through vacuum; but since vacuum
has no bounds and cannot be distinguished from matter, vacuum cannot be made of
localised particles. However, another possibility allows for motion of particles through
a vacuum: both vacuum and particles might be made of a web of extended constituents.
Let us study this possibility in more detail.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Another approach to counting the number of points in a volume is to fill a piece of vacuum with point particles.
The maximum mass that fits into a piece of vacuum is a black hole. But in this case
too, the maximum mass depends only on the surface of the given region of vacuum. The
maximum mass increases less rapidly than the volume. In other words, the number of
physical points inside a region of space is only proportional to the surface area of the
region. We are forced to conclude that vacuum must be made of extended constituents
crossing the whole region, independently of its shape.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

To check whether the constituents of the vacuum are extended, let us perform a few
additional thought experiments. First, let us measure the size of a point in space. The
clearest definition of size is in terms of the cross section. How can we determine the cross
section of a point? We can determine the cross section of a piece of vacuum and then
determine the number of points inside it. However, at Planck energy, we get a simple
result: the cross section of a volume of empty space is independent of depth. At Planck
energy, vacuum has a surface, but no depth. In other words, at Planck energy we can only
state that a Planck layer covers the surface of a region. We cannot say anything about its
interior. One way to picture this result is to say that what we call space points are in fact
long tubes.
Another way to determine the size of a point is to count the points found in a given
volume of space-time. One approach is to count the possible positions of a point particle
in a volume. However, at Planck energy point particles are extended and indistinguishable from vacuum. At Planck energy, the number of points is given by the surface area
of the volume divided by the Planck area. Again, the surface dependence suggests that
particles and the constituents of space are long tubes.

120

6 the shape of points

the l arge, the small and their connection

Ref. 116

[Zeno of Elea maintained:] If the existing are

many, it is necessary that they are at the same
time small and large, so small to have no size,
and so large to be without limits.
Simplicius***

* William Shakespeare (1564 Stratford upon Avon1616 Stratford upon Avon) wrote or lent his name to theatre plays that are part of world literature.
** There is also an S-duality, which connects large and small coupling constants, and a U-duality, which is
the combination of S- and T-duality.
*** Simplicius of Cilicia (c. 499 560), neoplatonist philosopher.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Is small large?

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

If two observables cannot be distinguished, there is a symmetry transformation connecting them. For example, by a change of observation frame, an electric field may (partially)
change into a magnetic one. A symmetry transformation means that we can change the
viewpoint (i.e., the frame of observation) in such a way that the same observation is described by one quantity from one viewpoint and by the corresponding quantity from the
other viewpoint.
When measuring a length at Planck scales it is impossible to say whether we are
measuring the length of a piece of vacuum, the Compton wavelength of a body, or the
Schwarzschild diameter of a body. For example, the maximum size for an elementary
object is its Compton wavelength. The minimum size for an elementary object is its
Schwarzschild radius. The actual size of an elementary object is somewhere in between.
If we want to measure the size precisely, we have to go to Planck energy; but then all
these quantities are the same. In other words, at Planck scales, there is a symmetry transformation between Compton wavelength and Schwarzschild radius. In short, at Planck
scales there is a symmetry between mass and inverse mass.
As a further consequence, at Planck scales there is a symmetry between size and inverse size. Mattervacuum indistinguishability means that there is a symmetry between
length and inverse length at Planck energy. This symmetry is called space-time duality
or T-duality in the research literature of superstrings.** Space-time duality is a symmetry between situations at scale n lPl and at scale f lPl /n, or, in other words, between R
and ( f lPl )2 /R, where the number f is usually conjectured to have a value somewhere
between 1 and 1000.
Duality is a genuine non-perturbative effect. It does not exist at low energy, since
2
duality automatically also relates energies E and EPl
/E = c 3 /GE, i.e., it relates energies
below and above Planck scale. Duality is not evident in everyday life. It is a quantum
symmetry, as it includes Plancks constant in its definition. It is also a general-relativistic
effect, as it includes the gravitational constant and the speed of light. Let us study duality
in more detail.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 115

I could be bounded in a nutshell and count

myself a king of infinite space, were it not that I
have bad dreams.
William Shakespeare,* Hamlet.

the l arge, the small and their connection

121

Vol. III, page 88

Ref. 117

* A symmetry between size and Schwarzschild radius, i.e., a symmetry between length and mass, leads to
general relativity. Additionally, at Planck energy there is a symmetry between size and Compton wavelength.
In other words, there is a symmetry between length and inverse mass. This implies a symmetry between coordinates and wave functions, i.e., a symmetry between states and observables. It leads to quantum theory.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 115

So far, we have shown that at Planck energy, time and length cannot be distinguished,
and that vacuum and matter cannot be distinguished. Duality shows that mass and inverse mass cannot be distinguished. As a consequence, we deduce that length, time, and
mass cannot be distinguished from each other at all energies and scales! And since every
observable is a combination of length, mass and time, space-time duality means that there
is a symmetry between all observables. We call it the total symmetry.*
Total symmetry implies that there are many specific types of duality, one for each
pair of quantities under investigation. Indeed, the number of duality types discovered is
increasing every year. It includes, among others, the famous electricmagnetic duality we
first encountered in electrodynamics, coupling constant duality, surfacevolume duality,
space-time duality, and many more. All this confirms that there is an enormous amount
of symmetry at Planck scales. In fact, similar symmetries have been known right from
the beginning of research in quantum gravity.
Most importantly, total symmetry implies that gravity can be seen as equivalent to all
other forces. Space-time duality thus shows that unification is possible. Physicists have
always dreamt about unification. Duality tells us that this dream can indeed be realized.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Unification and total symmetry

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

To explore the consequences of duality, we can compare it to rotational symmetry in

everyday life. Every object in daily life is symmetrical under a full rotation of 2. For the
rotation of an observer, angles make sense only as long as they are smaller than 2. If a
rotating observer were to insist on distinguishing angles of 0, 2, 4 etc., he would get a
new copy of the universe at each full turn.
2
Similarly, in nature, scales R and lPl
/R cannot be distinguished. Lengths make no
sense when they are smaller than lPl . If, however, we insist on using even smaller values
and on distinguishing them from large ones, we get a new copy of the universe at those
small scales. Such an insistence is part of the standard continuum description of motion, where it is assumed that space and time are described by the real numbers, which
are defined over arbitrarily small intervals. Whenever the (approximate) continuum de2
scription with infinite extension is used, the R lPl
/R symmetry pops up.
Duality implies that diffeomorphism invariance is only valid at medium scales, not at
extremal ones. At extremal scales, quantum theory has to be taken into account in the
proper manner. We do not yet know how to do this.
Space-time duality means that introducing lengths smaller than the Planck length (as
when one defines space points, which have size zero) means at the same time introducing
things with very large (infinite) value. Space-time duality means that for every small
enough sphere the inside equals the outside.
Duality means that if a system has a small dimension, it also has a large one, and vice
versa. There are thus no small objects in nature. So space-time duality is consistent with
the idea that the basic constituents are extended.

122

Unification implies thinking in terms of duality and the concepts that follow from it.
The large and the small are connected. Duality points to one single type of extended
constituents that defines all physical observables.
We still need to understand exactly what happens to duality when we restrict ourselves
to low energies, as we do in everyday life. We explore this now.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

* Renormalization energy does connect different energies, but not in the correct way; in particular, it does
not include duality.

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It may seem that total symmetry completely contradicts what was said in the previous
section, where we argued that all symmetries are lost at Planck scales. Which result is
correct? Obviously, both of them are.
At Planck scales, all low-energy symmetries are indeed lost. In fact, all symmetries
that imply a fixed energy are lost. However, duality and its generalizations combine both
small and large dimensions, or large and small energies. Most of the standard symmetries of physics, such as gauge, permutation and space-time symmetries, are valid at each
fixed energy separately. But nature is not made this way. The precise description of nature requires us to take into consideration large and small energies at the same time. In
everyday life, we do not do that. The physics of everyday life is an approximation to nature valid at low and fixed energies. For most of the twentieth century, physicists tried to
reach higher and higher energies. We believed that precision increases with increasing
energy. But when we combine quantum theory and gravity we are forced to change this
approach. To achieve high precision, we must take high and low energy into account at
the same time.*
The great differences between the phenomena that occur at low and high energies are
the main reason why unification is so difficult. We are used to dividing nature along
a scale of energies: high-energy physics, atomic physics, chemistry, biology, and so on.
But we are not allowed to think in this way any more. We have to take all energies into
account at the same time. That is not easy, but we do not have to despair. Important
conceptual progress was made in the last decade of the twentieth century. In particular,
we now know that we need only one constituent for all things that can be measured.
Since there is only one constituent, total symmetry is automatically satisfied. And
since there is only one constituent, there are many ways to study it. We can start from any
(low-energy) concept in physics and explore how it looks and behaves when we approach
Planck scales. In the present section, we are looking at the concept of point. Obviously,
the conclusions must be the same whatever concept we start with, be it electric field, spin,
or any other. Such studies thus provide a check for the results in this section.
Summary of the third argument for extension

Challenge 91 e

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 90 d

6 the shape of points

d oes nature have parts?

123

d oes nature have parts?

Ref. 118

Pluralitas non est ponenda sine necessitate.*

William of Occam

Another argument, independent of those given so far, points towards a model of nature
based on extended constituents. We know that any concept for which we can distinguish
parts is described by a set. We usually describe nature as a set of objects, positions, instants and so on. The most famous set-theoretic description of nature is the oldest known,
given by Democritus:
The world is made of indivisible particles and void.

* Multitude should not be introduced without necessity. This famous principle is commonly called Occams
razor. William of Ockham (b. 1285/1295 Ockham, d. 1349/50 Munich), or Occam in the common Latin
spelling, was one of the great thinkers of his time. In his famous statement he expresses that only those
concepts which are strictly necessary should be introduced to explain observations. It can be seen as the
requirement to abandon beliefs when talking about nature. But at this stage of our mountain ascent it has
an even more direct interpretation: the existence of any multitude in nature is questionable.

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I believe there are 15,747,724,136,275,002,577,605,653,961,181,555,468,044,

717,914,527,116,709,366,231,425,076,185,631,031,296 protons in the universe
and the same number of electrons.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 119

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Vol. III, page 304

This description was extremely successful in the past: there are no discrepancies with
observations. However, after 2500 years, the conceptual difficulties of this approach are
obvious.
We know that Democritus was wrong, first of all, because vacuum and matter cannot
be distinguished at Planck scales. Thus the word and in his sentence is already a mistake.
Secondly, because of the existence of minimal scales, the void cannot be made of points,
as we usually assume. Thirdly, the description fails because particles are not compact objects. Finally, total symmetry implies that we cannot distinguish parts in nature. Nothing
can be distinguished from anything else with complete precision, and thus the particles
or points in space that make up the naive model of the world cannot exist.
In summary, quantum theory and general relativity together show that in nature, all
partitions and all differences are only approximate. Nothing can really be distinguished
from anything else with complete precision. In other words, there is no way to define a
part of nature, whether for matter, space, time, or radiation. Nature cannot be a set.
The conclusion that nature is not a set does not come as a surprise. We have already
encountered another reason to doubt that nature is a set. Whatever definition we use for
the term particle, Democritus cannot be correct for a purely logical reason. The description he provided is not complete. Every description of nature that defines nature as a set
of parts fails to explain the number of these parts. In particular, the number of particles
and the number of dimensions of space-time must be specified if we describe nature as
made from particles and vacuum. For example, we saw that it is rather dangerous to
make fun of the famous statement by Arthur Eddington

124

free pdf le available at [Link]

* As a curiosity, practically the same discussion can already be found in Platos Parmenides, written in the
fourth century bce. There, Plato musically ponders different arguments on whether nature is or can be a
unity or a multiplicity, i.e., a set. It seems that the text is based on the real visit to Athens by Parmenides
and Zeno. (Their home city, Elea, was near Naples.) Plato does not reach a conclusion. Modern physics,
however, does.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 120

In fact, practically all physicists share this belief, although they usually either pretend to
favour some other number, or worse, keep the number unspecified.
In modern physics, many specialized sets are used to describe nature. We have used
vector spaces, linear spaces, topological spaces and Hilbert spaces. But so far, we consistently refrained, like all physicists, from asking about the origin of their sizes (mathematically speaking, of their dimensionality or cardinality). In fact, it is just as unsatisfying
to say that the universe contains some specific number of atoms as it is to say that spacetime is made of point-like events arranged in 3+1 dimensions. Both are statements about
set sizes, in the widest sense. In a complete, unified description of nature the number of
smallest particles and the number of space-time points must not be fixed beforehand,
but must result from the description.
Any part of nature is by definition smaller than the whole of nature, and different from
other parts. As a result, no description of nature by a set can possibly yield the number
of particles or the dimensionality of space-time. As long as we insist on using spacetime or Hilbert spaces for the description of nature, we cannot understand the number
of dimensions or the number of particles.
That is not too bad, as we know already that nature is not made of parts. We know
that parts are only approximate concepts. In short, if nature were made of parts, it could
not be a unity, or a one. On the other hand, if nature is a unity, it cannot have parts.*
Nature cannot be separable exactly. It cannot be made of particles.
To sum up, nature cannot be a set. Sets are lists of distinguishable elements. When
general relativity and quantum theory are unified, nature shows no elements: nature
stops being a set at Planck scales. This result clarifies a discussion we started earlier in
relation to classical physics. There we discovered that matter objects were defined using
space and time, and that space and time were defined using objects. Along with the
results of quantum theory, this implies that in modern physics particles are defined in
terms of the vacuum and the vacuum in terms of particles. Circularity is not a good
idea, but we can live with it at low energy. But at Planck energy, vacuum and particles
are indistinguishable from each other. Particles and vacuum thus everything are
the same. We have to abandon the circular definition. This is a satisfactory outcome;
however, it also implies that nature is not a set.
Also space-time duality implies that space is not a set. Space-time duality implies
that events cannot be distinguished from each other, and thus do not form elements of
some space. Phil Gibbs has given the name event symmetry to this property of nature.
This thought-provoking term, although still containing the term event, emphasizes the
impossibility to use a set to describe space-time.
In short, nature cannot be made of vacuum and particles. This is a bizarre result. Atomists, from Democritus to Galileo, have been persecuted throughout history. Were their
battles all in vain? Let us continue to clarify our thoughts.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 121

6 the shape of points

d oes nature have parts?

125

Does the universe contain anything?

To state that the universe contains something implies that we are able to distinguish the
universe from its contents. However, we now know that precise distinctions are impossible. If nature is not made of parts, it is wrong to say that the universe contains something.
Let us go further. We need a description of nature that allows us to state that at Planck
energy nothing can be distinguished from anything else. For example, it must be impossible to distinguish particles from each other or from the vacuum. There is only one
solution: everything or at least, what we call everything in everyday life must be
made of the same single constituent. All particles are made of one piece. Every point
in space, every event, every particle and every instant of time must be made of the same
single constituent.
An amoeba

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Vol. III, page 267

free pdf le available at [Link]

We have found that parts are approximate concepts. The parts of nature are not strictly
smaller than nature itself. As a result, any part must be extended. Let us try to extract
some more information about the constituents of nature.
In any unified theory, all the concepts that appear must be only approximately parts
of the whole. Thus we need an entity , describing nature, which is not a set but which
can be approximated by one. This is strange. We are all convinced very early in our lives
that we are a part of nature. Our senses provide us with this information. We are not
used to thinking otherwise. But now we have to.
Let us straight away eliminate a few options for . One concept without parts is the
empty set. Perhaps we need to construct a description of nature from the empty set? We
could be inspired by the usual construction of the natural numbers from the empty set.
However, the empty set makes only sense as the opposite of some full set. So the empty
set is not a candidate for .
Another possible way to define approximate parts is to construct them from multiple copies of . But in this way we would introduce a new set through the back door.
Furthermore, new concepts defined in this way would not be approximate.
We need to be more imaginative. How can we describe a whole which has no parts,
but which has parts approximately? Let us recapitulate. The world must be described by
a single entity, sharing all properties of the world, but which can be approximated as a set
of parts. For example, the approximation should yield a set of space points and a set of
particles. But also, whenever we look at any part of nature, without any approximation,
we should not be able to distinguish it from the whole world. Composite objects are not
always larger than their constituents. On the other hand, composed objects must usually
appear to be larger than their constituents. For example, space points or point particles
are tiny, even though they are only approximations. Which concept without boundaries
can be at their origin? Using usual concepts, the world is everywhere at the same time;
if nature is to be described by a single constituent, this entity must be extended.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

A theory of everything describing nothing is

not better than a theory of nothing describing
everything.
Anonymous

126

6 the shape of points

Summary of the fourth argument for extension

the entropy of bl ack holes

Challenge 92 r

* This is the simplest model; but is it the only way to describe nature?

free pdf le available at [Link]

We are still collecting arguments to determining the shape of fundamental constituents.

Another approach is to study situations where particles appear in large numbers. Systems
composed of many particles behave differently depending on whether the particles are
point-like or extended. In particular, their entropy is different. Studying large-number
entropy thus allows us to determine the shape of components. The most revealing situations are those in which large numbers of particles are crammed in a small volume.
Therefore we are led to study the entropy of black holes. Indeed, black holes tell us a lot
about the fundamental constituents of nature.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 140

The lack of particles and of sets in nature leads to describing nature by a single constituent. Nature is thus modelled by an entity which is one single object (to eliminate
distinguishability), which is extended (to eliminate localizability) and which is fluctuating (to ensure approximate continuity). Nature is a far-reaching, fluctuating fold. Nature
is similar to an amoeba. The tangled branches of the amoeba allow a definition of length
via counting of the folds. In this way, discreteness of space, time, and particles could also
be realized; the quantization of space-time, matter and radiation thus follows. Any flexible and deformable entity is also a perfect candidate for the realization of diffeomorphism
invariance, as required by general relativity.
A simple candidate for the extended fold is the image of a fluctuating, flexible tube of
Planck diameter. Counting tubes implies determining distances or areas. The minimum
possible count (one) gives the minimum distance, from which quantum theory is derived.
In fact, at this point we can use as a model any flexible object with a small dimension,
such as a tube, a thin sheet, a ball chain or a woven collection of rings. We will explore
these options below.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

The entity has to be a single one, but it must seem to be multiple: it has to be multiple
approximately, as nature shows multiple aspects. The entity must be something folded.
It must be possible to count the folds, but only approximately. (An analogy is the question of how many grooves there are on an LP or a CD: depending on the point of view,
local or global, one gets different answers.) Counting folds would correspond to a length
measurement.
The simplest model would be a single entity which is extended and fluctuating,
reaches spatial infinity, allows approximate localization, and thus allows approximate definition of parts and points.* In more vivid imagery, nature could be described by some
deformable, folded and tangled entity: a giant, knotted amoeba. An amoeba slides between the fingers whenever one tries to grab a part of it. A perfect amoeba flows around
any knife trying to cut it. The only way to hold it would be to grab it in its entirety. However, for someone himself made of amoeba strands, this is impossible. He can only grab
it approximately, by catching part of it and approximately blocking it, for example using
a small hole, so that the escape takes a long time.

the entropy of bl ack holes

127

A black hole is a body whose gravity is so strong that even light cannot escape. It
is easily deduced from general relativity that any body whose mass m fits inside the socalled Schwarzschild radius
rS = 2Gm/c 2
(115)

Ref. 57, Ref. 58

is a black hole. A black hole can be formed when a whole star collapses under its own
weight. Such a black hole is a macroscopic body, with a large number of constituents.
Therefore it has an entropy. The entropy S of a macroscopic black hole was determined
by Bekenstein and Hawking, and is given by
S=

Ref. 123

Ref. 125
Ref. 126

S=k

4Gm2
c

(116)

where k is the Boltzmann constant and A = 4rS2 is the surface of the black hole horizon.
This important result has been derived in many different ways. The various derivations
confirm that space-time and matter are equivalent: they show that the entropy value can
be interpreted as an entropy either of matter or of space-time. In the present context, the
two main points of interest are that the entropy is finite, and that it is proportional to the
area of the black hole horizon.
In view of the existence of minimum lengths and times, the finiteness of the entropy
is not surprising: it confirms the idea that matter is made of a finite number of discrete
constituents per given volume (or area). It also shows that these constituents behave statistically: they fluctuate. In fact, quantum gravity implies a finite entropy for any object,
not only for black holes. Jacob Bekenstein has shown that the entropy of an object is
always smaller than the entropy of a (certain type of) black hole of the same mass.
The entropy of a black hole is proportional to its horizon area. Why? This question
has been the topic of a stream of publications.* A simple way to understand the entropy
surface proportionality is to look for other systems in nature whose entropy is proportional to system surface instead of system volume. In general, the entropy of a collection
of flexible one-dimensional objects, such as polymer chains, shares this property. Indeed,
the entropy of a polymer chain made of N monomers, each of length a, whose ends are
kept a distance r apart, is given by
S(r) = k

3r 2
2Na2

for

Na Na r .

(117)

Ref. 124

* The result can be derived from quantum statistics alone. However, this derivation does not yield the
proportionality coefficient.

free pdf le available at [Link]

This formula can be derived in a few lines from the properties of a random walk on a lattice, using only two assumptions: the chains are extended; and they have a characteristic
internal length a given by the smallest straight segment. Expression (117) is only valid if
the polymers are effectively infinite: in other words, if the length Na of the chain and the
elongation aN , are much larger than the radius r of the region of interest. If the chain
length is comparable to or smaller than the region of interest, one gets the usual extensive entropy, satisfying S r 3 . Thus only flexible extended constituents yield an S r 2

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 35

or

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 122

k
kc 3
A
A
=
2
4G
4lPl

128

Ref. 109

6 the shape of points

Summary of the fifth argument for extension

Black hole entropy is best understood as resulting from extended constituents that tangle
and fluctuate. Black hole entropy also confirms that vacuum and particles are made of
common constituents.

exchanging space p oints or particles at pl anck

scales

[x, y] = x y yx = 0

(118)

between any two points with coordinates x and y, making them bosons. But at Planck
scales, because of the existence of minimal distances and areas, this relation must at least
be changed to
2
[x, y] = lPl
+ ... .
(119)

free pdf le available at [Link]

Let us now focus on the exchange behaviour of fundamental constituents in nature. We

saw above that points in space have to be abandoned in favour of continuous, fluctuating constituents common to space, time and matter. Is such a constituent a boson or a
fermion? If we exchange two points of empty space, in everyday life, nothing happens.
Indeed, at the basis of quantum field theory is the relation

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 269

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

dependence.
However, there is a difficulty. From the expression for the entropy of a black hole we
deduce that the elongation aN is given by aN lPl ; thus it is much smaller than
the radius of a general macroscopic black hole, which can have a diameter of several
kilometres. On the other hand, the formula for long constituents is only valid when the
chains are longer than the distance r between the end points.
This difficulty disappears when we remember that space near a black hole is strongly
curved. All lengths have to be measured in the same coordinate system. It is well known
that for an outside observer, any object of finite size falling into a black hole seems to
cover the complete horizon for long times (whereas for an observer attached to the object it falls into the hole in its original size). In short, an extended constituent can have
a proper length of Planck size but still, when seen by an outside observer, be as long
as the horizon of the black hole. We thus find that black holes are made of extended
constituents.
Another viewpoint can confirm this result. Entropy is (proportional to) the number
of yes-or-no questions needed to know the exact state of the system. But if a system is
defined by its surface, as a black hole is, its components must be extended.
Finally, imagining black holes as made of extended constituents is also consistent with
the so-called no-hair theorem: black holes properties do not depend on what falls into
them, as all matter and radiation particles are made of the same extended components.
The final state only depends on the number of constituents.

the meaning of spin

Ref. 47

Ref. 127

At Planck energy this cannot be correct. Quantum gravity effects modify the right-hand
side: they add an energy-dependent term, which is negligible at experimentally accessible energies but which becomes important at Planck energy. We know from our experience with Planck scales that, in contrast to everyday life, exchanging particles twice
cannot lead back to the original situation. A double exchange at Planck energy cannot
have no effect, because at Planck energy such statements are impossible. The simplest extension of the commutation relation (120) for which the right-hand side does not vanish
is braid symmetry. This again suggests that particles are made of extended constituents.
Summary of the sixth argument for extension

the meaning of spin

As last argument we will now show that the extension of particles makes sense even at
everyday energy. Any particle is a part of the universe. A part is something that is different from anything else. Being different means that exchange has some effect. Distinction
* The same reasoning applies to the so-called fermionic or Grassmann coordinates used in supersymmetry.
They cannot exist at Planck energy.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Extrapolating both point and particle indistinguishability to Planck scales suggests extended, braided or tangled constituents.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 127

This means that points are neither bosons nor fermions.* Points have more complex
exchange properties. In fact, the term on the right-hand side will be energy-dependent,
to an increasing extent as we approach Planck scales. In particular, as we have seen,
gravity implies that a double exchange does not lead back to the original situation at
Planck scales.
Constituents obeying this or similar relations have been studied in mathematics for
many decades: they are called braids. Thus space is not made of points at Planck scales,
but of braids or their generalizations, namely tangles. We find again that quantum theory
and general relativity taken together imply that the vacuum must be made of extended
constituents.
We now turn to particles. All particles in nature behave in a similar way: we know that
at low, everyday energies, particles of the same type are identical. Experiments sensitive
to quantum effects show that there is no way to distinguish them: any system of several identical particles has permutation symmetry. On the other hand, we know that at
Planck energy all low-energy symmetries disappear. We also know that at Planck energy
permutation cannot be carried out, as it implies exchanging positions of two particles.
At Planck energy, nothing can be distinguished from vacuum; thus no two entities can
be shown to have identical properties. Indeed, no two particles can be shown to be indistinguishable, as they cannot even be shown to be separate.
What happens when we slowly approach Planck energy? At everyday energies, permutation symmetry is defined by commutation or anticommutation relations between
particle creation operators
a b b a = 0 .
(120)

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Ref. 47

129

130

6 the shape of points

position
of spin 1/2
particle

flexible bands
in unspecified
number
reaching the
border
of space

F I G U R E 9 A possible model for a

spin 1/2 particle.

* With a flat (or other) background, it is possible to define a local energymomentum tensor. Thus particles can be defined. Without a background, this is not possible, and only global quantities can be defined.
Without a background, even particles cannot be defined. Therefore, in this section we assume that we have
a slowly varying space-time background.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 128

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 163

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Vol. IV, page 109

means possibility of exchange. In other words, any part of the universe is also described
by its exchange behaviour.
In nature, exchange is composed of rotations. In other words, parts of nature are
described by their rotation behaviour. This is why, for microscopic particles, exchange
behaviour is specified by spin. Spin distinguishes particles from vacuum.*
We note that volume does not distinguish vacuum from particles; neither does rest
mass or charge: nature provides particles without measurable volume, rest mass or
charge, such as photons. The only observables that distinguish particles from vacuum
are spin and momentum. In fact, linear momentum is only a limiting case of angular
momentum. We thus find again that rotation behaviour is the basic aspect distinguishing particles from vacuum.
If spin is the central property that distinguishes particles from vacuum, finding a
model for spin is of central importance. But we do not have to search for long. A model
for spin 1/2 is part of physics folklore since almost a century. Any belt provides an example, as we discussed in detail when exploring permutation symmetry. Any localized
structure with any number of tails attached to it tails that reach the border of the region
of space under consideration has the same properties as a spin 1/2 particle. The only
condition is that the tails themselves are unobservable. It is a famous exercise to show that
such a model, shown in Figure 9, is indeed invariant under 4 rotations but not under
2 rotations, and that two such particles get entangled when exchanged, but get untangled when exchanged twice. Such a tail model has all the properties of spin 1/2 particles,
independently of the precise structure of the central region, which is not important at
this point. The tail model even has the same problems with highly curved space as real
spin 1/2 particles have. We will explore the issues in more detail shortly.
The tail model thus confirms that rotation is partial exchange. More interestingly, it
shows that rotation implies connection with the border of space. Extended particles can

curiosities and fun challenges abou t extension

Challenge 93 e

131

be rotating. Particles can have spin 1/2 provided that they have tails going to the border
of space. If the tails do not reach the border, the model does not work. Spin 1/2 thus
even seems to require extension.
It is not hard to extend this idea to include spin 1 particles. In short, both bosons and
fermions can be modelled with extended constituents.
Summary of the seventh argument for extension
Exploring the properties of particle spin suggests extended constituents in elementary
fermions.

curiosities and fun challenges abou t extension

In case that this section has not provided enough food for thought, here is some more.

Challenge 94 s

Quantum theory implies that even if tight walls exist, the lid of a box made of them could
never be tightly shut. Can you provide the argument?

Can you provide an argument against the idea of extended constituents in nature? If so,
publish it!

Challenge 96 s

Does duality imply that the cosmic background fluctuations (at the origin of galaxies and
clusters) are the same as vacuum fluctuations?

Challenge 97 s

Does duality imply that a system with two small masses colliding is equivalent to a system
with two large masses gravitating?

It seems that in all arguments so far we have assumed that time is continuous, even
though we know it is not. Does this change the conclusions?

Duality also implies that in some sense large and small masses are equivalent. A mass
2
2
/m in a radius lPl
/r. In other words, duality
m in a radius r is equivalent to a mass mPl
2
transforms mass density from to Pl /. Vacuum and maximum density are equivalent!
Vacuum is thus dual to black holes.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Challenge 98 d

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Challenge 95 e

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

No problem is so big or complicated that it cant

be run away from.
Charles Schulz

132

Challenge 99 s

6 the shape of points

Total symmetry and space-time duality together imply that there is a symmetry between
all values an observable can take. Do you agree?

Challenge 100 s

Any description is a mapping from nature to mathematics, i.e., from observed differences
(and relations) to thought differences (and relations). How can we do this accurately, if
differences are only approximate? Is this the end of physics?

Challenge 101 d

Duality implies that the notion of initial conditions for the big bang makes no sense,
as we saw earlier by considering the minimal distance. As duality implies a symmetry
between large and small energies, the big bang itself becomes a vague concept. What else
do extended constituents imply for the big bang?

Can you show that going to high energies or selecting a Planck-size region of space-time
is equivalent to visiting the big bang?

Ref. 129
Challenge 103 s

In 2002, the Italian physicist Andrea Gregori made a surprising prediction for any model
using extended constituents that reach the border of the universe: if particles are extended in this way, their mass should depend on the size of the universe. Thus particle
masses should change with time, especially around the big bang. Is this conclusion unavoidable?

Challenge 104 e

What is wrong with the following argument? We need lines to determine areas, and we
need areas to determine lines. This implies that at Planck scales, one cannot distinguish
areas from lengths at Planck scales.

Ref. 129, Ref. 130

Challenge 105 s

We need a description for the expansion of the universe in terms of extended constituents.
Various approaches are being explored. Can you speculate about the solution?
Gender preferences in physics

free pdf le available at [Link]

Vol. I, page 315

Why has extension appeared so late in the history of physics? Here is a not too serious
answer. When we discussed the description of nature as made of tiny balls moving in a
void, we called this as a typically male idea. This implies that the female part is missing.
Which part would that be?
From a general point of view, the female part of physics might be the quantum description of the vacuum, the container of all things. We can speculate that if women
had developed physics, the order of its discoveries might have been different. Instead
of studying matter first, as men did, women might have studied the vacuum first. And
women might not have needed 2500 years to understand that nature is not made of a
void and little balls, but that everything in nature is made of extended constituents. It is

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 102 d

checks of extension

133

strange that (male) physics took so long for this discovery.

checks of extension
The idea that nature is described by extended constituents is taken for granted in all
current research approaches to unification. How can we be sure that extension is correct?
The arguments presented so far provide several possible checks. We start with some
options for theoretical falsification.

Challenge 106 e

Ref. 131

Ref. 132

Experimental falsification of extension has not yet occurred. In fact, experimental falsification is rather difficult. It seems easier and more productive to confirm extension.
Confirmation is a well-defined project: it implies to deduce all those aspects of nature
that are given in the millennium list of unexplained properties. Among others, confirmation requires to find a concrete model, based on extended constituents, for the electron,
the muon, the tau, the neutrinos and the quarks. Confirmation also requires using extended constituents to realize an old dream of particle physics: to deduce the values of
the coupling constants and particle masses. Before we attempt this deduction, we have a
look at some other attempts.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 18

Observing a single particle in cosmic rays with energy above the corrected Planck
energy would invalidate the invariant limits and thus also extension. However, the
present particle energy record, about 0.35 ZeV, is a million times lower than the
Planck energy.
Paul Mende has proposed a number of checks on the motion of extended objects in
space-time. He argues that an extended object and a mass point move differently; the
differences could be noticeable in scattering or dispersion of light near masses.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Any of these options would signal the end for almost all current unification attempts.
Fortunately, theoretical falsification has not yet occurred. But physics is an experimental
science. What kind of data could falsify the idea of extended constituents?

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 107

Any explanation of black hole entropy without extended constituents would invalidate the need for extended constituents.
A single thought experiment invalidating extended constituents would prove extension wrong.
Extended constituents must appear if we start from any physical (low-energy) concept not only from length measurements and study how the concept behaves at
Planck scales.
Invalidating the requirement of extremal identity, or duality, would invalidate the
need for extended constituents. As Edward Witten likes to say, any unified model of
nature must include duality.
If the measurement of length could be shown to be unrelated to the counting of folds
of extended constituents, extension would become unnecessary.
Finding any property of nature that contradicts extended constituents would spell the
end of extension.

134

6 the shape of points

Current research based on extended constituents

Ref. 114

To understand is to perceive patterns.

Isaiah Berlin*

Ref. 133

Bosonization, the construction of fermions using an infinite number of bosons, is a central aspect of modern unification attempts. It also implies coupling duality, and thus the
extension of fundamental constituents.

Ref. 134, Ref. 135

Ref. 136

In the 1990s, Dirk Kreimer showed that high-order QED Feynman diagrams are related
to knot theory. He thus proved that extension arrives by the back door even when electromagnetism is described in terms of point particles.

Ref. 137

A popular topic in particle physics, holography, relates the surface and the volume of
physical systems at high energy. It implies extended constituents of nature.

It is long known that wave function collapse can be seen as the result of extended constituents. We will explore the details below.

Ref. 138, Ref. 139

Ref. 140, Ref. 141
Ref. 142, Ref. 143
Page 326

At the start of the twenty-first century, a number of new approaches to describe elementary particles appeared, such as models based on string nets, models based on bands,
models based on ribbons, and models based on knots. All these attempts make use of
extended constituents. Several of them are discussed in more detail below.
* Isaiah Berlin (b. 1909 Riga, d. 1997 Oxford) was an influential political philosopher and historian of ideas.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Vol. IV, page 154

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Research into quantum gravity in particular the study of spin networks, spin foams
and loop quantum gravity has shown that the vacuum can be thought of as a collection
of extended constituents.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

The Greeks deduced the existence of atoms from the observation that fish can swim
through water. They argued that only if water is made of atoms could a fish make its
way through it, by pushing the atoms aside. We can ask a similar question of a particle flying through a vacuum: why is it able to do so? A vacuum cannot be a fluid or
a solid composed of small constituents, as its dimensionality would not then be fixed.
Only one possibility remains: both vacuum and particles are made of a web of extended
constituents.
The idea of describing matter as composed of extended constituents dates from the
1960s. That of describing nature as composed of infinitely extended constituents dates
from the 1980s. In addition to the arguments presented so far, current research provides
several other approaches that arrive at the same conclusion.

checks of extension

135

Despite the use of extension, none of these attempts solved the problems from the
millennium list. One approach especially popular between the years 1984 and 2005
merits a closer look.
Superstrings extension and a web of dualities

Ref. 144

1. Particles are conjectured to be extended. Originally, particles were conjectured to be

one-dimensional oscillating superstrings. In a subsequent generalization, particles are
conjectured to be fluctuating higher-dimensional membranes.
2. The conjecture uses higher dimensions to unify interactions. A number of space-time
dimensions much higher than 3+1, typically 10 or 11, is necessary for a mathematically
consistent description of superstrings and membranes.
3. The conjecture is based on supersymmetry. Supersymmetry is a symmetry that relates
matter to radiation, or equivalently, fermions to bosons. Supersymmetry is the most
general local interaction symmetry that can be constructed mathematically. Supersymmetry is the reason for the terms superstring and supermembrane.
4. The conjecture makes heavy use of dualities. In the context of high-energy physics,
dualities are symmetries between large and small values of physical observables. Important examples are space-time duality and coupling constant duality. Dualities are
global interaction and space-time symmetries. They are essential for the inclusion of
gauge interaction and gravitation in the quantum description of nature. Dualities also
express a fundamental equivalence between space-time and matterradiation. Dualities also imply and contain holography, the idea that physical systems are completely
fixed by the states on their bounding surface.
By incorporating these four ideas, the superstring conjecture named so by Brian Greene,
one of its most important researchers acquires a number of appealing characteristics.

First of all, the superstring conjecture is unique: the Lagrangian is unique and has no
adjustable parameters. Furthermore, as we would expect from a description involving
extended constituents, the conjecture includes gravity. In addition, the conjecture describes interactions: it describes gauge fields. The conjecture thus expands quantum field
theory, while retaining all its essential points. In this way, the conjecture fulfils most of
the requirements for a unified description of motion that we have deduced so far. For
example, particles are not point-like, there are minimal length and time intervals, and
all other limit quantities appear. (Though the requirement of the lack of sets seems not

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Why superstrings and supermembranes are so appealing

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 146

Superstrings and supermembranes often simply called strings and membranes are extended constituents in the most investigated physics conjecture ever. The approach contains a maximum speed, a minimum action and a maximum force (or tension). The approach thus incorporates special relativity, quantum theory and general relativity. This
attempt to achieve the final description of nature uses four ideas that go beyond standard
general relativity and quantum theory:
Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 145

Throw physic to the dogs; Ill none of it.

William Shakespeare, Macbeth.

136

Ref. 122

Why the mathematics of superstrings is so difficult

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The superstring conjecture, like all modern descriptions of physics, is described by a

Lagrangian. The Lagrangian is constructed starting from the Lagrangian for the motion
of a classical superstring of matter. Then the Lagrangian for the corresponding quantum
superstring fields is constructed, and then higher dimensions, supersymmetry, dualities
and membranes are incorporated. This formulation of the superstring conjecture takes
for granted the existence of a space-time background.
The Lagrangian of the superstring conjecture is extremely complex, much too complex to write it down here. It is not as simple as the Lagrangian of the standard model
of particle physics or the Lagrangian of general relativity. But the complexity of the Lagrangian is not the only reason why the studying the superstring conjecture is difficult.
It turns out that exploring how the known 4 dimensions of space-time are embedded
in the 10 or 11 dimensions of the superstring conjecture is extremely involved. The topology and the size of the additional dimensions is unclear. There are only few people who
are able to study these options.
Indeed, a few years ago a physicist and a mathematician listened to a talk on superstrings, full of processes occurring in eleven dimensions. The mathematician listened

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

fulfilled.)
The superstring conjecture has many large symmetries, which arise from its many
dualities. These symmetries connect many situations that seem intuitively to be radically
different: this makes the conjecture extremely fascinating, but also difficult to picture.
The conjecture shows special cancellations of anomalies and of other inconsistencies. Historically, the first example was the GreenSchwarz anomaly cancellation; superstrings also solve other anomalies and certain inconsistencies of quantum field theory.
Edward Witten, the central figure of the field, likes to say that quantum theory cures
the infinities that appear in e 2 /r when the distance r goes to zero; in the same way, superstrings cure the infinities that appear in m2 /r when the distance r goes to zero.
Also following Witten, in the superstring conjecture, the interactions follow from the
particle definitions: interactions do not have to be added. That is why the superstring
conjecture predicts gravity, gauge theory, supersymmetry and supergravity.
About gravity, one of the pretty results of the superstring conjecture is that superstrings and black holes are complementary to each other. This was argued by Polchinsky,
Horowitz and Susskind.
As expected, superstrings explain the entropy of black holes. Strominger and Vafa
showed this important result in 1996.
The superstring conjecture naturally includes holography, the idea that the degrees of
freedom of a physical system are determined by its boundary. In particular, holography
provides for a deep duality between gauge theory and gravity. More precisely, there is a
correspondence between quantum field theory in flat space and the superstring conjecture in certain higher-dimensional spaces that contain anti-de Sitter space.
In short, the superstring conjecture implies fascinating mathematics. Conformal invariance enters the Lagrangian. Concepts such as the Virasoro algebra, conformal field
theory, topological field theory and many related ideas provide vast and fascinating generalizations of quantum field theory.

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Ref. 147

6 the shape of points

checks of extension

137

intensely and obviously enjoyed the talk. The physicist did not understand anything and
got more and more annoyed. At the end, the physicist had a terrible headache, whereas
the mathematician was full of praise. But how can you even understand this stuff?,
asked the physicist. I simply picture it in my head! But how exactly do you imagine
things in eleven dimensions? Easy! I first imagine them in N dimensions and then let
N go to 11.
Testing superstrings: couplings and masses
Ref. 148

One of the main results of quantum chromodynamics or QCD, the theory of strong interactions, is the explanation of mass relations such as
mproton ek/Pl mPl

(121)

Here, the value of the strong coupling constant Pl is taken at the Planck energy. In
other words, a general understanding of masses of bound states of the strong interaction,
such as the proton, requires little more than a knowledge of the Planck energy and the
coupling constant at that energy. The approximate value Pl 1/25 is an empirical value
based on experimental data.
Any unified theory must allow us to calculate the three gauge coupling constants as
a function of energy, thus including the value Pl at Planck energy. At present, most
researchers regard the search for the vacuum state the precise embedding of four dimensions in the total ten as the main difficulty facing the superstring conjecture. Without knowledge of the vacuum state, no calculations of coupling constants or masses are
possible.
The vacuum state of the superstring conjecture is expected to be one of an extremely
involved set of topologically distinct manifolds. It is estimated that there are around 10500
candidate vacuum states. The universe contains 1080 atoms; it thus seems easier to find a
particular atom in the universe that to find the correct vacuum state. All the advantages
that are due to a unique Lagrangian are lost again.
We can also describe the problems with the calculation of masses in the following way.
The superstring conjecture predicts states with Planck mass and with zero mass. The
zero-mass particles are then thought to get their actual mass, which is tiny compared
with the Planck mass, from the Higgs mechanism. However, the Higgs mechanism and
its numerical properties have not yet been deduced from superstrings.

Es ist nichts Groes ohne Leidenschaft

vollbracht worden, noch kann es ohne solche
vollbracht werden.*
Friedrich Hegel, Enzyklopdie.

* Nothing great has been achieved without passion, nor can it be achieved without it. Hegel, an influential
philospher, writes this towards the end of the third and last part of his Enzyklopdie der philosophischen
Wissenschaften im Grundrisse, 474, 296.

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The status of the superstring conjecture

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 149

k = 11/2 , Pl 1/25 .

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Page 353

and

138

Page 18

Summary on extension in nature

Ref. 151

We have explored nature at her limits: we have studied the Planck limits, explored
three-dimensionality, curvature, particle shape, renormalization, spin and bosonization
at highest energies, investigated the cosmological constant problem and searched for a
background-free description of nature. We have found that at Planck scales, all these explorations lead to the same conclusions: points and sets do not describe nature correctly;
matter and vacuum are two sides of the same medal; and what we usually call spacetime points and point particles are in fact made up of common and, above all, extended
constituents.
* We must know, we will know. This was Hilberts famous personal credo.

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Wir mssen wissen, wir werden wissen.*

David Hilbert

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Historically, the community of superstring researchers took over 10 years to understand

that strings were not the basic entities of the superstring conjecture. The fundamental
entities are membranes. After another 10 years, and more, it became unclear whether
membranes are the most practical fundamental entities for calculation. The search for
the most practical entities is still ongoing.
It is estimated that over 10 000 man-years have been invested in the exploration of the
superstring conjecture: compare this with about a dozen man-years for electrodynamics,
a dozen man-years for general relativity, and a dozen man-years for the foundation of
quantum theory.
In fact, it is fair to say that nowadays, superstring researchers are stuck. Despite over
10 000 man-years of effort, not a single calculation of an experimentally measurable value
has been made. For example, the superstring conjecture has not predicted the masses of
any elementary particle, nor the value of any coupling constant, nor the number of gauge
interactions. In fact, none of the open issues from the millennium list has been solved by
the superstring conjecture. This disappointing situation is the reason that many scholars,
including several Nobel Prize winners, dismiss the superstring conjecture altogether.
What are the reasons that the superstring conjecture, like several other approaches
based on extended constituents, was unsuccessful? Superstrings and supermembranes,
like many other proposed fundamental constituents, are complex structures in themselves: strings and membranes move in many dimensions, carry mass, have tension
and carry fields. In fact, the precise mathematical definition of a superstring or a supermembrane and their features is so complex that already understanding the definition
is beyond the capabilities of most physicists. But a high complexity always nourishes the
doubt that some of the underlying assumptions do not apply to nature.
Put in different terms, the superstring conjecture was not successful because its basic
principles have never been clarified. This lack of clear foundations is regularly underlined even by supporters of the superstring conjecture, such as Murray Gell-Mann. And
despite this gap, no research papers on the basic principles exist to this day.
In fact, almost all unified models based on extended constituents lack clear foundations. And most unified models also lack a relation to the Planck units.

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6 the shape of points

checks of extension

Page 70, page 73

Despite using extension as fundamental aspect, and despite many interesting results,
all the attempts from the twentieth century, including the superstring conjecture and various quantum gravity models, have not been successful in understanding or in describing
nature at the Planck scale. The reasons for this lack of success were the unclear relation
to the Planck scale, the lack of clear principles, the use of many wrong assumptions, and,
above all, the unclear relation to experiment.* To be successful, we need a different approach to calculations with extended constituents. We need an approach that is built on
Planck units, is based on clear principles, has few but correct assumptions, and stands
up against experimental tests.
In our quest for a final theory of physics, one way to advance is by posing the following
problem. Four assumptions formed the basis for the most explored approach from the
twentieth century, the superstring conjecture: extension, duality, higher dimensions and
supersymmetry. Can we dispense with any of them? Now, duality is closely related to
extension, for which enough theoretical and experimental evidence exists, as we have
argued above. On the other hand, the expressions for the Schwarzschild radius and for
the Compton wavelength imply, as we found out earlier on, that the dimensionality of
space and the statistics of particles are undefined at Planck scales. In other words, nature
does not have higher dimensions nor supersymmetry at Planck scales. In our quest for a
final theory of motion, we therefore drop these two incorrect assumptions and continue
our adventure. We can phrase the remaining quest in the following way: how are the
three gauge interactions related to the fundamental constants c, , k and G?

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Page 68, page 73

139

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

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* In 2014, during the Strings conference, it became clear that the string research community has quitely given
up its quest to achieve a unified theory with the help of superstrings or supermembranes. Researchers are
now looking for other microscopic models of nature.

Chapter 7

THE BA SIS OF THE STR AND MODEL

* Ernest Rutherford (b. 1871 Brightwater, d. 1937 Cambridge) was an important physicist and researcher; he
won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his work on atoms and radioactivity.

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Page 156

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 154

he two extremely precise descriptions of nature that were discovered in

he twentieth century quantum field theory and general relativity are
he low-energy approximations of how nature behaves at Planck scales. To
find the unified and final description that is valid at Planck scales, we follow the method
that has been the most effective during the history of physics: we search for the simplest
possible description. Simplicity was used successfully, for example, in the discovery of
special relativity, in the discovery of quantum theory, and in the discovery of general
relativity. We therefore use the guidance provided by simplicity to deduce the final and
unified description of motion.
The central requirement for any unified description is that it leads from Planck scales,
and thus from Planck units, to quantum field theory, to the standard model of elementary particles and to general relativity. In simple terms, as discussed below, the unified
description must be valid for all observations and provide complete precision.
From the preceding chapters, we know already quite a bit about the unified description. In particular, any unified description of general relativity and quantum theory must
use extended constituents. We discovered a number of reasons that are central for this
conclusion. All these reasons appear only when quantum theory and general relativity
are combined. First, only constituents that are extended allow us to deduce black hole entropy. Secondly, only extended constituents allow us to model that elementary particles
are not point-like or that physical space is not made of points. Thirdly, only extended
constituents allow us to model a smallest measurable space and time interval. Fourthly,
only extended constituents allow us to model spin 1/2.
But we are not only looking for a unified theory; we are also looking for the final
theory. This implies a second requirement: the final theory must be unmodifiable. As we
will show later on, if a candidate description can be modified, or generalized, or reduced
to special cases, or varied in any other way, it is not final.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

We havent got the money, so we have to think.

Ernest Rutherford*

the basis of the strand model

141

The fundamental principle of the strand model

Strand model :

t1

Observation :

Some
deformation,
but no
passing
through

W = h/2
l = lPl
t = tPl
S = k/2

t2

F I G U R E 10 The fundamental principle of the strand model: the simplest observation in nature, a
point-like event, is dened by a crossing switch in three spatial dimensions. The crossing switch denes
the action /2, the Planck length, the Planck time and the Boltzmann constant.

Challenge 107 e

In the preceding chapters of our quest for the final, unified theory, we have already deduced many requirements that such a theory must realize. All the requirements that we
deduced are listed in Table 6. Certain requirements follow from the property that the
description must be final, others from the property that it must be unified, and still others from the property that it must describe nature. More specifically, every requirement
appears when the expressions for the Compton wavelength and for the Schwarzschild
radius are combined. So far, the table is not found elsewhere in the research literature.

Requirements for the final and unified

description

Precision

must be complete; the unified description must precisely describe

all motion everyday, quantum and relativistic and explain all
open issues from the millennium list, given (again) in Table 8 on
page 154.
must be impossible, as explained on page 156.
must be clear. (Otherwise the unified description is not
falsifiable.)
must not differ at Planck scales because of limits of measurement
precision; vacuum and particles therefore must be described by
common fundamental constituents.
must determine all observables.
must be as simple as possible, to satisfy Occams razor.
must be extended and fluctuating, to explain black hole entropy,
spin, minimum measurement intervals, space-time homogeneity
and isotropy of space.

Modification
Fundamental principles
Vacuum and particles

Fundamental constituents
Fundamental constituents
Fundamental constituents

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Aspect

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

TA B L E 6 General requirements for a nal and unied description of nature and of motion.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Requirements for a final theory

142

7 the basis of the strand model

TA B L E 6 (Continued) General requirements for a nal and unied description of nature and of motion.

must be the only unobservable entities. (If they were observable,

the theory would not be final, because the properties of the
entities would need explanation; if additional unobservable
entities would exist, the theory would be fiction, not science.)
must be part of the description; non-locality must be negligible at
everyday scales, but important at Planck scales.
must not exist, due to limits of measurement precision; points and
sets only exist approximately, at everyday scales.
must not exist at Planck scales, due to the lack of points and sets.
must not exist at Planck scales, due to limits of measurement
precision; systems only exist approximately at everyday scales.
must not be a system, due to limits of measurement precision.
must not be an event, and thus not be a beginning, as this would
contradict the non-existence of points and sets in nature.
must not exist, due to the limits of measurements.
must be limit values for each observable (within a factor of order
one); infinitely large or small measurement values must not exist.
must imply quantum field theory, the standard model of particle
physics, general relativity and cosmology.
must define all observables, including coupling constants.
must be as simple as possible, to satisfy Occams razor.
is required, as background independence is logically impossible.
must be equal to physical space-time at everyday scale, but must
differ globally and at Planck scales.
of physical concepts must be part of the final, unified description,
as a consequence of being precise talk about nature.
must be impossible, as nature is not described by sets; Hilberts
sixth problem must have no solution.
must be undefined at Planck scales, as space is undefined there.
must be undefined at Planck scales, due to the limits to
measurement precision.
must be similar, due to the limits to measurement precision.

Non-locality
Physical points and sets
Evolution equations
Physical systems
Universe
Big bang
Singularities
Plancks natural units
Planck scale description
Plancks natural units
Relation to experiment
Background dependence
Background space-time
Circularity of definitions
Axiomatic description
Dimensionality of space
Symmetries
Large and small scales

Looking at the table of requirements for a final theory, we note something astonishing.
Even though all requirements appear when quantum physics and general relativity are
combined, each of these requirements contradicts both quantum physics and general relativity. The final theory thus differs from both pillars of modern physics. A final theory
cannot be found if we remain prisoners of either quantum theory or general relativity. To
put it bluntly, each requirement for the final theory contradicts every result of twentieth
century physics. This unexpected conclusion is the main reason that past attempts failed
to discover the final theory. In fact, most attempts do not fulfil the requirements because

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Fundamental constituents

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Requirements for the final and unified

description

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Aspect

the basis of the strand model

Challenge 108 e

143

various scholars explicitly disagree with one or several of them.

The requirement list given in Table 6 can be considerably shortened. Shortening the
list of requirements is possible because the various requirements are consistent with each
other. In fact, shortening is possible because a detailed check confirms a suspicion that
arose during the last chapters: extension alone is sufficient to explain all those requirements that seem particularly surprising or unusual, such as the lack of points or the lack
of axioms. Such a shortened list also satisfies our drive for simplicity. After shortening,
the requirements for a final theory are:

Ref. 152
Page 157

This is the summary of our adventure so far. This summary is a result of our drive for extreme simplicity. And with this summary, the search for a candidate final theory does not
take long. Of the few candidates that satisfy the requirements for a final theory, it seems
that the simplest is the one based on featureless fluctuating strands. In this approach,
strands,** not points, are assumed to be the fundamental constituents of vacuum, horizons, matter and radiation.

The strand model starts with a simple idea:

Nature is made of unobservable, fluctuating, featureless strands.
We will discover that everything observed in nature vacuum, fermions, bosons and
horizons is made of strands. Strands are the common and extended constituents of
everything. Even though strands are unobservable and featureless, all observations are
due to strands. To describe all observations, the strand model uses only one fundamental
principle:

Page 141

The definition of the Planck units with the crossing switch is illustrated in Figure 10.
All measurements are consequence of this definition. The fundamental principle thus
specifies why and how Planck units are the natural units of nature. In particular, the four
basic Planck units are associated in the following way:
* A more relaxed requirement is that the predictions of the model must be independent of any fantasies of
what might occur beyond Planck scales.
** In Dutch: draden, in French: fils, in German: Fden, in Italian: fili.

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Planck units are defined through crossing switches of strands.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Introducing strands

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

The final theory must describe nature at and below the Planck scale but
not beyond* and it must describe particles, space and horizons as made of
extended constituents fluctuating in a background.
In the final theory, the fluctuations of the constituents must explain all observed examples of everyday, quantum and relativistic motion: the Planckscale fluctuations must describe all observations with maximum precision,
imply all concepts of physics and explain all fundamental constants.

144

7 the basis of the strand model

A twist :

t2

t1
A twirl :

t2

F I G U R E 11 An example of strand deformation leading to a crossing switch (above) and one that does
not lead to a crossing switch (below).

Challenge 109 r

* In other words, the strand model sets = lPl = tPl = k = 1. The strange numbers that these constants
have in the SI, the international system of units, then follow automatically from the definitions of the metre,
second, kilogram and kelvin.
* The issue of time remains involved also in the strand model. The requirement of consistency with macroscopic experience allows to side-step the issue; alternatively, the issue can also be used to interrupt or even
stop reading at this point. For example, we can ask about the precise details that ensure a minimum time
interval in the strand model. An answer seems to require the ability to think without time, or at least, to
picture a crossing switch and its fluctuations in 4 space-time dimensions. This might be worth exploring.

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Crossingswitches that are faster than the Planck time do not occur, or better, do not play
a role, as they are unmeasurable. Equivalently, the consistency between the strand model
of space-time and the background space-time breaks down if faster processes would exist
or be defined.*
Strands are impenetrable; the switch of a crossing thus always requires the motion of
strand segments around each other. The simplest example of a deformation leading to a
crossing switch is shown in Figure 11.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Plancks quantum of action /2 appears as the action value associated to a

crossing switch. The action corresponds to a double crossing switch, or
full turn of one strand segment around another.*
The (corrected) Planck length lPl = 4G/c 3 appears as the effective diameter of strands. Since the Planck length is a limit that cannot be achieved by
measurements, strands with such a diameter remain unobservable.*
The Planck entropy, i.e., the Boltzmann constant k, is the natural unit associated to the counting and statistics of crossings.*
The (corrected) Planck time tPl = 4G/c 5 appears as the shortest possible
duration of a crossing switch.*

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

t1

the basis of the strand model

145

A strand crossing
phase
shortest distance

position
orientation

F I G U R E 12 The denition of a crossing, its position, its orientation and its phase.

Challenge 110 e
Page 34

We will show that the description of events and interactions with the help of crossing
switches leads to the standard model of particle physics, with its known gauge interactions and its known particle spectrum. In particular, we will show:
The elementary electric charge e and the fine structure constant =
137.036(1) are due to crossing switches.
All this is not an evident consequence of the fundamental principle; nevertheless, it is a
natural consequence as we will find out.

Every observation is a sequence of crossing switches of unobservable strands. In turn,

crossing switches are automatic consequences of the shape fluctuations of strands. We
will show below that all the continuous quantities we are used to physical space, physical time, gauge fields and wave functions result from averaging crossing switches over
the background space. The main conceptual tools necessary in the following are:
A crossing of strands is a local minimum of strand distance. The position,
orientation and phase of a crossing are defined by the space vector corre-

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From strands to modern physics

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

An event is the switch of a crossing between two strand segments.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

A quick check shows: the fundamental principle of the strand model implies that every Planck unit is an observer-invariant limit value. Therefore, the fundamental principle
naturally contains special and general relativity, quantum theory and thermodynamics.
In theory, this argument is sufficient to show that the fundamental principle contains all
these parts of twentieth century physics. In practice, however, physicists do not change
their thinking habits quickly; thus we need to show this result in more detail.
In the strand model, every interaction, every measurement and every physical process
is described as a sequence of crossing switches. But every observation, every measurement and every physical process is also a sequence of events. We thus deduce that events
are processes:

146

7 the basis of the strand model

sponding to the local minimum of distance, as shown in Figure 12.

Page 163

The position, orientation and phase of crossings will lead, as shown later on, to the position, orientation and phase of wave functions. The sign of the orientation is defined by
arbitrarily selecting one strand as the starting strand. The even larger arbitrariness in the
definition of the phase will be of great importance later on: it implies the existence of the
three known gauge groups.
A crossing switch is the rotation of the crossing orientation by an angle at
a specific position. More precisely, a crossing switch is the inversion of the
orientation at a specific position.

Events are observable crossing switches of unobservable strands.

Since all observations are events, all experimental observations should follow from the
strand definition of an event. We will confirm this in the rest of this text. Indeed, the
strand model asserts:
Nature is built from fluctuating featureless strands.

Page 157

The strands are featureless: they have no mass, no tension, no stiffness, no branches, no
fixed length, no ends, and they cannot be cut or pushed through each other. Strands have
no measurable property at all: strands are unobservable. Only crossing switches are observable. Featureless strands are thus among the simplest possible extended constituents.
How simple are they? We will discuss this issue shortly.

In practice, the border of space has one of two possible meanings. Whenever space is
assumed to be flat, the border of space is spatial infinity. Whenever we take into account
the properties of the universe as a whole, the border of space is the cosmic horizon.
Imagining the strands as having Planck diameter does not make them observable,
as this measurement result cannot be realized. (We recall that the Planck length is the
lower bound on any length measurement.) In low energy situations, a vanishing strand
diameter is an excellent approximation.

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Strands are one-dimensional curves in three-dimensional space that reach

the border of space.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 330

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

We note that the definitions make use of all three dimensions of space; therefore the number of crossings and of crossing switches is independent of the direction of observation.
This contrasts with the definition of crossing used in two-dimensional knot diagrams; in
such two-dimensional projections, the number of crossings does depend on the direction of the projection.
We note that strand fluctuations do not conserve the number of crossings; due to
fluctuations, crossings disappear and appear and disappear over time. This appearance
and disappearance will turn out to be related to virtual particles.
The fundamental principle declares that events are not points on manifolds; instead,

the basis of the strand model

Vacuum :

147

Elementary
spin 1/2
fermion :
spin

Elementary
spin 1 boson :

spin

Horizon :

Page 161

Page 159

Continuous background space is introduced by the observer, in order to

be able to describe observations. Every observer introduces his own background. But every background is continuous and has three spatial and one
temporal dimension.

Page 194

At this point of the discussion, we simply assume background space. Later on we will
see why background space appears and why it needs to be three-dimensional. The size
of the background space is assumed to be large; larger than any physical scale under

free pdf le available at [Link]

Strands are unobservable and featureless, and thus have no diameter. Due to shape fluctuations, the strands can be thought as having an effective diameter, akin to the diameter
of a long thin cloud; this effective diameter is just a guide to our thinking and turns out
to be invariant. Funnels, mentioned below, might be a better visualization of the purist
definition of strand. To keep this introduction as intuitive as possible, however, we stick
with the idea of strands having an effective, invariant Planck diameter.
The strand model distinguishes physical space from background space. We will show
shortly why both concepts are required. With this distinction, the strand model asserts
that matter and radiation, vacuum and horizons, are all built from fluctuating strands in
a continuous background. We first clarify these two basic terms.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

In a purist definition, featureless strands have no diameter neither the

Planck length nor zero. They are better thought as long thin clouds.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

F I G U R E 13 A rst illustration of the basic physical systems found in nature; they will be explored in
detail below.

148

7 the basis of the strand model

TA B L E 7 Correspondences between all known physical systems and mathematical tangles.

Physical system

Strand content

Ta n g l e t y p e

Vacuum and dark energy

many unknotted and untangled

infinite strands
two infinite twisted strands
many infinite twisted strands
many woven infinite strands
one infinite strand

unlinked, trivial

Graviton
Gravity wave
Horizon
Elementary vector boson
(radiation)

many infinite strands

two infinite strands
three infinite strands

discussion. In most situations of everyday life, when space is flat, background space and
physical space coincide. However, they differ in situations with curvature and at Planck
energy.

All strand fluctuations are possible, as long as strands do not interpenetrate. For example,
there is no speed limit for strands. Whenever strand fluctuations lead to a crossing switch,
they lead to an observable effect be it a vacuum fluctuation, a particle reaction or a
horizon fluctuation.
Fluctuations are a consequence of the embedding of strands in a continuous
background.

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In the strand model, even isolated physical systems are surrounded by a bath of fluctuating vacuum strands. The properties of fluctuations, such as their spectrum, their density
etc., are fixed once and for all by the embedding.
Due to the impenetrability of strands which itself is a consequence of the embedding in a continuous background any disturbance of the vacuum strands at one location propagates. We will see below what disturbances exist and how their differ from
fluctuations.
Fluctuating strands that lead to crossing switches explain everything that does happen,
and explain everything that does not happen. Our main aim in the following is to classify
all possible strand fluctuations and all possible strand configurations, in particular, all
states that differ from flat vacuum states. By doing so, we will be able to classify every
process and every system that we observe in nature.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Fluctuations change the position, shape and length of strands; fluctuations

thus change position, orientation and phase of strand crossings. However,
fluctuations never allow one strand to pass through another.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Classical electromagnetic
wave (radiation)
Elementary quark (matter)
Elementary lepton (matter)

rational tangle
many rational tangles
woven, web-like tangle
any one from a family of
unknotted or knotted
curves
many helically deformed
curves
rational tangle
braided tangle

the basis of the strand model

149

Vacuum
The strand model :

Observation :
time average
of crossing
switches

Nothing
(only for long
observation
times)

F I G U R E 14 A schematic illustration of the strand model for the vacuum.

A tangle is a configuration of one or more strands that are linked or knotted.

Tangles are characterized by their topology, i.e., by the precise way that they
are linked or knotted.

Page 292

Vacuum
We now construct, step by step, all important physical systems, concepts and processes
from tangles. We start with the most important.
Vacuum, or physical space, is formed by the time average of many unknotted
fluctuating strands.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Some examples of important tangles are given in Figure 13. They will be discussed in
detail in the following. In particular, we note that vacuum, matter and radiation are
all made of the same fundamental constituents, as required for a final theory. We will
discover below that classifying tangles naturally leads to the elementary particles that
make up the standard model of particle physics and to no other elementary particle.
We will also discover that strand fluctuations and the induced crossing switches in
every physical system lead to the evolution equations and the Lagrangians of quantum
field theory and of general relativity. In this way, strands describe every physical process
observed in nature, including all known interactions and every type of motion.
The fundamental principle relates crossing switches and observations. The fundamental principle was discovered because it appears to be the only simple definition of Planck
units that on the one hand yields space-time, with its continuity, local isotropy and curvature, and on the other hand realizes the known connection between the quantum of
action, spin and rotation.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 147

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

We will discover that all physical systems can be constructed from strands. Table 7
gives a first overview of how vacuum, particles and horizons result from strand tangles.

150

Page 223

The fundamental principle implies the following definitions of the basic observables:
The distance between two particles is the maximum number of crossing
switches that could appear between them. Length measurement is thus defined as counting Planck lengths.
* We recall that since over a century, the concept of aether is superfluous, because it is indistinguishable
from the concept of vacuum.

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Observables and limits

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

In the following, vacuum and physical space are always taken to be synonyms; the exploration will show that this is the most sensible use of the two concepts.* However,
as mentioned, the strand model distinguishes physical space from background space. In
particular, since matter and vacuum are made of the same constituents, it is impossible
to speak of physical space at the location of matter. At the location of matter, it is only
possible to use the concept of background space.
When the strand fluctuations in flat vacuum are averaged over time, there are no crossing switches. Equivalently, if we use concepts to be introduced shortly, flat vacuum shows,
averaged over time, no knots and no tangles, so that it is observed to be empty of matter
and radiation. Figure 14 helps visualizing the situation. Temporary tangles that appear
for a short time through vacuum fluctuations will be shown later to represent virtual
particles.
We note that the (flat) physical vacuum state, which appears after averaging the strand
crossings, is continuous, Lorentz invariant and unique. These are important points for the
consistency of the model. Later we will also discover that curvature and horizons have
a natural description in terms of strands; exploring them will yield the field equations
of general relativity. The strand model thus replaces what used to be called space-time
foam or quantum foam.
We also note that Figure 14 implies, despite appearances, that vacuum is isotropic. To
see this, we need to recall that the observables are the crossing switches, not the strands,
and that the observed vacuum isotropy results from the isotropy of the time-averaged
strand fluctuations.
We do not make any statement on the numerical density of strands in vacuum, or,
equivalently, on their average spacing. Since strands are not observable, such a statement
is not sensible. In any case, it is wrong to imagine that strands in vacuum are tightly
packed.
With the definition of the vacuum as a time average, the strand model yields a minimum length and a continuous vacuum at the same time. In this way, many issues about
the alleged contradiction between continuity and minimum length are put to rest. In particular, physical space is not fundamentally discrete: a minimum length appears, though
only in domains where physical space is undefined. On the other hand, the continuity
of physical space results from an averaging process. Therefore, physical space is not fundamentally continuous: the strand model describes physical space as a homogeneous
distribution of crossing switches. This is the strand version of Wheelers idea space-time
foam.

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7 the basis of the strand model

the basis of the strand model

151

A fermion
Strand model :
time average
of crossing
switches

tails

Observed
probability
density :

crossing
orientations
core

Page 163

positions
phases

spin
orientation
position
phase

F I G U R E 15 The tangle model of a spin 1/2 particle. More details will be given below.

The physical action of a physical system evolving from an initial to a final

state is the number of crossing switches that take place. Action measurement is thus defined as counting crossing switches. Physical action is thus a
measure for the change that a system undergoes.

Particles and fields

Strands also define particles, as illustrated in Figure 15:
A quantum particle is a tangle of fluctuating strands. The tangle core, the re-

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 141

It is well-known that all other physical observables are defined using these four basic
ones. In other words, all physical observables are defined with crossing switches. We
also note that even though counting always yields an integer, the result of a physical measurement is often an average of many counting processes. As a result of averaging and
fluctuations, measured values can be non-integer multiples of Planck units. Therefore,
space, time, action, entropy and all other observables are effectively real numbers, and
thus continuous. Continuity is thus reconciled with the existence of a minimum measurable length and time interval. Finally, we note that defining observables with help of
crossing switches automatically makes the Planck units c, , c 4 /4G, k and all their combinations both observer-invariant and limit values. All these conclusions agree with the
corresponding requirements for a final theory of nature.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

The entropy of any physical system is related to the logarithm of the number
of possible crossing switches. Entropy measurement is thus defined through
the counting of crossing switches. The strand model thus states that any
large physical system be it made of matter, radiation, empty space or horizons has entropy.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

The time interval between two events is the maximum number of crossing
switches that could appear between them. Time measurement is thus defined as counting Planck times.

152

7 the basis of the strand model

gion where the strands are linked or knotted, defines position, speed, phase
and spin of the particle. The tangle tails reach up to the border of space.
Page 165

Page 209
Page 200
Page 294

Curiosities and fun challenges about strands

Is there a limit to the fluctuations of strands? Yes and no. On the one hand, the speed
of fluctuations is unlimited. On the other hand, fluctuations with a curvature radius
smaller than a Planck length do not lead to observable effects. Note that the terms speed
and radius are between quotation marks because they are unobservable. Care is needed
when talking about strands and their fluctuations.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Challenge 111 e

What are strands made of? This question tests whether we are really able to maintain
the fundamental circularity of the unified description. Strands are featureless. They have
no measurable properties: they have no branches, carry no fields and, in particular, they
cannot be divided into parts. The substance that strands are made of has no properties.
Thus strands are not made of anything. This may seem surprising at first. Strands are
extended, and we naturally imagine them as sequence of points. But this is a fallacy.
Given the way that observations and events are defined, there is no way to observe, to
label or to distinguish points on strands. Crossing switches do not allow doing so, as is
easily checked: the mathematical points we imagine on a strand are not physical points.
Points on strands are unobservable: they simply do not exist.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 213

Why do crossing switches have such a central role in the strand model? An intuitive explanation follows from their role in the definition of observables. All measurements be
they measurements of position, speed, mass or any other observable are electromagnetic. In other words, all measurements in nature are, in the end, detection of photons.
And the strand model shows that photon absorption and detection are intimately related
to the crossing switch, as we will find out below.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

As shown in more detail soon, this definition of quantum particles yields, depending on
the tangle details, either fermion or boson behaviour, and reproduces the spinstatistics
theorem.
Boson tangles will allow us to model field intensities. In particular, boson tangles
allow us to deduce the electromagnetic and the two nuclear fields, as well as the corresponding gauge symmetries of the standard model of particle physics.
Modelling fermions as tangles will allow us to deduce Diracs equation for relativistic
quantum particles. Still later, by classifying all possible tangles, we will discover that
only a finite number of possible elementary particles exist, and that the topological type
of tangle determines the mass, mixings, quantum numbers, charges and couplings of
each elementary particle. In the 1960s, John Wheeler stated that a unified description of
nature must explain mass without mass, charge without charge, field without field. The
strand model realizes this aim.
Before we deduce modern physics, we first take a break and explore some general
issues of the strand model.

the basis of the strand model

Page 284

153

But strands must be made of something, we might insist. Later we will find out that
in the strand model, the universe is made of a single strand folded in a complicated way.
Nature is one strand. Therefore, strands are not made of something, they are made of
everything. The substance of strands is nature itself.

Challenge 112 e

Can macroscopic determinism arise at all from randomly fluctuating strands?

Challenge 113 e

Do parallel strands form a crossing?

Do two distant strands form a crossing?

Challenge 115 s

Is a crossing switch defined in more than three dimensions?

Challenge 116 s

Can you find a way to generalize or to modify the strand model?

Challenge 117 e

Ref. 153

Is the strand model confirmed by other, independent research? Yes, a few years after the
strand model appeared, this started to happen. For example, in a long article exploring
the small scale structure of space-time from various different research perspectives in
general relativity, Steven Carlip comes to the conclusion that all these perspectives suggest the common result that space at a fixed time is thus threaded by rapidly fluctuating
lines. This is exactly what the strand model states.
Other theoretical approaches that confirm the strand model are mentioned in various
places later in the text. Despite such developments, the essential point remains to check

free pdf le available at [Link]

Looking back, we can see relations between the strand model and the vision of It from
Qubit that is propagated by David Deutsch. What is the difference between the fundamental principle and a qubit?

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Challenge 114 s

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 73

What are particles? In the strand model, elementary particles are (families of) tangles of
strands. In other words, elementary particles are not the basic building blocks of matter
strands are. If particles could really be elementary, it would be impossible to understand
their properties.
In the strand model, particles are not really elementary, but neither are they, in the
usual sense, composed. Particles are tangles of unobservable strands. In this way, the
strand model retains the useful aspects of the idea of elementary particle but gets rid of
its limitations. In a sense, the strand model can be seen as eliminating the concepts of
elementariness and of particle. This confirms and realizes another requirement that we
had deduced earlier on.

154

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7 the basis of the strand model

how the strand model compares with experiment. Given that the strand model turns out
to be unmodifiable, there are no ways to amend predictions that turn out to be wrong. If
a single prediction of the strand model turns out to be incorrect, the model is doomed.
So far, no experimental prediction of the strand model contradicts experiments.
Do strands unify? The millennium list of open issues

Page 61
Page 69
Page 86
Page 123
Challenge 118 e

also the list of the only experimental data available to test the nal, unied description of motion.

O b s e r va b l e P r o p e r t y u n e x p l a i n e d i n t h e y e a r 2 0 0 0
Local quantities unexplained by the standard model: particle properties
= 1/137.036(1)
w or w

free pdf le available at [Link]

s
mq
ml
mW
mH
12 , 13 , 23

12
, 13
, 23

, 1 , 2

the low energy value of the electromagnetic coupling constant

the low energy value of the weak coupling constant or the value of the weak
mixing angle
the value of the strong coupling constant at one specific energy value
the values of the 6 quark masses
the values of 6 lepton masses
the value of the mass of the W vector boson
the value of the mass of the scalar Higgs boson
the value of the three quark mixing angles
the value of the CP violating phase for quarks
the value of the three neutrino mixing angles
the value of the three CP violating phases for neutrinos

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

TA B L E 8 The millennium list: everything the standard model and general relativity cannot explain; thus,

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Does the strand model reproduce all the paradoxical results we found in the first chapters? Yes, it does. The strand model implies that vacuum cannot be distinguished from
matter at Planck scales: both are made of strands. The strand model implies that observables are not real numbers at Planck scales. The strand model implies that the universe
and the vacuum are the same, when explored at high precision: both are made of one
strand. The strand model also implies that the number of particles in the universe is
not clearly defined and that nature is not a set. You can check by yourself that all other
paradoxes appear automatically. Furthermore, almost all requirements for a final theory
listed in Table 6 are fulfilled. Only two requirements of the table must be discussed in
more detail: the requirements of complete precision and of unmodifiability. We start
with complete precision.
If strands really describe all of nature, they must explain the inverse square dependence with distance of the electrostatic and of the gravitational interaction. But that is
not sufficient. If the strand model is a final, unified description, it must provide complete
precision. This requires, first of all, that the model describes all experiments. As will be
shown below, this is indeed the case, because the strand model contains both general relativity and the standard model of particle physics. But secondly and most importantly,
the model must also settle all those questions that were left unanswered by twentiethcentury fundamental physics. Because the questions, the millennium list of open issues,
are so important, they are given, again, in Table 8.

the basis of the strand model

155

TA B L E 8 (Continued) Everything the standard model and general relativity cannot explain.

O b s e r va b l e P r o p e r t y u n e x p l a i n e d i n t h e y e a r 2 0 0 0
34
J, P, C, etc.

the number of fermion generations and of particles in each generation

the origin of all quantum numbers of each fermion and each boson

Local mathematical structures unexplained by the standard model

c, , k
3+1
SO(3,1)
S(n)
Gauge symmetry
U(1)

Global quantities unexplained by general relativity and cosmology

f0 (1, ..., c. 1090 )

dm

the observed flatness, i.e., vanishing curvature, of the universe

the distance of the horizon, i.e., the size of the universe (if it makes sense)
the value and nature of the observed vacuum energy density, dark energy or
cosmological constant
the number of baryons in the universe (if it makes sense), i.e., the average
visible matter density in the universe
the initial conditions for c. 1090 particle fields in the universe (if or as long as
they make sense), including the homogeneity and isotropy of matter distribution, and the density fluctuations at the origin of galaxies
the density and nature of dark matter

Global mathematical structures unexplained by general relativity and cosmology

the origin of the invariant Planck units of general relativity
the origin of the least action principle and the Lagrangian of general relativity
the observed topology of the universe

The open issues in the millennium list must be resolved by any final, unified model
of nature, and thus also by the strand model. The issues can be summarized in two
general points: First, reproduce quantum theory, the standard model, general relativity
and cosmology. Secondly, explain masses, mixing angles and coupling constants. Of
course, only the second point is the definite test for a final, unified description. But we
need the first point as well.

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c, G
LGR dt = 0
R S3

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

0
1.2(1) 1026 m
de = c 4 /(8G)
0.5 nJ/m3
(5 4) 1079

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

SU(2)
SU(3)
Ren. group
W = 0
W = LSM dt

the origin of the invariant Planck units of quantum field theory

the number of dimensions of physical space and time
the origin of Poincar symmetry, i.e., of spin, position, energy, momentum
the origin of particle identity, i.e., of permutation symmetry
the origin of the gauge groups, in particular:
the origin of the electromagnetic gauge group, i.e., of the quantization of
electric charge, as well as the vanishing of magnetic charge
the origin of weak interaction gauge group, its breaking and P violation
the origin of strong interaction gauge group and its CP conservation
the origin of renormalization properties
the origin of wave functions and the least action principle in quantum theory
the origin of the Lagrangian of the standard model of particle physics

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7 the basis of the strand model

Are strands final? On generalizations and modifications

The chief attraction of the theory lies in its

logical completeness. If a single one of the
conclusions drawn from it proves wrong, it
must be given up; to modify it without
destroying the whole structure seems
impossible.
Albert Einstein, The Times, 28. 11. 1919.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014
free pdf le available at [Link]

If a description of motion claims to be final, it must explain all aspects of motion. To be

a full explanation, such a description must not only be logically complete, it must also
be unmodifiable. This is an important aspect that is rarely discussed. In particular, any
unmodifiable explanation has two main properties: first, it cannot be generalized, and
second, it is not itself a generalization.
Theoretical and mathematical physicists are fond of generalizing models. If you have a
description of a part of nature, they will try to find more general cases. For any candidate
unified description, they will try to explore the model in more than three dimensions,
with more than three generations of quarks, with more complicated gauge symmetries,
with different types of supersymmetry, with more Higgs bosons, or with additional heavy
neutrinos. In the case of the strand model, researchers will also explore models with
more complicated entities than strands, such as bands or bifurcating entities, and any
other generalization they can imagine.
Can a final description of nature have generalizations? The answer is no. Indeed, if it
were possible to generalize the final description, it would lose the ability to explain any
of the millennium issues! If a candidate unified theory could be generalized, it would
not be final. In short, if the strand model is a final description, the efforts of theoretical
and mathematical physicists just described must all be impossible. So far, investigations
confirm this prediction: no generalization of the strand model has been found yet.
Where does this fondness for generalization come from? In the history of physics,
generalizations often led to advances and discoveries. In the past, generalizations often
led to descriptions that had a wider range of validity. As a result, generalizing became
the way to search for new discoveries. Indeed, in the history of physics, the old theory
often was a special case of the new theory. This relation was so common that usually,
approximation and special case were taken to be synonyms. This connection leads to a
second point.
General relativity and the standard model of particle physics must indeed be approximations of the final theory. But can either general relativity or the standard model be
special cases of the final, unified theory? Or, equivalently: Can the unified theory be
a generalization of existing theories? The answer is again no. Because neither general
relativity nor the standard model of particle physics are able to explain the millennium
issues, any generalization of them would also be unable to do so. Generalizations have
no explanatory power. If the unified theory were a generalization of the two existing theories, it could not explain any of the millennium issues of Table 8! Therefore, general
relativity and the standard model of particle physics must be approximations, but not
special cases, of the final theory. In particular, if the strand model is a final description,
approximations of the strand model must exist, but special cases must not. This is indeed

the basis of the strand model

Challenge 119 e

the case, as we will see.

To summarize, a final theory must be an explanation of all observations. An explanation of an observation is the recognition that it follows unambiguously, without alternative, from a general property of nature. We conclude that the final, unified description
of motion must neither allow generalization nor must it be a generalization of either
the standard model or general relativity. The unified theory cannot be generalized and
cannot be specialized; the unified theory must be unmodifiable.* This requirement is
extremely strong; you may check that it eliminates most past attempts at unification. For
example, this requirement eliminates grand unification, supersymmetry and higher dimensions as aspects of the final theory: indeed, these ideas generalize the standard model
of elementary particles and they are modifiable. Therefore, all these ideas lack explanatory power.
A final, unified theory must be an unmodifiable explanation of general relativity and
the standard model. Because neither supersymmetry, nor the superstring conjecture,
nor loop quantum gravity explain the standard model of particle physics, they are not
unified theories. Because these models are modifiable, they are not final theories. In fact,
at least one of these two aspects is lacking in every candidate final theory proposed in
the twentieth century.
We will discover below that the strand model is unmodifiable. Its fundamental principle cannot be varied in any way without destroying the whole description. Indeed, no
modification of the strand model or of the fundamental principle has been found so
far. We will also discover that the strand model explains the standard model of particle
physics and explains general relativity. The strand model is thus a candidate for the final
theory.

Page 101

Ref. 154

Antiquity

Let us assume that we do not know yet wether the strand model can be modified or
not. Two other reasons still induce us to explore featureless strands as basis for a unified
description. First, featureless strands are the simplest known model that unifies quantum field theory and general relativity. Second, featureless strands are the only known
model that realizes an important requirement: a unified description must not be based
on points, sets or any axiomatic system. Let us explore the issue of simplicity first.
In order to reproduce three-dimensional space, Planck units, spin, and black-hole entropy, the fundamental constituents must be extended and fluctuating. We have deduced
this result in detail in the previous chapter. The extension must be one-dimensional, because this is the simplest option, and it is also the only option compatible with threedimensional space. In fact, one-dimensional strands explain the three-dimensionality of
* In the meantime I found out that David Deutsch makes a similar point with his criterion that an explanation is only correct if it is hard to vary. Used in the case of a final theory, we can say that the final theory
must be an explanation of general relativity and of the standard model. This implies that the final theory
must be hard to vary. This matches the above conclusion that the final theory must be unmodifiable.
** Simplicity is the seal of truth.

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Page 111

Simplex sigillum veri.**

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Why strands? Simplicity

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 120 e

157

158

Ref. 140
Ref. 155
Ref. 156
Ref. 157

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

space, because tangles of one-dimensional strands exist only in three spatial dimensions.
In four or more dimensions, any tangle or knot can be undone; this is impossible in three
spatial dimensions.
No simpler model than featureless strands is possible. All other extended constituents
that have been explored ribbons, bands, strings, membranes, posets, branched lines,
networks, crystals and quantum knots increase the complexity of the model. In fact
these constituents increase the complexity in two ways: they increase the number of features of the fundamental constituents and they complicate the mapping from the model
to observation.
First, no other model based on extension uses featureless constituents. In all other
models, the fundamental constituents have properties such as tension, field values, coordinates, quantum numbers, shape, twists, orientation, non-trivial topological information, etc. In some models, space-time is non-commutative or fermionic. All these features are assumed; they are added to the model by fiat. As such, they allow alternatives
and are difficult if not impossible to justify. In addition, these features increase the complexity of the possible processes. In contrast, the strand model has no justification issue
and no complexity issue.
Secondly, the link between more complicated models and experiment is often intricate and sometimes not unique. As an example, the difficulties to relate superstrings to
experiments are well-known. In contrast, the strand model argues that the experimentally accessible Dirac equation of quantum field theory and the experimentally accessible
field equations of general relativity arise directly, from an averaging procedure of crossing switches. Indeed, the strand model proposes to unify these two halves of physics with
only one fundamental principle: strand crossing switches define Planck units. In fact, we
will find out that the strand model describes not only vacuum and matter, but also gauge
interactions and particle properties as natural consequences of the structure of nature at
Planck scales. The comparable ideas in other models are much more elaborate.
We remark that building three-dimensional physical space from strands is even simpler than building it from points! In order to build three-dimensional space from points,
we need concepts such as sets, neighbourhoods, topological structures and metric structures. And despite all these intricate concepts, the concept of space defined in this way
still has no defined physical length scale; in short, it is not the same as physical space.
In contrast, in order to build three-dimensional physical space from strands, we need
no fundamental points, sets, or metric structures; we only need long-time averages of
strands and their crossings. And the length scale is built in.
All this suggests that the strand model, based on featureless, one-dimensional and
fluctuating constituents, might be the model for unification with the smallest number
of concepts, thus satisfying Occams razor. In fact, we will discover that strands indeed
are the simplest way to model particles, interactions and the vacuum, while fulfilling the
requirements of a final theory.
The simplicity of a model helps in two ways. First, the simpler a model is, the freer it
is of ideology, preconceptions and beliefs. Secondly, the simpler a model is, the easier it
can be checked against observation. In particular, a simple model allows simple checking
of its solution of paradoxes. Above all, we can resolve the most important paradox of
physics.

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Ref. 150

7 the basis of the strand model

the basis of the strand model

159

TA B L E 9 The differences between nature and any description.

Description

Nature is not a set.

Descriptions need sets to allow talking and

thinking.
Descriptions need events, points and
continuous 3 + 1-dimensional space-time to
allow formulating them.
Descriptions need point particles to allow
talking and thinking.
Descriptions need locality to allow talking and
thinking.
Descriptions need a background to allow
talking and thinking.
Descriptions need to break duality to allow
talking and thinking.
Axiomatic descriptions are needed for precise
talking and thinking.

Nature has no events, no points and no

continuity.
Nature has no point particles.
Nature is not local.
Nature has no background.
Nature shows something akin to R 1/R
duality.
Nature is not axiomatic but contains circular
definitions.

Why strands? The fundamental circularity of physics

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 104

The strand model describes strands as fluctuating in a background space-time of three

plus one space-time dimensions. The background space-time is introduced by the observer. The background is thus different for every observer; however, all such backgrounds have three dimensions of space and one of time. The observer be it a machine,
an animal or a human is itself made of strands, so that in fact, the background space is
itself the product of strands.
We therefore have a fundamental circular definition: we describe strands with a background, and the background with strands. Strands thus do not provide an axiomatic
system in the mathematical sense. This fulfils one of the requirements for the unified
description.
Why does the fundamental circular definition arise? Physics is talking (and thinking)
about nature and motion. A unified model of physics is talking about motion with highest precision. This implies that on the one hand, as talkers, we must use concepts that
allow us to talk. Talking and thinking requires that we use continuous space and time:
on short, we must use a background. The background must be continuous, without minimum length. On the other hand, to talk with precision, we must have a minimum length,
and use strands. There is no way to get rid of this double and apparently contradictory requirement. More such contradictory requirements are listed in Table 9. And since there

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Without the concepts place, void and time,

change cannot be. [...] It is therefore clear [...]
that their investigation has to be carried out, by
studying each of them separately.
Aristotle Physics, Book III, part 1.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Nat u r e

160

7 the basis of the strand model

Universes
horizon or
border
of space
(pink)

Universes
tangle
(blue
lines)
Background
space
(grey)

Background
space
(grey)
Physical
space or
vacuum
(white)

Particle
tangle
(tangled
blue
lines)

Physical
space or
vacuum
(white)

Vol. III, page 286

* It is essential that despite this circularity, Gdels incompleteness theorem does not apply to the situation.
In fact, the theorem does not apply to any unified theory of physics. The incompleteness theorem applies
to self-referential statements, not to circular definitions. Self-referential statements do not appear in physics,
not in sensible mathematics and not in the strand model.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 104

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 158

is no way to get rid of these contradictory requirements, we dont: we use both continuous
background space-time and discrete strands to describe nature.
In a few words: A unified model of physics allows talking about motion with highest
precision. This requirement forces us to use, at the same time, continuous space-time
and strands. This double use is not a contradiction but, as just explained, the result of a
circular definition. Since we, the talkers, are part of nature, a unified model means that
we, the talkers, talk about ourselves.*
We do not state that background space and time exist a priori, as Immanuel Kant states,
but only that background space and time are necessary for thinking and talking, as Aristotle states. In fact, physical space and time result from strands, and thus do not exist a
priori; however, background space and time are required concepts for any description
of observations, and thus necessary for thinking and talking. Figure 16 illustrates the
solution proposed by the strand model.
We have always to be careful to keep the fundamental circular definition of strands
and backgrounds in our mind. Any temptation to resolve it leads astray. For example, if
we attempt to define sets or elements (or points) with the help of measurements, we are
hiding or forgetting the fundamental circularity. Indeed, many physicists constructed
and still construct axiomatic systems for their field. The fundamental circularity implies
that axiomatic systems are possible for parts of physics, but not for physics as a whole.
Indeed, there are axiomatic descriptions of classical mechanics, of electrodynamics, of
quantum theory, of quantum field theory, and even of general relativity. But there is no
axiomatic system for all of physics i.e., for the description of all motion and there
cannot be one.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

F I G U R E 16 In the strand model, physical space or vacuum and background space are distinct, both
near the horizon and near particles.

the basis of the strand model

A strand :

161

A funnel :

F I G U R E 17 Two equivalent depictions of the fundamental constituents of nature: strands and funnels.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Another type of constituent also fulfils all the conditions for a unified description. As
shown in Figure 17, as an alternative to fluctuating strands, we can use fluctuating fun-

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Funnels an equivalent alternative to strands

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Ref. 159

A further issue must be discussed in this context. As mentioned, strands fluctuate

in a background space, and only crossing switches can be observed. In particular, this
implies that the mathematical points of the background space cannot be observed. In
other words, despite using mathematical points to describe the background space (and
strands themselves), none of them have physical significance. Physical points do not exist
in the strand model. Physical locations of events are due to crossing switches, and can
at best be localized to within a Planck length. The same limitation applies to physical
events and to physical locations in time. A natural Planck-scale non-locality is built into
the model. This realizes a further requirement that any unified description has to fulfil.
The situation for physicists working on unification is thus harder and more fascinating than that for biologists, for example. Biology is talking about living systems.
Biologists are themselves living systems. But in the case of biologists, this does not lead
to a circular definition. Biology does not use concepts that contain circular definitions: a
living being has no problems describing other living beings. Even neurobiologists, who
aim to explore the functioning of the brain, face no fundamental limit doing so, even
though they explore the human brain using their own brain: a brain has no problem
describing other brains. In contrast, physicists working on unification need to live with
circularity: a fundamental, precise description of motion requires to be conscious of our
own limitations as describing beings. And our main limitation is that we cannot think
without continuous space and time, even though these concepts do not apply to nature.
We conclude: A unified description cannot be axiomatic, cannot be based on observable physical points, must distinguish physical space from background space, and cannot
be background-independent. Many models based on extended constituents also use backgrounds. However, most models also allow the definition of sets and axiomatic descriptions. Such models thus cannot be candidates for a unified description of nature. In
contrast, the strand model keeps the fundamental circularity of physics intact; it does
not allow an axiomatic formulation of fundamental physics, and only allows points or
sets as approximate concepts.

162

Page 125

nels as fundamental constituents. In the description with funnels, nature resembles a

complicated tangle of a three-dimensional space that is projected back into three dimensions.
Funnels show that the strand model only requires that the effective minimal effective
diameter of a strand is the Planck length; it could have other diameters as well. Funnels
also show that due to varying diameters, strands can, through their fluctuations, literally
be everywhere in space and thus effectively fill space, even if their actual density is low.
Funnels resemble many other research topics. Funnels are similar to wormholes; however, both their ends lead, at the border of space, into usual three-dimensional space.
Funnels are also similar to D-branes, except that they are embedded in three spatial dimensions, not ten. Funnels also resemble a part of an exotic manifold projected into
three-dimensional space. Fluctuating funnels also remind us of the amoeba mentioned
above. However, the similarities with wormholes, D-branes or exotic manifolds are of
little help: so far, none of these approaches has led to viable models of unification.
A first check shows that the funnel alternative seems completely equivalent to strands.*
You might enjoy testing that all the conclusions deduced in the following pages appear
unchanged if strands are replaced by funnels. In particular, also funnels allow us to deduce quantum field theory, the standard model and general relativity. Due to the strict
equivalence between strands and funnels, the choice between the two alternatives is a
matter of taste or of visualization, but not a matter of physics. We use strands in the
following, as they are simpler to draw.
Summary on the fundamental principle of the strand model
and on continuity

Page 154

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* Two issues that put this equivalence into question arose in summer 2014: ending funnels and diameter
behaviour under boosts. The issues are subject of research, but it is expected that they pose no problem.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 141

We have introduced featureless, fluctuating strands as common constituents of space,

matter, radiation and horizons. All physical observables are defined with the help of
Planck units, which in turn are due to crossing switches of strands. Continuity of any
kind of space, fields or time results from the time averaging of crossing switches.
The strand model fulfils the general requirements for the final and unified description
listed in Table 6, provided that it describes all motion with full precision and that it is
unmodifiable.
At this point we must thus start the comparison with experiment. We need to check
that strands describe all motion. Fortunately, the task is limited: we only need to check
whether strands solve each of the millennium issues listed in Table 8. If the strand model
can solve those issues, then it reproduces all observations about motion and provides a
final and unified description of nature. If it cannot, the strand model is worthless.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 121 e

7 the basis of the strand model

Chapter 8

QUANTUM THEORY OF MAT TER

DEDUC ED FROM STR ANDS

In nature, particles move in the vacuum. The vacuum is free of matter and energy. In the
strand model,
Vacuum is a collection of fluctuating, unknotted and untangled strands.
Page 149

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 223

The vacuum is illustrated in Figure 14. The time average of unknotted and untangled
strands has no energy and no matter content, because there are averaged over time
no crossing switches and no tangles. The temporary crossing switches that can appear
through fluctuations of the vacuum will turn out to be virtual particles; we will explore
them below. We note that the physical vacuum, being a time average, is continuous. The
flat physical vacuum is also unique: it is the same for all observers. The strand model
thus contains both a minimum length and a continuous vacuum. The two aspects do
not contradict each other.
In nature, quantum particles move: quantum particles change position and phase over
time. We therefore must define these concepts. At this stage, we concentrate on matter
particles. As illustrated in Figure 18 and Figure 19, we define:

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Strands, vacuum and particles

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

e show in this chapter that featureless strands that fluctuate, together

ith the fundamental principle defining /2 as crossing switch imply
ithout alternative that matter is described by quantum theory. More precisely, we will deduce that tangles of fluctuating strands reproduce the spin 1/2 behaviour
of matter and allow us to define wave functions. In particular, fluctuating strands imply
that motion of matter follows the Dirac equation. Furthermore, we show that strands
imply the least action principle, and therefore, that tangles of fluctuating strands are
described by the Lagrangian of relativistic quantum particles. The strand model is the
first approach of modern physics that allows these deductions. In particular, it is the first
and so far the only microscopic model of relativistic quantum theory known in the
research literature.
In the present chapter, we derive the quantum theory of matter, and we show that
strands reproduce all observations about fermions and their motion. We leave for later
the derivation of the quantum theory of light and the nuclear interactions, the standard
model of elementary particles, and the quantum description of gravitation. As usual in
quantum theory, we work in flat space-time.

164

8 quantum theory deduced from strands

A fermion
Strand model :
time average
of crossing
switches

tails
belt trick
orientation
core

positions
phases
crossing
orientations

Observed
probability
density :

spin
orientation
position
phase

F I G U R E 18 A fermion is described by a tangle of two or three strands. The crossings in the tangle core
and their properties lead, after averaging, to the wave function and the probability density.

The details of this definition will become clear shortly, including the importance of the
related tangle family. In every tangle, the important structure is the tangle core, the knotted part of the tangle that contains all the links. The core is connected to the border of
space by the tails of the tangle.

The phase of a matter particle is given by half the angle that describes the
orientation of the tangle core around the spin axis. The particle phase is the
average of all its crossing phases.
The spin orientation of a matter particle is given by the rotation axis of the
core. The spin orientation is the average of all its crossing orientations.
Page 173

These definitions are illustrated in Figure 18 and will be explored in detail below. We
note that all these definitions imply a short-time average over tangle fluctuations. With
the definitions, we get:
Motion of any quantum particle is the change of the position and orientation
of its tangle core.
In nature, quantum particle motion is described by quantum theory. The main property
of quantum theory is the appearance of the invariant quantum of action . In the strand
model, /2 is described by a single crossing switch; the value of the quantum of action

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Page 173

The wave function of a matter particle is a blurred rendering of the crossing

of its fluctuating strands.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

The position of a particle is given by the centre of the averaged tangle core.
The particle position is the average of all its crossing positions.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

An elementary matter particle or fermion is a tangle of two or more strands

that realizes the belt trick.

quantum theory deduced from strands

165

is thus invariant by definition.

We now explore how precisely the quantum of action determines the motion of
quantum particles. In particular, we will show that tangle fluctuations reproduce usual
textbook quantum theory. As an advance summary, we clarify that
Free quantum particle motion is due to fluctuations of tangle tails. The deformations of the tangle core are not important for free motion, and we can
neglect them in this case.

Page 209

Rotation, spin 1/2 and the belt trick

Indeed, in the strand model, all quantum particles, including those with spin 1/2, differ
from everyday objects such as stones, and the essential difference is due to extension:
Quantum particles are particles whose tails cannot be neglected.
For stones and other everyday objects, tails do not play an important role, because everyday objects are mixed states, and not eigenstates of angular momentum. In short, in

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Spin is core rotation.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

In nature, quantum particles are described by their behaviour under rotation and by their
behaviour under exchange. The behaviour of a particle under rotation is described by
its spin value, its spin axis and its phase. The behaviour of quantum particles under
exchange can be of two types: a quantum particle can be a fermion or a boson. In nature,
particles with integer spin are bosons, and particles with half-integer spin are fermions. This
is the spinstatistics theorem.
We now show that all properties of particle rotation and exchange follow from the
strand model. We start with the case of spin 1/2 particles, and first clarify the nature of
particle rotation. (We follow the usual convention to use spin 1/2 as a shorthand for
z-component of spin with value /2.)
It is sometimes said that spin is not due to rotation. This misleading statement is due
to two arguments that are repeated so often that they are rarely questioned. First, it is said,
spin 1/2 particles cannot be modelled as small rotating stones. Secondly, it is allegedly
impossible to imagine rotating electric charge distributions with a speed of rotation below that of light and an electrostatic energy below the observed particle masses. These
statements are correct. Despite being correct, there is a way to get around them; at the
present stage, we focus on the first: we will show that spin can be modelled as rotation.
In the strand model, for all quantum particles we have:

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

In other words, when exploring quantum theory, we approximate tangle cores as being
rigid. We will study core deformations in the next chapter, where we show that they
are related to interactions. Core deformations will lead to quantum field theory. In this
chapter we explore the deformations of tangle tails; they produce the motion of free (and
stable) quantum particles. Tail deformations lead to quantum mechanics. We first study
the rotation and then the translation of free matter particles.

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8 quantum theory deduced from strands

The belt trick or string trick or plate trick or scissor trick explains the possibility of continuous
core rotation for any number of tails. A rotation by 4 is equivalent to none at all :
moving
tails
aside

moving
upper
tails

moving
lower
tails

moving
all
tails

The same is shown by the original version of the belt trick :

or simply rearranging the belts

(independently of their number)
yields the other situation

everyday objects, tails can be neglected. Therefore, everyday objects are neither fermions
nor bosons. But for quantum particles, the tails are essential. Step by step we will see
that the tails of quantum particles explain their spin behaviour, their exchange behaviour
and their wave behaviour. We will also see that in the strand model, wave functions are
blurred tangles; we can thus explore the general behaviour of wave functions by exploring
the behaviour of tangles.

free pdf le available at [Link]

F I G U R E 19 The belt trick or string trick or plate trick or scissor trick shows that a rotation by 4 of a
central object with three or more tails (or with one or more ribbons) attached to spatial innity is
equivalent to no rotation at all. This equivalence allows a suspended object, such as a belt buckle or a
tangle core, to rotate for ever. The belt trick thus shows that tangle cores made from two or more
strands behave as spin 1/2 particles.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

rotating the buckle either by 4,

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

core
(or
belt
buckle)

quantum theory deduced from strands

167

F I G U R E 20 The belt trick: a double

rotation of the belt buckle is equivalent to
no rotation; this animation shows one way
in which the belt trick can be performed.
Not shown: the belt trick is also possible
with any number of belts attached to the
buckle. (QuickTime lm Greg Egan)

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 178

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 160

It has been known for about a century that the so-called belt trick illustrated in
Figure 19, Figure 20, Figure 21 and Figure 22 can be used, together with its variations, to
model the behaviour of spin 1/2 particles under rotations. The belt trick is the observation
that a belt buckle rotated by two full turns in contrast to a buckle rotated by only one
full turn can be brought back into its original state without moving the buckle; only the
motion of the belt is necessary. The belt trick is also called the scissor trick, the plate trick,
the string trick, the Philippine wine dance or the Balinese candle dance. It is sometimes
incorrectly attributed to Dirac.
The belt trick is of central importance in the strand model of spin 1/2 particles. In
the strand model, all spin 1/2 particles are made of two (or more) tangled strands, and
thus have four (or more) tails to the border, as shown in Figure 19. For such tangles, a
rotation by 4 of the tangle core thus a rotation by two full turns can bring back the
tangle to the original state, provided that the tails can fluctuate. Any system that returns
to its original state after rotation by 4 is described by spin 1/2. (In fact, the tails must be
unobservable for this equivalence to hold; in the strand model, tails are simple strands
and thus indeed unobservable.) We will show below that the intermediate twisting of
the tails that appears after rotation by 2 corresponds to a multiplication of the wave

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

F I G U R E 21 The belt trick again: this

animation shows another way another
direction in which the trick can be
performed. Not shown: the belt trick is
also possible with any number of belts
attached to the buckle. (QuickTime lm
Greg Egan)

168

Challenge 123 e

The belt trick is not unique

Ref. 160

One aspect of the belt trick seems unmentioned in the research literature: after a rotation
of the belt buckle or tangle core by 4, there are several options to untangle the tails. Two
different options are shown in Figure 20 and Figure 21. You can test this yourself, using

free pdf le available at [Link]

function by 1, again as expected from a spin 1/2 particle.

By the way, systems with tails are the only possible systems that realize the spin 1/2
property. Only systems with tails to spatial infinity have the property that a rotation by
4 is equivalent to no rotation at all. (Can you show this?) This fundamental connection
between spin 1/2 and extension is one of the properties that led to the strand model.
The animations show that the belt trick works with one and with two belts attached
to the buckle. In fact, belt trick works with any number of belts attached to the buckle: 1,
2, 3, 4, etc. Can you find a simple proof for this?
The belt trick thus allows an object or a tangle core that is attached by (three or more)
tails to the border of space to rotate continuously. The possibility of continuous rotation
allows us to describe spin 1/2 particles by rotating tangles. In other terms, rotating tangles
model spin. The fluctuations required to rearrange the tails after two full turns can be
seen to model the average precession of the spin axis. We thus confirm that spin and
rotation are the same for spin 1/2 particles.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Challenge 122 e

F I G U R E 22 Assume that the belt cannot be observed, but the square object can, and that it represents
a particle. The animation then shows that such a particle (the square object) can return to the starting
position after rotation by 4 (and not after 2). Such a belted particle thus fulls the dening property
of a spin 1/2 particle: rotating it by 4 is equivalent to no rotation at all. The belt thus represents the
spinor wave function; for example, a 2 rotation leads to a twist; this means a change of the sign of the
wave function. A 4 rotation has no inuence on the wave function. You can repeat the trick at home,
with a paper strip. The equivalence is shown here with two attached belts, but the trick works with any
positive number of belts! (QuickTime lm Antonio Martos)

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8 quantum theory deduced from strands

quantum theory deduced from strands

169

fresh blood in
welded seals

platelet-poor
blood out

plastic bag
rotates at over 100
revolutions per second
F I G U R E 23 In an apheresis machine, the central bag spins at high speed despite being connected with
tubes to a patient; this happens with a mechanism that continuously realizes the belt trick (photo
Wikimedia).

a real belt. In short, there are two extreme ways to perform the belt trick. These options
will be of central importance later on: the options require a description of fermions with
four complex functions. Indirectly, the various options of the belt trick are thus related
to the difference between matter and antimatter and to the parity violation of the weak
interaction.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Without the belt trick, the apheresis machines found in many hospitals would not work.
When a person donates blood platelets, the blood is continuously extracted from one
arm and fed into a bag in a centrifuge, where the platelets are retained. The platelet-free
blood then flows back into the other arm of the donor. This happens continuously, for
about an hour or two. In order to be sterile, tubes and bag are used only once and are
effectively one piece, as shown in Figure 23. Topologically, this set-up is identical to a
fermion tangle: each tube corresponds to two tails and the rotating bag corresponds to
the rotating core.
In such apheresis machines, the centrifugation of the central bag takes place at over
100 revolutions per second. To avoid tangling up the blood tubes, a bracket moves the
tubes during each rotation, alternatively up and down. This is precisely the motion in
which the belt moves when it is untangled after the buckle is rotated by 4. An apheresis machine thus performs the belt trick 50 times per second, with each rotation of the
centrifugation. Due to the centrifugation, the lighter platelets are retained in the bag,
and the heavier components of the blood are pumped back to the donor. The retained
platelets are then used to treat patients with leukaemia or severe blood loss due to injury.
A single platelet donation can sustain several lives.
In short, without the belt trick, platelet donations would not be sterile and would thus
be impossible. Only the belt trick allows sterile platelet donations that save other peoples
lives.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

An aside: the belt trick saves lives

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 124 e

170

8 quantum theory deduced from strands

Any two sufficiently complex tangles behave as fermions

under (single or double) exchange of their cores (try it) :

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Fermions and spin

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

In nature, fermions are defined as those particles whose wave function changes sign when
they are exchanged. Does the strand model reproduce this observation?
We will see below that in the strand model, wave functions are blurred tangles. We
thus can explore exchange properties of quantum particles and of their wave functions
by exploring the exchange properties of their tangles. Now, if we exchange two tangle
cores twice, while keeping all tails connections fixed, tail fluctuations alone can return the
situation back to the original state! The exchange properties of spin 1/2 tangles are easily
checked by playing around with some pieces of rope or bands, as shown in Figure 24, or
by watching the animation of Figure 25.
The simplest possible version of the experiment is the following: take two coffee cups,

free pdf le available at [Link]

F I G U R E 24 When two spin 1/2 tangles each made of several strands or bands, are exchanged twice, it

is possible to rearrange their tails to yield the original situation. This is not possible when the tangles
are only rearranged once. Spin 1/2 tangles are thus fermions. The gure presents the most common
systems that show this behaviour.

quantum theory deduced from strands

171

For tangles made of one strand thus with two tails to the border a rotation of the
tangle core by 2 restores the original state. Such a tangle, shown in Figure 26, thus
behaves like a spin 1 particle. The figure also shows the wave function that results from
time averaging the crossings.

free pdf le available at [Link]

B osons and spin

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

one in each hand, and cross the two arms over each other (once). Keeping the orientation
of the cups fixed in space, uncross the arms by walking around the cups. This is possible,
but as a result, both arms are twisted. If you are intrepid, you can repeat this with two (or
more) people holding the cups. And you can check the difference with what is possible
after a double crossing of arms: in this case, all returns to the starting situation.
All such experiments show that a simple exchange of two spin 1/2 particles (tangles,
cups on hands, belt buckles) is equivalent to a multiplication by 1 (twisted tangles, arms
or belts). In contrast, a double exchange of two spin 1/2 particles can always be untwisted
and is equivalent to no exchange at all. Spin 1/2 particles are thus fermions.
In summary, a tangle core made of two or more tangled strands behaves both under
rotations and under exchange like a spin 1/2 particle. The strand model reproduces the
spinstatistics theorem for spin 1/2: all elementary matter particles are fermions.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

F I G U R E 25 Assume that the belts cannot be observed, but the square objects can, and that they
represent particles. We know from above that belted buckles behave as spin 1/2 particles. The
animation shows that two such particles return to the original situation if they are switched in position
twice (but not once). Such particles thus full the dening property of fermions. (For the opposite case,
that of bosons, a simple exchange would lead to the identical situation.) You can repeat the trick at
home using paper strips. The equivalence is shown here with two belts per particle, but the trick works
with any positive number of belts attached to each buckle. This animation is the essential part of the
proof that spin 1/2 particles are fermions. This is called the spinstatistics theorem. (QuickTime lm
Antonio Martos)

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8 quantum theory deduced from strands

A boson
Strand model :
tail
spin

time average
of crossing
switches

Observed
probability
density :
spin

core

F I G U R E 26 A massive spin 1 particle in the strand model (left) and the observed probability density
when averaging its crossings over long time scales (right).

Starting situation, before exchange

Final situation, after exchange

Vol. IV, page 114

Page 262

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 294, page 310

Bosons are particles whose combined state does not change phase when two particles
are exchanged. We note directly that this is impossible with the tangle shown in Figure 26;
the feat is only possible if the boson tangle is made of unknotted strands with an intrinsic
deformation. Indeed, for such unknotted strands, the exchange process can easily switch
the two deformations, as illustrated in Figure 27. Massive elementary particles thus can
only be bosons if they also have an unknotted tangle in the tangle family that represents
them.
The simplest strand model for each elementary boson the photon, the W boson,
the Z boson and the Higgs boson must thus be made of unknotted strands. We will
deduce the precise tangles below, in the chapter on the particle spectrum. The tangle for
the hypothetical graviton also a boson, but in this case with spin 2 and invariant under
core rotations by will be introduced in the chapter on general relativity.
In summary, unknotted tangles realize the spinstatistics theorem for particles with

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

F I G U R E 27 In the strand model, unknotted boson tangles can switch states without generating
crossings, and thus without changing the sign of the phase.

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Boson exchange

quantum theory deduced from strands

173

A strand crossing
phase
shortest distance

position
orientation

F I G U R E 28 The denition of a crossing, its position, its orientation and its phase.

integer spin: radiation particles, which have integer spin, are automatically bosons.

Challenge 125 e

Tangle functions: blurred tangles

In the strand model, particle motion is due to the motion of tangle cores. But according to the fundamental principle, strands and tangles are not observable. Only crossing
switches are. To explore the relation between crossing switches and motion, we first recall what a crossing is.

To describe the motion of tangles, we need concepts that allow us to take the step from
general strand fluctuations to the motion of tangle cores. As a mathematical tool to de-

free pdf le available at [Link]

A crossing of strands is a local minimum of strand distance. The position,

orientation and the phase of a crossing are defined by the space vector corresponding to the local distance minimum, as shown in Figure 28. The sign of
the orientation is defined by arbitrarily selecting one strand as the starting
strand. The even larger arbitrariness in the definition of the phase will be of
great importance later on, and lead to gauge invariance.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 154

Fluctuating strands reproduce the spinstatistics theorem for fermions and for bosons,
and thus for all elementary particles, if appropriate tangles are used. Apart from this fundamental result, the strand model also implies that no spins lower than /2 are possible,
and that spin values are always an integer multiple of /2. All this matches observations.
In the strand model, temporal evolution and particle reactions conserve spin, because
all interactions conserve the number of strands and tails. The details of the conservation
will become clear later on. Again, the result agrees with observations.
The strand model thus explains the origin of permutation symmetry in nature: permutation symmetry of particles is due the possibility to exchange tangle cores of identical
particles; and identical particles have tangle cores of identical topology. We have thus
already ticked off one item from the millennium list of unexplained properties of nature.
In summary, the strand model reproduces the rotation, the spin and the exchange behaviour of elementary quantum particles both fermions and bosons in all its observed
details. We now proceed to the next step: translational motion.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Spin and statistics

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8 quantum theory deduced from strands

Strand model :
A slowly moving strand :

time average
of crossing
switches

Observed
probability
density, i.e.,
crossing
switch
density :

precession
of spin axis
A rapidly moving strand :

The tangle function of a system described by a tangle is the short-time average of the positions and the orientations of its crossings (and thus not of
crossing switches and not of the strands themselves).

free pdf le available at [Link]

The tangle function can be called the oriented crossing density or simply the blurred
tangle. As such, the tangle function is a continuous function of space, similar to a cloud;
we will see below what its precise mathematical description looks like. The tangle function captures the short-time average of all possible tangle fluctuations. For a tangle made
of two strands, Figure 29 illustrates the idea. However, the right-hand side of the figure
does not show the tangle function itself, but its probability density. We will see shortly
that the probability density is the (square of the) crossing position density, whereas the
tangle function is a density that describes both position and orientation of crossings.
The tangle function at any given time is not observable, as its definition is not based
on crossing switches, but only on crossings. However, since crossing switches only occur
at places with crossings, the tangle function is a useful tool to calculate observables. In
fact, we will show that the tangle function is just another name for what is usually called

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

scribe crossing fluctuations, we define:

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F I G U R E 29 Some strand congurations, some of their short time uctuations, and the corresponding
probability density that results when averaging crossing switches over time. (The black dots are not
completely drawn correctly.)

quantum theory deduced from strands

175

the wave function. In short, the tangle function, i.e., the oriented crossing density, will
turn out to describe the quantum state of a system.
In summary, the tangle function is a blurred image of the tangle with the important
detail that the crossings are blurred, not the strands.
For the definition of the tangle function, the short-time average of crossings
is taken over the typical time resolution of the observer. This is a time that
is much longer than the Planck time, but also much shorter than the typical
evolution time of the system. The time resolution is thus what the observer
calls an instant of time. Typically and in all known experiments this will
be 1025 s or more; the typical averaging will thus be over all times between
1043 s, the Planck time, and 1025 s or more.

free pdf le available at [Link]

In the strand model, the strand fluctuations of particle strands are a consequence of the
embedding of all particles in a background which itself is made of fluctuating vacuum
strands. Fluctuations randomly add detours to particle strands and randomly shift the
core position. Fluctuations do not keep the strand length constant. Fluctuations do not
conserve strand shape nor any other property of strands, as there is no mechanism that
enforces such rules. Strand fluctuations are thus quite wild. What then can be said about
the details of the averaging procedure for strand fluctuations?
The fluctuations of the vacuum are those strand fluctuations that lead to the definition
of the background space. This definition is possible in a consistent manner only if the
fluctuations are homogeneous and isotropic. The vacuum state can thus be defined as that
state for which the fluctuations are (locally) homogeneous and isotropic. The existence
of a homogeneous and isotropic background space then implies conservation of energy,
linear and angular momentum of particles travelling through it.
The fluctuations of a tangle lead, after averaging, to the tangle function, i.e., as we will
see, to the wave function. The conservation of energy and momentum implies that the
time average of the tangle fluctuations also conserves these quantities.
Therefore we can continue our discussion without yet knowing the precise details of

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Details on fluctuations and averages

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 126 e

There are two ways to imagine tangle fluctuations and to deduce the short-time average
from a given tangle. The first, straightforward way is to average over all possible strand
fluctuations during the short time. Each piece of strand can change in shape, and as a
result, we get a cloud. This is the common Schrdinger picture of the wave function and of
quantum mechanics. The second, alternative way to average is to imagine that the tangle
core as a whole changes position and orientation randomly. This is easiest if the core with
all its crossings is imagined to be tightened to a small, almost point-like region. Then
all observables are also localized in that region. It is often simpler to imagine an average
over all position and orientation fluctuations of such a tightened core, that to imagine an
average over all possible strand fluctuations. This alternate view leads to what physicists
call the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics. (Can you show the equivalence
of the two averaging methods?) Of course, in both cases the final result is that the tangle
function is a cloud, i.e., a probability amplitude.

176

Page 275

Page 104, page 159

Page 190

8 quantum theory deduced from strands

the tangle fluctuations themselves. (We will provide these details below, in the section
on general relativity.) Here we only require that the average of the fluctuations behaves in
such a way as to be consistent with the definition of the background used by the observer.
We thus make explicit use of the conviction that a background-free description of nature is impossible, and that a fundamental description of nature must contain a circular
definition that makes an axiomatic description of nature impossible.
We will also show below that the definition of the tangle function does not introduce
hidden variables, even though first impression might suggest the opposite. In fact, it is
possible to define something akin to a strand evolution equation. However, it does not
deepen our understanding of the evolution equation of the wave function.
Tangle functions are wave functions

A single-particle wave function is, generally speaking, a rotating and diffusing cloud.

Using the tangle function, we define the strand crossing position density,
or crossing density, for each point in space, by discarding the orientation
information, counting the crossings in a volume, and taking the square root.
The crossing density more precisely, its square root is a positive number,
more precisely, a positive real function R(x, t) of space and time.
We will see shortly that the crossing position density is the square root of what is usually
called the probability density.

The simplest approximation for a tangle function is to assume, in the physical situation
under study, that the spin direction is independent of spatial position and thus not taken
into consideration; this approximation will lead to the Schrdinger equation. In this
simplest approximation, at each point in space, the local average orientation of the fluctuations of the tangle core will just be described by a single angle. This quantum phase is

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A tangle function also defines an average crossing orientation and a average

phase at each point in space. The average crossing orientation and the average phase are related to the spin orientation and phase of the wave function.
The mathematical descriptions of these quantities depend on the approximation used.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

The rotation describes the evolution of the phase, and the diffusion describes the evolution of the density. We now show that tangle functions have these and all other known
properties of wave functions. We proceed by deducing all the properties from the definition of tangle functions. We recall that, being a short-time average, a tangle function is
a continuous function of space and time.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

In the following, we show that the tangle function, the blurred image of tangle crossings,
is the same as what is usually called the wave function. We recall what we know from
textbook quantum theory:

quantum theory deduced from strands

177

a function of time and space and describes how much the local average phase is rotated
around the fixed spin orientation.
The quantum phase of fermions is one half the core rotation angle .
Without the neglect of spin, and especially when the spin axis can change over space, the
description of orientation and phase averages require more details; we will study these
cases separately below. They will lead to the non-relativistic Pauli equation and to the
relativistic Dirac equation.
In short, in the simple approximation when spin effects can be neglected, the local tangle function value can be described by one real number R and by one quantum phase .
The tangle function can thus be described by a complex number at each point in space
and time:
(122)
(x, t) = R(x, t) ei(x,t)/2 .

Page 190

Second, fun definition: The scalar multiplication a by a complex number

a = rei is formed by taking a tangle underlying the tangle function , first
rotating the tangle core by the angle 2, and then pushing a fraction 1 r
of the tangle to the border of space, thus keeping the fraction r of the original tangle at finite distances. Time averaging then leads to the tangle function a.

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The second way to deduce the vector space is more fun, because it will help us to visualize
quantum mechanics. We can also define all operations for tangles, and imagine the time
average taken after the tangle operation is performed.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

First, boring definition: The scalar multiplication a and the addition

1 + 2 of quantum states are taken by applying the relative operations on
complex numbers at each point in space, i.e., on the local values of the tangle
function.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 127 s

If a system changes with time, the tangle function changes; this leads to crossing
switches; therefore, temporal evolution is expected to be observable through these crossing switches. As we will see shortly, this leads to an evolution equation for tangle functions.
Here is a fun challenge: how is the shortest distance at a crossing at position x and t
related to the magnitude, i.e., the absolute value R(x, t), of the wave function?
If many particles need to be described, the many-particle tangle function defines a
separate crossing density for each particle.
Tangle functions form a vector space. To show this, we need to define the linear combination or superposition = a1 1 + a2 2 of two tangle functions. This requires the
definition of two operations: scalar multiplication and addition. We can do this in two
ways. The first way is to define the operations for tangle functions directly, as is done in
quantum mechanics:

178

8 quantum theory deduced from strands

Strand multiplication :
Strand model :

time average
of crossing
switches

Observed
probability
density :

0.8

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The scalar multiplication for strands is illustrated in Figure 30. The above definition of
scalar multiplication is defined for factors r 1. Indeed, no other factors ever appear in
physical problems (provided all wave functions are normalized), so that scalar multiplication is not required for other scalars.
The strand version of scalar multiplication is unique; indeed, even though there is
a choice about which fraction r of a tangle is kept and which fraction 1 r is sent to
the border of space, the resulting tangle function, which is defined as an average over
fluctuations, is independent from this choice.
The scalar multiplication of strands behaves as expected for 1 and 0. By construction,
the strand version of scalar multiplication is associative: we have a(b) = (ab). The
strand multiplication by 1 is defined as the rotation of the full tangle core by 2.
We also need to define the addition operation that appears in the linear combination
of two tangle functions. This is a straightforward complex addition at each point in space.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

F I G U R E 30 Scalar multiplication of localized tangles, visualizing the scalar multiplication of wave

functions.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

0.2

quantum theory deduced from strands

179

Again, for fun, we also define the operation on tangles themselves, and take the time
average that leads to the tangle function afterwards.
Second, fun definition: The addition of two tangles a1 1 and a2 2 , where
1 and 2 have the same topology and where a12 + a22 = 1, is defined by
connecting those tails that reach the border of space, and discarding all parts
of the tangles that were pushed to the border of space. The connection of
tangles must be performed in such a way as to maintain the topology of
the original tangles; in particular, the connection must not introduce any
crossings or linking. Time averaging then leads to the tangle function of the
superposition = a1 1 + a2 2 .

The scalar product between two states and is | = (x)(x) dx.

The probability density is (x, t) = (x, t)(x, t) = R2 (x, t). It thus ignores the orientation of the crossings and is the crossing position density.
The scalar product and the probability density are observables, because their definitions
can be interpreted in terms of crossing switches. Indeed, the scalar product | can
be seen as the (suitably normed) number of crossing switches required to transform the
tangle into the tangle , where the tangle is formed from the tangle by exchanging
the orientation of each crossing. A similar interpretation is possible for the probability
density, which therefore is at the same time the crossing density squared and the crossing

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The norm of a state is = | .

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Challenge 128 e

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 179

To visualize the result of addition and superposition, it is easiest to imagine that the
strands reaching the border of space have fluctuated back to finite distances. This is
possible because by definition, these connections are all unlinked. An example of superposition, for the case of two quantum states at different positions in space, is shown
in Figure 31. We note that despite the wording of the definition, no strand is actually cut
or reglued in the operation of addition.
The definition of linear combination requires that the final strand has the same
topology and the same norm as each of the two strands 1 and 2 to be combined. Physically, this means that only states for the same particle can be added and that particle
number is preserved; this automatically implements the so-called superselection rules of
quantum theory. This result is pretty because in usual quantum mechanics the superselection rules need to be added by hand. This is not necessary in the strand model.
The sum of two tangle functions is unique, for the same reasons given in the case of
scalar multiplication. The definition of addition can also be extended to more than two
terms. Addition is commutative and associative, and there is a zero state, or identity
element, given by no strands at all. The definition of addition also implies distributivity
with respect to addition of states and with respect to addition of scalars. It is also possible
to extend the definitions of scalar multiplication and of addition to all complex numbers
and to unnormed states, but this leads us too far from our story.
In short, tangle functions form a vector space. We now define the scalar product and
the probability density in the same way as for wave functions.

180

8 quantum theory deduced from strands

Linear combination of strands :

Strand model :
time average
of crossing
switches

Observed
probability
densities :

The two quantum states localized at different positions :

x2

x2

x1

x2

A linear combination = 0.8 1 + 0.2 2 :

untangled
addition
region

x1

x2

F I G U R E 31 A linear combination of strands, in this case for two states representing a particle at two
different position in space, visualizing the linear combination of wave functions.

Challenge 129 e
Challenge 130 e

Deducing the Schrdinger equation from tangles

The Schrdinger equation, like all evolution equation in the quantum domain, results
when the definition of the wave function is combined with the energymomentum relation. As already mentioned, the Schrdinger equation for a quantum particle also assumes that the orientation of particle spin is constant for all positions and all times. In

free pdf le available at [Link]

switch density. We leave this confirmation as fun for the reader.

It is also possible to define the scalar product, the norm and the probability density
using tangles, instead of using tangle functions. This is left as a puzzle to the reader.
In summary, we have shown that tangle functions form a Hilbert space. The next
steps are now obvious: We must first show that tangle functions obey the Schrdinger
equation. Then we must extend the definition of quantum states by including spin and
special relativity, and show that they obey the Dirac equation.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

x1

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

x1

quantum theory deduced from strands

181

Strand model :

time average
of crossing
switches

Localized particle at rest :

Observed
probability
density :

t1

t1
t2
t2
Slow motion :
t2

t1

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

t1

t2

rotation,
precession and
displacement

F I G U R E 32 Examples of moving tangles of free particles.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

this case, the spin can be neglected, and the tangle function is a single complex number
at each point in space and in time, usually written (x, t). How does the tangle function
evolve in time? To answer this question, we will only need the fundamental principle
that crossing switches define the quantum of action .
We start with a free particle. We assume a fixed, but unspecified rotation direction
of its tangle. In the strand model, a localized particle with constant speed is described
by a localized tangle that rotates and advances. In other words, the strand fluctuations
produce a peak of probability density that changes position with constant speed.

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Rapid motion :
t2

t1

t1

t2

rotation,
precession and
displacement

182

8 quantum theory deduced from strands

Every tangle rotation leads to crossing switches. A rapid tangle rotation leads to many
crossing switches per time, and slow rotation to few crossing switches per time. Now, the
fundamental principle tells us that crossing switches per time are naturally measured in
action per time, or energy. In other words, tangle rotation is related to tangle energy.
Particles with high energy have rapidly rotating tangles, particles with low energy have
slowly rotating tangles.
The energy of a rotating tangle is the number of crossing switches per time. Rotating a
tangle core leads to crossing switches in its tails. In the strand model, the kinetic energy
E of a particle is due to the crossing switches formed in its tails. In other words, the
kinetic energy E is related to the angular frequency of the core rotation by
E = .

(123)

The local phase of the tangle function changes with the rotation. This implies that
(124)

The local phase of the tangle function changes with the motion. This implies
k = ix .

(126)

In fact, the strand model also allows us to understand the dispersion relation itself. With
increasing linear momentum, the spin rotation axis starts to align with the direction of
motion, as shown in Figure 32. This leads to a quadratic increase of crossing switches
with momentum p: one factor p is due to the increase of the speed of rotation, the other
factor is due to the increase of the alignment. The constant m is a proportionality factor.
Substituting the tangle relations in the dispersion relation, we get the evolution equa-

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We can now use the same argument that was used already by Schrdinger. The experimental dispersion relation for masses moving at velocities much smaller than the speed
of light is
p2
2
E=
and =
k .
(127)
2m
2m

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

We will need the relation shortly.

The linear motion of a tangle implies that it makes sense to speak of the number of
crossing switches per distance. Rapidly moving tangles show many crossing switches
per distance, slowly moving tangles show few crossing switches per distance. The fundamental principle tells us that the natural observable to measure crossing switches per
distance is action per distance, or momentum. Linear motion of tangles is thus related
to momentum. The momentum of a moving tangle is the number of crossing switches
per distance. The momentum p is thus related to the wave number k = 2/ of the core
motion by
p = k .
(125)

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

= it .

quantum theory deduced from strands

183

tion for the tangle function given by

it =

2
.
2m xx

(128)

Mass from tangles

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Page 332

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 161

In quantum theory, particles spin while moving. The coupling between rotation and
translation has a name: it is called the mass of a particle. We saw that the rotation is
described by an average angular frequency , and the translational motion is described
by a wave number k. The proportionality factor m = k 2 /2 = p2 /2E is thus a quantity
that relates rotation frequency and wave number. In the quantum theory, the (inertial)
mass m thus couples translation to rotation. We note that a large mass value implies, for
a given momentum value, both a slow translation and a slow rotation.
In the strand model, particle translation and rotation are modelled by the translation
and rotation of the tangle core. Now, the strand model makes a point that goes beyond
usual quantum theory. The strand model explains why core translation and rotation are
coupled: When the core moves through the vacuum, the vacuum strands and the core
effectively push against each other, due to their impenetrability. The result is a motion
that resembles the motion of an asymmetrical body in a viscous fluid.
When an asymmetrical body is moved through a viscous fluid, it starts rotating. The
rotation results from the asymmetrical shape of the body. All the tangle cores of elementary particles are asymmetrical. The strand model thus predicts that tangle cores will
rotate when they move through vacuum. In other terms, the strand model predicts that
all knotted tangles have mass. Unknotted tangles, such as those of photons, are predicted
to be massless. We also deduce that the more complicated a tangle is, the higher the mass
value is.
In addition to the geometry effect due to the core, which is valid for massive bosons
and fermions, the rotation of fermions is also influenced by the tails. The effective volume
required by the belt trick will influence the coupling between translation and rotation.
This effective volume will depend on the topology of the tangle core, and on the number
of its tails. We again deduce that, for a given number of tails, a complicated core topology
implies a high mass value.
In other words, the strand model links the mass m of a particle to its tangle topology:
large tangle cores have large mass. The strand model thus predicts that particle masses are

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

This is the famous Schrdinger equation for a free particle (written for just one space
dimension for simplicity). We thus have deduced the equation from the strand model
under the condition that spin can be neglected and that velocities are small compared to
the speed of light. In this way, we have also deduced, indirectly, Heisenbergs indeterminacy relations.
At the same time, we have now completed the proof that tangle functions, in the case
of negligible spin effects and small velocities, are indeed wave functions. In fact, tangle
functions are wave functions also in the more general case, but then their mathematical
description is more involved, as we will see shortly. In more sloppy language, we have
shown that wave functions are blurred tangles.

184

Challenge 131 e
Page 334

8 quantum theory deduced from strands

calculable if the tangle topology is known. This is an exciting prospect! And the strand
model predicts that experiments in viscous fluids can lead to a deeper understanding of
the masses of elementary particles.
The tangle model also implies that the mass of elementary particles thus of particles
made of few strands will be much smaller than the Planck mass. This is the first hint
that the strand model solves the so-called mass hierarchy problem of particle physics.
At this point, however, we are still in the dark about the precise origin of particle mass
values. Nevertheless, the missing steps are clear: first, we need to determine the tangle
topology for each elementary particle; then we need to deduce their mass values. This is
a central aim in the following.
Potentials

(129)

This equation is the simplest formulation of quantum theory. We saw in the fourth volume that it describes and explains the size of atoms and molecules, and thus of all objects
around us; and we saw that it also explains the (relative) colours of all things. The equation also explains interference, tunnelling and decay.
In summary, a non-relativistic fluctuating tangle reproduces the full Schrdinger
equation. An obvious question is: how does the strand model explain the influence of
interactions on the rotation speed and on the wavelength of tangles? In other words:
why do strands imply minimal coupling? We will answer this question in the following
chapter, on gauge interactions.
Quantum interference from tangles
The observation of interference of quantum particles is due to the linear combination of
states with different phases at the same position in space. Tangle functions, being wave
functions, reproduce the effect. But again, it is both more fun and more instructive to
explain and visualize interference with the help of tangles.

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Page 209

1
(i qA)2 .
2m

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

(it qV ) =

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

In quantum mechanics, interactions are described by potentials. An electric potential

V (x) changes the total energy of a particle with charge q at position x, since in quantum
mechanics, electric potentials influence the rotation velocity of the wave function. As a
result, the left-hand side of the Schrdinger equation (128), the energy term, is changed
to ( qV )(x, t).
Another possibility is a potential that does not change the rotation velocity, but that
changes the wavelength of a charged particle. Such a magnetic vector potential thus
changes the momentum term k on the right-hand side of Schrdingers equation to
(k qA)(x, t). This double substitution, the so-called minimal coupling, is equivalent to the statement that quantum electrodynamics has a U(1) gauge symmetry. We will
deduce it in detail in the next chapter.
In the strand model of quantum mechanics, potentials are introduced in precisely
the same way as in usual quantum mechanics, so that the full Schrdinger equation for
charged particles in external fields is recovered:

quantum theory deduced from strands

185

Observed
probability
density :

Strand model :
time average
of crossing
changes

The two quantum states with different phase at the same position :

2 = 1 ei/2

A linear combination :

= (1 + 2 )/2

Extinction (requires situations with space-dependent phase) :

no possible
tangle
topology

zero
density

Page 178
Page 166

As mentioned above, a pure change of phase of a state is defined by multiplication

by a complex number of unit norm, such as ei . This corresponds to a rotation of the
tangle core by an angle 2, where the factor 2 is due to the belt trick of Figure 19.
To deduce interference, we simply use the above definition of linear combinations
of tangles. This leads to the result shown in Figure 33. We find, for example, that a
symmetric sum of a tangle and the same tangle with the phase rotated by /2 (thus a
core rotated by ) results in a tangle whose phase is rotated by the intermediate angle,

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F I G U R E 33 Interference: the linear combination of strands with different phase, but located at the
same position.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

186

8 quantum theory deduced from strands

thus /4.
The most interesting case of interference is that of extinction. Scalar multiplication of
a tangle function by 1 gives the negative of the tangle function, the additive inverse
. The sum of a tangle function with its negative is zero. This gives extinction in usual
quantum theory. Let us check the result in the strand model, using the tangle definition
of linear combinations. We have seen above that the negative of a tangle is a tangle whose
core is rotated by 2. Using the tangle definition of linear combination, we find that it
is topologically impossible to draw or construct a localized tangle for the sum of a quantum state with its negative. The resulting tangle therefore must have vanishing crossing
density in spatial regions where this operation is attempted. In short, tangles explain extinction. And as expected from quantum particles, the explanation of extinction directly
involves the tangle structure.
Deducing the Pauli equation from tangles

cos(/2)ei/2
,
i sin(/2)ei/2

(130)

0 1
0 i
1 0
,
,
.
1 0
i 0
0 1

(131)

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which is the natural description of a tangle that includes the orientation of the axis. As
before, the crossing density is the square root of the probability density (x, t). The angle
, as before, describes the phase, i.e., (one half of) the rotation around the axis. The local
orientation of the axis is described by a two-component matrix and uses the two angles
and . Due to the belt trick, the expression for the tangle function only contains half
angles. And indeed, due to the half angles, the two-component matrix is not a vector, but
a spinor. (The term spinor was coined by the Austrian-Dutch physicist Paul Ehrenfest
in analogy to vector and tensor; the English pronunciation is spinnor.)
The other ingredient we need is a description of the spinning motion of the tangle.
In contrast to the Schrdinger case, the spinning motion itself must be added in the
description. A spinning tangle implies that the propagation of the wave is described by
the wave vector k multiplied with the spin operator . The spin operator , for the wave
function just given, is defined as the vector of three matrices

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

(x, t) = ei/2

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 162

As we have seen, the Schrdinger equation describes the motion of quantum particles
when their spin is neglected, by assuming that spin is constant over space and time. The
next step is thus to include the variations of spin over space and time. This turns out to
be quite straightforward.
In the strand model, spin is modelled by the continuous rotation of a tangle. We also
saw that we get wave functions from tangles if we average over short time scales. On a
given position in space, a tangle function will have a local average density of crossings, a
local average phase, and new, a local average orientation of the rotation axis of the tangle.
To describe the axis and orientation of the tangle core, we use the Euler angles ,
and . This yields a description of the tangle function as

quantum theory deduced from strands

187

The three matrices are the well-known Pauli matrices.

We now take the description of the axis orientation and the description of the spinning and insert both, as we did for the Schrdinger equation, into the non-relativistic
dispersion relation = E = p2 /2m = 2 k 2 /2m. We then get the wave equation
it =

Challenge 132 s

(132)

This is Paulis equation for the evolution of a free quantum particle with spin 1/2.
As final step, we include the electric and the magnetic potentials, as we did in the
case of the Schrdinger equation. We again use minimal coupling, substituting it by
it qV and i by i qA, thus introducing electric charge q and the potentials
V and A. A bit of algebra involving the spin operator then leads to the famous complete
form of the Pauli equation
q
1
(i qA)2
B ,
2m
2m

(133)

Rotating arrows, interference and path integrals

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Ref. 163

Another simple way to visualize the equivalence between the strand model and the Pauli
equation uses the formulation of quantum theory with path integrals. We recall that
tangle tails are not observable, and that the tangle core defines the position and phase
of the quantum particle. The motion of the core thus describes the path of the particle.
Different paths are due to different core motions.
The continuous rotation of the tangle core corresponds to Feynmans rotating little
arrow in his famous popular book on QED. Because of its tails, a fermion tangle obeys
spinor statistics and spinor rotation behaviour.
Also interference can be visualized with strands, using the Hilbert space properties
defined above. Fermion interference is visualized in Figure 34, photon interference in
Figure 35. This leads to the correct interference behaviour for spin 1/2 particles.
As discovered by Feynman, quantum theory can be seen as the result of the interference of all possible paths of the tangle core. Describing massive particles as rotating
tangles leads directly to the famous path integral description of quantum theory.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

where now the magnetic field B = A appears explicitly. The equation is famous for
describing, among others, the motion of silver atoms, which have spin 1/2, in the Stern
Gerlach experiment. This is due to the new, last term on the right-hand side, which does
not appear in the Schrdinger equation. The new term is a pure spin effect and predicts
a -factor of 2. Depending on the spin orientation, the sign of the last term is either
positive or negative; the term thus acts as a spin-dependent potential. The two options
for the spin orientation then produce the upper and the lower beams of silver atoms that
are observed in the SternGerlach experiment.
In summary, a non-relativistic tangle that rotates continuously reproduces the Pauli
equation. In particular, such a tangle predicts that the -factor of an elementary charged
fermion is 2.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

(it qV ) =

Vol. IV, page 81

2
()2 .
2m

188

8 quantum theory deduced from strands

destructive
interference

constructive
interference

constructive
interference

destructive
interference

Vol. IV, page 140

In nature, a measurement of a quantum system in a superposition is observed to yield

one of the possible eigenvalues and to prepare the system in the corresponding eigenstate.
In nature, the probability of each measurement outcome depends on the coefficient of
that eigenstate in the superposition.
To put the issue into context, here is a small reminder from quantum mechanics.
Every measurement apparatus shows measurement results. Thus, every measurement

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Measurements and wave function collapse

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

F I G U R E 35 The double-slit experiment with photons: constructive interference (left) and destructive
interference (right).

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

F I G U R E 34 A fermion tangle passing a double slit: constructive interference (left) and destructive
interference (right).

quantum theory deduced from strands

Spin
measurement
direction :

189

Strand model :

Observed spin :

Basis states :

always
`up

always
`down

untangled
addition
region

either

`up

or `down

A measurement is modelled as a strand deformation induced by the measurement apparatus that pulls a tangle towards the resulting eigenstate.
This pulling of strands models and visualizes the collapse of the wave function.

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apparatus is a device with memory. (In short, it is classical.) All devices with memory
contain baths. Thus, every measurement apparatus couples baths to the system it measures. The coupling depends on and defines the observable to be measured by the apparatus. Every coupling of a bath to a quantum systems leads to decoherence. Decoherence
leads to probabilities and wave function collapse. In short, collapse and measurement
probabilities are necessary and automatic in quantum theory.
The strand model describes the measurement process in precisely the same way as
standard quantum theory; in addition, it visualizes the process.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

F I G U R E 36 Measurement of a spin superposition: the addition region disappears either outwards or

inwards.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Superposition (one of
two equivalent states) :

190

8 quantum theory deduced from strands

Hidden variables and the KochenSpecker theorem

Ref. 166

In nature, the quantum states of two or more particles can be entangled. Entangled states
are many-particle states that are not separable. Entangled states are one of the most fascinating quantum phenomena; especially in the case of macroscopic entanglement, they

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Many-particle states and entanglement

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

At first sight, the strand model seems to fall into the trap of introducing hidden variables
into quantum theory. One could indeed argue that the shapes (and fluctuations) of the
strands play the role of hidden variables. On the other hand, it is well known that noncontextual hidden variables are impossible in quantum theory, as shown by the Kochen
Specker theorem (for sufficiently high Hilbert-space dimensions). Is the strand model
flawed? No.
We recall that strands are not observable. In particular, strand shapes are not physical observables and thus not physical variables either. Even if we tried promoting strand
shapes to physical variables, the evolution of the strand shapes would only be observable
through the ensuing crossing switches. And crossing switches evolve due to the influence of the environment, which consists of all other strands in nature, including those of
space-time itself. The evolution of strand shapes and crossing switches is thus contextual.
Therefore, the strand model does not contradict the KochenSpecker theorem.
In simple language, in quantum theory, hidden variables are not a problem if they
are properties of the environment not of the quantum system itself. This is precisely the
case for the strand model. For a quantum system, the strand model provides no hidden
variables. In fact, for a quantum system, the strand model provides no variables beyond
the usual ones from quantum theory. And as expected and required from any model that
reproduces decoherence, the strand model leads to a contextual, probabilistic description
of nature.
In summary, despite using fluctuating tangles as underlying structure, the strand
model is equivalent to usual quantum theory. The strand model contains nothing more
and nothing less than usual quantum theory.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

An example of measurement is illustrated in Figure 36. When a measurement is performed on a superposition, the untangled addition region can be imagined to shrink into
disappearance. For this to happen, one of the underlying eigenstates has to eat up the
other: that is the collapse of the wave function. In the example of the figure, the addition
region can disappear either towards the outside or towards the inside. The choice is due
to the bath that is coupled to the system during measurement; the bath thus determines
the outcome of the measurement. We also conclude that the probability of measuring a
particular eigenstate will depend on the (weighed) volume that the eigenstate took up in
the superposition.
This visualization of the wave function collapse also makes clear that the collapse is
not limited by any speed limit, as no energy and no information is transported. Indeed,
the collapse happens by displacing crossings, but does not produce any crossing changes.
In summary, the strand model describes measurements in precisely the same way as
usual quantum theory. In addition, strands visualize the collapse of the wave function as
a shape deformation from a superposed tangle to a basis tangle.

quantum theory deduced from strands

Strand model :

191

Observation :

First separable basis state :

x1

x2

x1

x2

are still being explored in many experiments. We will discover that the strand model
visualizes them simply and clearly.
To describe entanglement, we first need to clarify the notion of many-particle state.
In the strand model,

In this way, an N-particle wave function defines N values at every point in space, one
value for each particle. This is possible, because in the strand model, every particle tangle
is separate from every other one.
Usually, a N-particle wave function is described by a single-valued function in 3N
dimensions. It is less known that a single-valued N-particle wave function in 3N dimensions is mathematically equivalent to an N-valued wave function in three dimensions.
Usually, N-valued functions are not discussed; we feel uneasy with the concept. But the
strand model naturally defines N wave function values at each point in space: each par-

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A many-particle state is composed of several tangles.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

F I G U R E 37 Two examples of two distant particles with spin in separable states: observation and strand

model.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Second separable basis state :

192

Ref. 163

8 quantum theory deduced from strands

An entangled state is a non-separable superposition of separable manyparticle states. State are separable when their tangles can be pulled away
without their tails being entangled.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

We will now show that the above definitions of superpositions and of measurements
using strands are sufficient to describe entanglement.
As first example, we explore entangled states of the spin of two distant massive
fermions. This is the famous example proposed by David Bohm. In the strand model,
two distant particles with spin 1/2 in a separable state are modelled as two distant, separate tangles of identical topology. Figure 37 shows two separable basis states, namely the
two states with total spin 0 given by | and by | . Such states can also be produced
in experiments. We note that to ensure total spin 0, the tails must be imagined to cross
somewhere, as shown in the figure.
We can now draw a superposition 90 % | + 10 % | of the two spin-0 basis
states. We simply use the definition of addition and find the state shown in Figure 38. We
can now use the definition of measurement to check that the state is indeed entangled.
If we measure the spin orientation of one of the particles, the untangled addition region
disappears. The result of the measurement will be either the state on the inside of the addition region or the state on the outside. And since the tails of the two particles are linked,
after the measurement, independently of the outcome, the spin of the two particles will
always point in opposite directions. This happens for every particle distance. Despite
this extremely rapid and apparently superluminal collapse, no energy travels faster than
light. The strand model thus reproduces exactly the observed behaviour of entangled
spin 1/2 states.
A second example is the entanglement of two photons, the well-known Aspect experiment. Also in this case, entangled spin 0 states, i.e., entangled states of photons of
opposite helicity (spin), are most interesting. Again, the strand model helps to visualize
the situation. Here we use the strand model for the photon that we will deduce only later

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

ticle has its own tangle, and each tangle yields, via short-term averaging, one complex
value, with magnitude and phase, at each point in space. In this way, the strand model is
able to describe N particles in just 3 dimensions.
In other words, the strand model does not describe N particles with 1 function in
3N dimensions; it describes many-particle states with N functions in 3 dimensions. In
this way, the strand model remains as close to everyday life as possible. Many incorrect
statements on this issue are found in the research literature; many authors incorrectly
claim the impossibility of many-particle quantum theory in 3 dimensions. Some authors
even claim, in contrast to experiment, that it is impossible to visualize many-particle
states in 3 dimensions. These arguments all fail to consider the possibility to define completely separate wave functions for each particle in three dimensions. (It must be said that
this unusual possibility is hard to imagine if wave functions are described as continuous
functions.) However, clear thinkers like Richard Feynman always pictured many-particle
wave functions in 3 dimensions. Also in this domain, the strand model provides an underlying picture to Feynmans approach. This is another situation where the strand model
eliminates incorrect thinking habits and supports the naive view of quantum theory.
Now that we have defined many-particle states, we can also define entangled states.

quantum theory deduced from strands

Entangled state

193

90 % | + 10 % |

Strand model :

Observation yields
either this eigenstate (90%) :
untangled
addition
region

or this eigenstate (10%) :

x1

x2

x2

F I G U R E 38 An entangled spin state of two distant particles.

Entangled state (50% + 50%) :

source
source

Second separable basis state :

the untangled
addition region
expands with time
in this situation

F I G U R E 39 The basis states and an entangled state of two distant photons travelling in opposite
directions, with total spin 0.

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source

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

The Aspect experiment

First separable basis state :

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x1

194

Page 214

Ref. 164

8 quantum theory deduced from strands

on. Figure 39 shows the strand model of the two separable basis states and the strand
model of the entangled state. Again, the measurement of the helicity of one photon in
the entangled state will lead to one of the two basis states. And as soon as the helicity of one photon is measured, the helicity of its companion collapses to the opposite
value, whatever the distance! Experimentally, the effect has been observed for distances
of many kilometres. Again, despite the extremely rapid collapse, no energy travels faster
than light. And again, the strand model completely reproduces the observations.
Mixed states
Mixed states are statistical ensembles of pure states. In the strand model,
A mixed state is a (weighted) temporal alternation of pure states.

The dimensionality of space-time

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 159

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Nature consists of particles moving in empty space. Democritus stated this 2500 years
ago. Today, we know that is a simplified description of one half of physics: it is a simplified description of quantum theory. In fact, Democritus statement, together with
strands, allows us to argue that physical space has three dimensions, as we will see now.
Deducing the dimensionality of physical space from first principles is an old and difficult problem. The difficulty is also due to the lack of alternatives. Our exploration of the
foundations of the strand model has shown that humans, animals and machines always
use three spatial dimensions to describe their environment. They cannot do otherwise.
Humans, animals and machines cannot talk and think without three dimensions as background space.
But how can we show that physical space not the background space we need for thinking is three-dimensional and must be so? We need to show that (1) all experiments
reproduce the result and that (2) no other number of dimensions yields a consistent description of nature.
In nature, and also in the strand model, as long as particles can be defined, they can
be rotated around each other and they can be exchanged. No experiment has ever been
performed or has ever been proposed that changes this observation. The observed properties of rotations, of spin 1/2, of particle exchange and all other observations confirm
that space has three dimensions. In the strand model, the position and the orientation
of a particle is intrinsically a three-dimensional quantity; physical space is thus threedimensional, in all situations where it can be defined. (The only situations where this
definition is impossible are horizons and the Planck scales.) In short, both nature and the
strand model are found to be three-dimensional at all experimentally accessible energy
scales. Conversely, detecting an additional spatial dimension would directly invalidate
the strand model.
Nature has three dimensions. The only way to predict this result is to show that no
other number is possible. The number of dimensions of nature can only result from a self-

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Mixed states are important in discussions of thermodynamic quantities. We mention

them to complete the equivalence of the states that appear in quantum theory with those
provided by the strand model. We do not pursue this topic any further.

quantum theory deduced from strands

Page 154

consistency argument. And interestingly, the strand model produces such an argument.
In the strand model, knots and tangles are impossible to construct in physical spaces
with dimensions other than three. Indeed, mathematicians can show that in four spatial
dimensions, every knot and every tangle can be undone. (In this argument, time is not
and does not count as a fourth spatial dimension, and strands are assumed to remain onedimensional entities.) Worse, in the strand model, spin does not exist in spaces that have
more or fewer than three dimensions. Also the vacuum and its quantum fluctuations do
not exist in more than three dimensions. Moreover, in other dimensions it is impossible
to formulate the fundamental principle. In short, the strand model of matter and of
observers, be they animals, people or machines, is possible in three spatial dimensions
only. No description of nature with a background or physical space of more or less than
three dimensions is possible with strands. Conversely, constructing such a description
would invalidate the strand model.
The same type of arguments can be collected for the one-dimensionality of physical
time. It can be fun exploring them for a short while. In summary, the strand model only
works in 3 + 1 space-time dimensions; it does not allow any other number of dimensions.
We have thus ticked off another of the millennium issues. We can thus continue with our
adventure.
Operators and the Heisenberg picture

px xp = i

(134)

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is related to a crossing switch. The present chapter is the confirmation of that speculation.
In quantum mechanics, the commutation relation follows from the definition of the
momentum operator as p = k, k = ix being the wave vector operator. The factor
defines the unit of momentum. The wave vector counts the number of wave crests
of a wave. Now, in the strand model, a rotation of a state by an angle is described
by a multiplication by i. Counting wave crests is only possible by using the factor i, as
this factor is the only property that distinguishes a crest from a trough. In short, the
commutation relation follows from the fundamental principle of the strand model.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 165

In quantum theory, Hermitean operators play an important role. In the strand model,
Hermitean or self-adjoint operators are operators that leave the tangle topology invariant.
Also unitary operators play an important role in quantum theory. In the strand model,
unitary operators are operators that deform tangles in a way that the corresponding wave
function retains its norm, i.e., such that tangles retain their topology.
Physicists know two ways to describe quantum theory. One is to describe evolution with time-dependent quantum states the Schrdinger picture we are using here
and the other is to describe evolution with time-dependent operators. In this so-called
Heisenberg picture, the time evolution is described by the operators.
The two pictures of quantum theory are equivalent. In the Heisenberg picture, the
fundamental principle, the equivalence of a crossing switch with , becomes a statement
on the behaviour of operators. Already in 1987, Louis Kauffman had argued that the
commutation relation for the momentum and position operators

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Challenge 133 e

195

196

8 quantum theory deduced from strands

L agrangians and the principle of least action

Before we derive the Dirac equation, we show that the strand model naturally leads to
describe motion with Lagrangians.
In nature, physical action is an observable measured in multiples of the natural unit,
the quantum of action . Action is the fundamental observable about nature, because
action measures the total change occurring in a process.
In the strand model,
The physical action W of a physical process is the observed number of crossing switches of strands. Action values are multiples of .

Energy is the number of crossing switches per time in a system.

In nature, when free quantum particles move, their phase changes linearly with time. In
other words, the little arrow representing the free particle phase rotates with constant
angular frequency. We saw that in the strand model, the little arrow is taken as (half)
the orientation angle of the tangle core, and the arrow rotation is (half) the rotation of
the tangle core.

Potential energy U is the number of crossing switches per time induced by

an interaction field.
We call U the corresponding volume density: U = U/V . In short, in the strand model,
an interaction changes the rotation rate and the linear motion of a particle tangle.
In the strand model, the difference between kinetic and potential energy is thus a quantity that describes how much a system consisting of a tangle and a field changes at a given
time. The total change is the integral over time of all instantaneous changes. In other

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We call T the corresponding volume density: T = T/V . In nature, the Lagrangian is a

practical quantity to describe motion. For a free particle, the Lagrangian density L = T
is simply the kinetic energy density, and the action W = L dV dt = T t is the product
of kinetic energy and time. In the strand model, a free particle is a constantly rotating
and advancing tangle. We see directly that this constant evolution minimizes the action
W for a particle, given the states at the start and at the end.
This aspect is more interesting for particles that interact. Interactions can be described
by a potential energy U, which is, more properly speaking, the energy of the field that
produces the interaction. In the strand model,

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

The kinetic energy T of a particle is the number of crossing switches per

time induced by shape fluctuations of the continuously rotating tangle core.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

We note that these multiples, if averaged, do not need to be integer multiples. We further
note that through this definition, action is observer-invariant. This important property is
thus automatic in the strand model.
In nature, energy is action per time. Thus, in the strand model we have:

quantum theory deduced from strands

197

words, in the strand model we have:

The Lagrangian density L = T U is the number of crossing switches per
volume and time, averaged over many Planck scales.
The physical action W = L dt = L dV dt of a physical process is the
observed number of crossing switches of strands. The action value Wif between an initial state i and a final state f is given by
Wif = i | L dt | f = i |(T U) dt | f .

(135)

Since energy is related to crossing switches, it is natural that strand fluctuations that do
not induce crossing switches are favoured. In short, the strand model states

Challenge 134 e

L=

i
2
( t t )

2
2m

(136)

In this way, the principle of least action can be used to describe the evolution of the
Schrdinger equation. The same is possible for situations with potentials, for the Pauli
equation, and for all other evolution equations of quantum particles.
We thus retain that the strand model explains the least action principle.
Special relativity: the vacuum

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In nature, there is an invariant limit energy speed c, namely the speed of light and of all
other massless radiation. Special relativity is the description of the consequences from
this observation, in the case of a flat space-time.
We remark that special relativity also implies and requires that the flat vacuum looks
the same for all inertial observers. In the strand model, the idea of flat vacuum as a set of
fluctuating featureless strands that are unknotted and unlinked automatically implies that
for any inertial observer the flat vacuum has no matter content, has no energy content,
is isotropic and is homogeneous. The strand model thus realizes this basic requirement
of special relativity.
We note that in the strand model, the vacuum is unique, and the vacuum energy of
flat infinite vacuum is exactly zero. In the strand model, there is no divergence of the

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

In the strand model, the least action principle appears naturally. In the strand model, an
evolution has least action when it occurs with the smallest number of crossing changes.
With this connection, one can also show that the strand model implies Schwingers
quantum action principle.
To calculate quantum motion with the principle of least action, we need to define the
kinetic and the potential energy in terms of strands. There are various possibilities for
Lagrangian densities for a given evolution equation; however, all are equivalent. In case
of the free Schrdinger equation, one possibility is:

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Evolution of tangles minimizes the action W.

198

8 quantum theory deduced from strands

Strand model :
time average
of crossing
switches

Localized particle at rest :

Observed
probability
density :

t1

t1
t2
t2
Slow motion :
t2

t1

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

t1

t2

rotation,
precession and
displacement

t1

t2

t1

t2

rotation,
precession and
displacement
F I G U R E 40 Tangles at rest, at low speed and at relativistic speed.

Special relativity: the invariant limit speed

Page 214

In the strand model, massless particles are unknotted and untangled. Even though we
will deduce the strand model for photons only later on, we use it here already, to speed up
the discussion. In the strand model, the photon is described a single, helically deformed
unknotted strand, as shown in Figure 47. Therefore, we can define:
The Planck speed c is the observed average speed of crossing switches due

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vacuum energy, and there is thus no contribution to the cosmological constant from
quantum field theory.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Relativistic motion :

quantum theory deduced from strands

199

to photons.

Ref. 167

Page 329

E 2 = m2 c 4 + c 2 p2

Page 143

Page 194

Page 329
Page 182

(137)

This dispersion relation is thus also valid for massive particles made of tangled strands
even though we cannot yet calculate tangle masses. (We will do this later on.)
Should we be surprised at this result? No. In the fundamental principle, the definition
of the crossing switch, we inserted the speed of light as the ratio between the Planck
length and the Planck time. Therefore, by defining the crossing switch in the way we did,
we have implicitly stated the invariance of the speed of light.
Fluctuating strands imply that flat vacuum has no matter or energy content, for every
inertial observer. Due to the strand fluctuations, flat vacuum is also homogeneous and
isotropic for every inertial observer. Therefore, together with the 3 + 1-dimensionality of
space-time deduced above, we have now shown that flat vacuum has Poincar symmetry.
This settles another issue from the millennium list.
However, one problem remains open: how exactly do tangles move through the web
that describes the vacuum? We will clarify this issue later on.
The relativistic dispersion relation differs from the non-relativistic case in two ways.
First, the energy scale is shifted, and now includes the rest energy E0 = c 2 m. Secondly,
the spin precession is not independent of the particle speed any more; for relativistic
particles, the spin lies close to the direction of motion. Both effects follow from the
existence of a limit speed.

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Page 154

2 2 = m 2 c 4 + c 2 2 k 2 .

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 332

or

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Because the definition uses crossing switches and a massless particle, the speed of light
c is an energy speed. The speed of light c is also an average for long times. Indeed, as is
well-known in quantum field theory, due to the indeterminacy relation, single photons
can travel faster or slower than light, but the probability for large deviations is extremely
low.
The linear motion of a helically deformed photon strand through the vacuum strands
is similar to the motion of a bottle opener through cork. It differs from the linear motion
of a matter tangle through vacuum, which makes use of the belt trick. The belt trick slows
fermions down, though the details are not simple, as we will discover below. In short, we
find that matter tangles always move more slowly than light. The speed c is a limit speed.
In fact, we see that ultrarelativistic tangles move, as shown in Figure 40, almost like
light. We thus find that matter can almost reach the speed of light. The speed c is thus a
limit speed.
The speed c is defined as an average, because, as well-known in quantum field theory,
there are small probabilities that light moves faster or slower that c. But the average result
c will be the same for every observer. The value of the speed c is thus invariant.
In 1905, Einstein showed that the three mentioned properties of the speed of light
energy speed, limit speed, and invariant speed imply the Lorentz transformations. In
particular, the three properties of the speed of light c imply that the energy E of a particle
of mass m is related to its momentum p as

200

8 quantum theory deduced from strands

If we neglect spin, we can use the relativistic dispersion relation to deduce directly the
well-known SchrdingerKleinGordon equation for the evolution of a wave function:
2 tt = m2 c 4 c 2 2 2 .

(138)

In other words, the strand model implies that relativistic tangles follow the Schrdinger
KleinGordon equation. We now build on this result to deduce Diracs equation for
relativistic quantum motion.
Diracs equation deduced from tangles

(139)

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J = u u + .

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 169

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 168

The relativistic SchrdingerKleinGordon equation assumes that spin effects are negligible. This approximation fails to describe most experiments. A precise description of
relativistic elementary particles must include spin.
So far, we deduced the Schrdinger equation using the relation between phase and the
quantum of action, using the non-relativistic energymomentum relation, and neglecting spin. In the next step we deduced the Pauli equation by including the properties of
spin 1/2. The following step was to deduce the SchrdingerKleinGordon equation using again the relation between phase and the quantum of action, this time the relativistic
energymomentum relation, but assuming zero spin. The final and correct description
of elementary fermions, the Dirac equation, results from combining all three ingredients:
(1) the relation between the quantum of action and the phase of the wave function, (2)
the relativistic massenergy relation, and (3) the effects of spin 1/2. We can do this now
because all three ingredients are reproduced by the strand model.
We first recall the derivation of the Dirac equation found in textbooks. The main
observation about spin in the relativistic context is the existence of states of right-handed
and of left-handed chirality: spin can precess in two opposite senses around the direction
of momentum. In addition, for massive particles, the two chiral states mix. The existence
of two chiralities requires a description of spinning particles with a wave function that
has four complex components, thus twice the number of components that appear in the
Pauli equation. Indeed, the Pauli equation implicitly assumes only one, given sign for the
chirality, even though it does not specify it. This simple description is possible because
in non-relativistic situations, states of different chirality do not mix.
Consistency requires that each of the four components of the wave function of a relativistic spinning particle must follow the relativistic energymomentum relation, and
thus the SchrdingerKleinGordon equation. This requirement is known to be sufficient to deduce the Dirac equation. One of the simplest derivations is due to Lerner; we
summarize it here.
When a spinning object moves relativistically, we must take both chiralities into account. We call u the negative chiral state and the positive chiral state. Each state is
described by two complex numbers that depend on space and time. The 4-vector for
probability and current becomes

quantum theory deduced from strands

201

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

u
=

and

0
,
0

(140)

where = (I , ) and = (I , ) and I is the 2 2 identity matrix. The 4-current can

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We now introduce the four-component spinor and the 4 4 spin matrices a

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

F I G U R E 41 The belt trick for a rotating body with many tails, as used by Battey-Pratt and Racey to
deduce the Dirac equation ( Springer Verlag, from Ref. 170).

202

then be written as

Ref. 169

8 quantum theory deduced from strands

J = .

The three requirements of current conservation, Lorentz invariance and linearity then
yield the evolution equation
i ( ) + mc5 = 0 .

(142)

Visualizing spinors and Diracs equation using tangles

* The matrix 5 is defined here as

0
5 =
I
where I is the 2 2 identity matrix.

I
,
0

(143)

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Despite its apparent complexity, the Dirac equation makes only a few statements: spin 1/2
particles are fermions, obey the relativistic energymomentum relation, keep the quantum of action invariant, and thus behave like a wave. Each statement is visualized by the
tangle model of fermions: tangles behave as spinors, the relativistic energymomentum
relation is built-in, the fundamental principle holds, and rotating tangle cores reproduce
the evolution of the phase. Let us look at the details.
Given a particle tangle, the short-time fluctuations lead, after averaging, to the wave
function. The tangle model of fermions provides a visualization of the spinor wave func-

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

This is the Dirac equation in the (less usual) spinorial representation.* The last term
shows that mass mixes right and left chiralities. The equation can be expanded to include
potentials using minimal coupling, in the same way as done above for the Schrdinger
and Pauli equations.
The above textbook derivation of the Dirac equation from usual quantum theory can
be repeated and visualized also with the help of strands. There is no difference. This
derivation was performed for the first time by Battey-Pratt and Racey, in 1980. They explored a central object connected by unobservable strands (or tails) to the border of
space, as shown in Figure 41. In their approach, the central object plus the tails correspond to a quantum particle. The central object is assumed to be continuously rotating.
(In the strand model, the central object becomes the tangle core.) Battey-Pratt and Racey
then explored relativistically moving objects of both chiralities. They showed that a description of such an object requires four complex fields. Studying the evolution of the
phases and axes for the chiral objects yields the Dirac equation. The derivation by BatteyPratt and Racey is mathematically equivalent to the textbook derivation just given.
In summary, tangles completely reproduce both the rotation and the linear motion of
elementary fermions. Therefore, the strand model provides a new view on the evolution
equations of quantum theory. In the terms of the strand model, the Schrdinger equation
describes the evolution of crossing density. The SchrdingerKleinGordon equation
describes the evolution of crossing density in the relativistic case. The Dirac equation
describes the evolution of crossing density in the relativistic case, when the belt trick is
included. In fact, strands visualize these relations in the most concrete way known so
far.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 170

(141)

quantum theory deduced from strands

203

tion. Indeed, at each point in space, the wave function has the following parameters:

= ei L() R(/2, /2, /2) ,

Ref. 163

Ref. 172

1. Tangles support the view that elementary particles are little rotating entities, also in
the relativistic case. This fact has been pointed out by many scholars over the years.
The strand model provides a consistent visualization for these discussions.
2. The belt trick can be seen as the mechanism underlying the famous Zitterbewegung
that is part of the Dirac equation. The limitations in the observing the belt trick translate directly into the difficulties of observing the Zitterbewegung.
3. The belt trick also visualizes why the velocity operator for a relativistic particle has

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 171

where the product LR is an abbreviation for the boosted and rotated unit spinor. It is
equivalent to the description with four complex parameters used in most textbooks. This
description of a spinor wave function and the related physical visualization of its density
and its first six phases dates already from the 1960s. The visualisation can be deduced
from the study of relativistic spinning tops or of relativistic fluids. Rotating tangles are
more realistic, however. In contrast to all previous visualizations, the rotating tangle
model explains also the last phase, i.e., the phase that describes matter and anti-matter,
explains the appearance of the quantum of action , and explains the fermion behaviour.
In short, only rotating tangles together with the fundamental principle provide a simple, complete and precise visualisation of spinor wave functions and their evolution. The
tangle model for quantum particles is a simple extension of Feynmans idea to describe a
quantum particle as a rotating little arrow. The arrow can be imagined as being attached
to the rotating tangle core. The tails are needed to reproduce fermion behaviour. The
specific type of tangle core determines the type of particle. The blurring of the crossings
defines the wave function. Rotating arrows describe non-relativistic quantum physics;
rotating tangles describe relativistic quantum physics.
Visualizing spinor wave functions with tangles of strands helps the understanding of
the Dirac equation in several ways.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 171

(144)

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 171

There is an average density (x, t); physically, this is the probability density. In the
strand model, this is the local crossing density.
There is a set of three Euler angles , and ; physically, they describe the average
local orientation and phase of the spin axis. In the strand model, this is the average
local orientation and phase of the tangle core.
There is a second set of three parameters = (x , y , z ); physically, they describe, at
ones preference, either the average local Lorentz boost or a second set of three Euler
angles. In the strand model, these parameters describe the average local deformation
of the core that is due to the Lorentz boost. It can also be seen as the axis around
which the belt trick is performed.
There is a phase ; physically, this represents the relative importance of particle and
antiparticle density. In the strand model, this phase describes with what probability
the average local belt trick is performed right-handedly or left-handedly.
In total, these are eight real parameters; they correspond to one positive real number and
seven phases. They lead to the description of a spinor wave function as

204

Ref. 173
Page 166

Ref. 174

8 quantum theory deduced from strands

In short, rotating tangles are a correct underlying model for the propagation of fermions.
And so far, tangles are also the only correct model. Tangles model propagators. This
modelling is possible because the Dirac equation results from only three ingredients:

And all three ingredients are reproduced by the strand model. We see that the apparent
complexity of the Dirac equation hides its fundamental simplicity. The strand model
reproduces the ingredients of the Dirac equation, reproduces the equation itself, and
makes the simplicity manifest. In fact, we can say:
The Dirac equation describes the relativistic infinitesimal belt trick.

Page 168

Quantum mechanics vs. quantum field theory

Quantum mechanics is the approximation to quantum physics in which fields are continuous and particles are immutable. In the strand model, quantum mechanics is thus the
approximation in which a particle is described by a tangle with a topology that is fixed in
time. This approximation allows us to derive the Dirac equation, the SchrdingerKlein

free pdf le available at [Link]

The belt trick is fundamental for understanding the Dirac equation. In the strand model,
a core rotations varies along two dimensions, and so does the belt trick. The resulting four
combinations form the four components of the Dirac spinor and of the Dirac equation.
In summary, tangles can be used as a precise visualization and explanation of quantum physics. Wave functions, also those of fermions, are blurred tangles with the detail
that not the strands, but their crossings are blurred.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

the relation between the quantum of action and the phase of the wave function (the
wave behaviour),
the relation between the quantum of action and spinor behaviour (the exchange behaviour),
and the massenergy relation of special relativity (the particle behaviour), itself due
to the fundamental principle.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

eigenvalues c.
4. The Compton length is often seen as the typical length at which quantum field effects
take place. In the tangle model, it would correspond to the average size needed for
the belt trick. The strand model thus suggests that the mass of a particle is related to
the average size needed for the belt trick.
5. Tangles support the at first sight bizarre picture of elementary particles as little
charges rotating around a centre of mass. Indeed, in the tangle model, particle rotation requires a regular application of the belt trick of Figure 19, and the belt trick can
be interpreted as inducing the rotation of a charge, defined by the tangle core, around
a centre of mass, defined by the average of the core position. It can thus be helpful to
use the strand model to visualize this description.
6. The tangle model can be seen as a vindication of the stochastic quantization research
programme; quantum motion is the result of underlying fluctuations. For example,
the similarity of the Schrdinger equation and the diffusion equation is modelled and
explained by the strand model: since crossings can be rotated, diffusion of crossings
leads to the imaginary unit that appears in the Schrdinger equation.

quantum theory deduced from strands

A hydrogen atom
Simplified
strand model :

time average
of crossing
switches

205

Observed
electron
probability
density :

proton

proton

electron
tangle

electron cloud

A flashback: settling three paradoxes of Galilean physics

Page 104

free pdf le available at [Link]

In all descriptions of physics, space and time are measured, explained and defined with
matter. This occurs, for example, with the help of metre bars and clocks. On the other
hand, matter is measured, explained and defined with space and time. This occurs, for
example, by following a localized body over space and time. The circularity of the two
definitions, already mentioned above, is a natural consequence of the strand model. Both
matter and space-time turn out to be approximations of the same basic building blocks;
this common origin explains the apparent circular reasoning of Galilean physics. Most
of all, the strand model changes it from a paradox to a logical necessity.
The strand model defines vacuum, and thus physical space, as a result of averaging
strand crossings. Space is thus a relative concept. Newtons bucket experiment is sometimes seen as a counter-argument to this conclusion and as an argument for absolute
space. However, the strand model shows that any turning object is connected to the rest
of the universe through its tails. This connection makes every rotation an example of relative motion. Rotation is thus always performed relatively to the horizon of the universe.
On the other hand, the detection of tangles among the tails allows a local determination

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Gordon equation, the Proca equation and the Pauli equation. In this approximation, the
strand model for the electron in a hydrogen atom is illustrated in Figure 42. This approximation already will allow us to deduce the existence of the three gauge interactions, as
we will see in the next chapter.
In contrast, quantum field theory is the description in which fields are themselves described by bosons, and particles can change. The strand model allows us to deduce the
existence of all known gauge bosons, as shown in the next chapter. In the strand description of quantum field theory, particles are not tangles with fixed topology, but for each
particle, the topology varies inside a specific family of tangles. As we will see later on,
this topology variation is necessary to describe SU(2) breaking, to explain the existence
of three fermion generations, and to calculate particle masses and couplings.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

F I G U R E 42 A simple, quantum-mechanical view of a hydrogen atom.

206

8 quantum theory deduced from strands

of the rotation state, as is observed. Strands thus confirm that rotation and space are relative concepts. Strands thus also explain why we can turn ourselves on ice by rotating an
arm over our head, without outside help. Strands lie to rest all issues around the rotating
bucket.
A long time ago, Zeno of Elea based one of his paradoxes the flying arrow that
cannot reach the target on an assumption that is usually taken as granted: he stated
the impossibility to distinguish a short-time image (or state) of a moving body from the
image (or state) of a resting body. The flattening of the tangles involved shows that the
assumption is incorrect; motion and rest are distinguishable, even in (imagined) photographs taken with extremely short shutter times. The argument of Zeno is thus not
possible, and the paradox disappears.
Fun challenges about quantum theory

Challenge 135 s

Are the definitions of wave function addition and multiplication given above also valid
for spinor tangle functions?

Challenge 136 e

The definition of tangle functions, or wave functions, did not take into account the crossings of the vacuum strands, but only those of the particle tangle. Why is this allowed?

Challenge 137 e

Modelling the measurement of action as the counting of full turns of a wheel is a wellknown idea that is used by good teachers to take the mystery out of quantum physics.
The strand model visualizes this idea by assigning the quantum of action to a full turn
of one strand segment around another.

Challenge 138 s

Is any axiomatic system of quantum theory in contrast with the strand model?

Ref. 175
Challenge 140 e

If you do not like the deduction of quantum mechanics given here, there is an alternative:
deduce quantum mechanics in the way Schwinger did in his course, using the quantum
action principle.

* Vacation is the continuation of family life under aggravated conditions. Dieter Hildebrandt (b. 1927 Bunzlau, d. 2013 Munich) was a cabaret artist, actor and author.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Challenge 139 s

In the strand model, tangle energy is related to tangle core rotation. What is the difference between the angular frequency for tangles in the non-relativistic and in the relativistic case?

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Urlaub ist die Fortsetzung des Familienlebens

unter erschwerten Bedingungen.*
Dieter Hildebrandt

quantum theory deduced from strands

Ref. 176
Challenge 141 r

207

Modern teaching of the Dirac equation replaces the spinor picture with the vector
picture. Hrvoje Nikoli showed that the vector picture significantly simplifies the understanding of Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation. How does the vector picture clarify
the relation between the belt trick and the Dirac equation?

Challenge 142 s

In the strand description of quantum mechanics, strands are impenetrable: they cannot
pass through each other (at finite distances). Can quantum mechanics also be derived if
the model is changed and this process is allowed? Is entanglement still found?

Challenge 143 e

A puzzle: Is the belt trick possible in a continuous and deformable medium such as a
mattress in which a coloured sphere is suspended? Equivalently, is the belt trick possible with an uncountably infinite number of tails?

Page 169
Challenge 144 s

At first sight, the apheresis machine diagram suggests that using the belt trick, animals
could grow and use wheels instead of legs, because rotating wheels could be supplied
with blood and connected to nerves. Why did wheels not evolve nevertheless?
Summary on quantum theory of matter: millennium issues and
experimental predictions

where

/ = D = ( iqA ) .
D

(145)

(146)

We thus conclude that strands reproduce the quantum theory of matter.

The strand model predicts deviations from this Lagrangian, and thus from the Dirac
equation, only when quantum aspects of electrodynamics, quantum aspects of the nuclear interactions, or space curvature, i.e., strong gravity, play a role. This agrees with

free pdf le available at [Link]

/ c 2 m) ,
L = (icD

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

In this chapter, we used the fundamental principle crossing switches define the quantum of action and the other Planck units to deduce that particles are tangles of strands
and that wave functions are time-averaged rotating tangles. In simple words, a wave
function is a blurred tangle. We also deduced that blurred tangles obey the least action
principle and the Dirac equation.
In other words, visualizing the quantum of action as a crossing switch implies quantum theory. The strand model has confirmed Bohrs statement: quantum theory is indeed
a consequence of the quantum of action. Specifically, the strand model thus shows that
all quantum effects are consequences of extension. Finally, the strand model confirms
that the Dirac equation is essentially the infinitesimal version of the belt trick (or string
trick).
In other words, we have shown that strands reproduce the relativistic Lagrangian density L of charged, elementary, relativistic fermions in an external electromagnetic field A

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Page 37

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8 quantum theory deduced from strands

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

observation.
In the case of gravity, the strand model predicts that deviations from quantum theory occur only when the energymomentum of an elementary particle approaches the
Planck value. In addition, the strand model predicts that the Planck values for momentum and energy are limit values that cannot be exceeded. All experiments agree with
these predictions.
The deduction of quantum theory from strands given here is, at present, the only
known explanation for quantum physics. In the past, no other (inequivalent) explanation, microscopic model or deduction of quantum theory has been found.
Let us evaluate the situation. In our quest to explain the open issues of the millennium list, we have explained the origin of Planck units, the origin of wave functions,
the origin of the least action principle, the origin of space-time dimensions, the Lorentz
and Poincar symmetries, the origin of particle identity, and the simplest part of the Lagrangian of quantum field theory, namely, the Lagrangian of free fermions, such as the
electron, or that of fermions in continuous external fields. Therefore, for the next leg,
we turn to the most important parts of the standard model Lagrangian that are missing:
those due to gauge interactions.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

Chapter 9

GAUGE I NTER AC TIONS DEDUCED

FROM STR ANDS

Page 17

Ref. 178

Ref. 163

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 165

Experiments in the quantum domain show that interactions change the phase of wave
functions. But how precisely does this happen? The strand model will give us a simple
answer: the emission and the absorption of gauge bosons is only possible together with
a phase change. To explain this connection, we need to study the phase of tangle cores in
more detail.
When we explored spin and its connection to the belt trick, we pictured the rotation
of the tangle core in the same way as the rotation of a belt buckle. We assumed that the
core of the tangle rotates like a rigid object; the rotation is completed through the shape
fluctuations of the tails only. Why did we assume this?
In Feynmans description of quantum theory, free particles are advancing rotating arrows. In the strand model, free particle motion is modelled as the change of position of
the tangle core and spin as the rotation of the core. We boldly assumed that the core
remained rigid, attached the phase arrow to it, and described spin as the rotation of the
core with its attached arrow, as shown again in Figure 43. This bold simplification led us

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Interactions and phase change

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 177

hat are interactions? At the start of this volume, when we summarized

hat relates the Planck units to relativity and to quantum theory,
e pointed out that the nature of interactions at Planck scales was still in
the dark. In the year 2000, it was known for several decades that the essential properties
of the electromagnetic, the weak and the strong nuclear interaction are their respective
gauge symmetries: all three interactions are gauge interactions. But the underlying
reason for this property was still unknown.
In this chapter we discover that fluctuating strands in three spatial dimensions explain
the existence of precisely three gauge interactions, each with precisely the gauge symmetry that is observed. This is the first time ever that such an explanation is possible. In
other terms, we will deduce quantum field theory from strands. Indeed, strands provide
a natural mechanism for interactions that explains and implies Feynman diagrams. The
term mechanism has to be taken with a grain of salt, because there is nothing mechanical involved; nevertheless, the term is not wrong, because we shall discover a surprisingly
simple result: Gauge interactions and gauge symmetries are due to strand deformations.
In this chapter, we work in flat space-time, as is always done in quantum field theory.
We leave the quantum aspects of curved space-time and of gravitation for the next chapter. We start by exploring the non-gravitational interactions in the quantum domain.

210

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

Strand model :

tail

Observed
probability
density :

time average
of crossing
changes

spin

spin

position
phase

position
phase

core

position
phase

to the Dirac equation. In short, the assumption of a rigid core works.

However, we swept a problem under the rug: what happens if the core is not rigid? It
turns out that the answer to this question automatically leads to the existence of gauge
interactions. Now, we know from usual quantum theory that

In the strand model, shape deformations of tangle cores also lead to phase changes. In
fact, we will discover that core deformations automatically lead to precisely those three
gauge interactions that we observe in nature.
Tail deformations versus core deformations
We can summarize the previous chapter, on the free motion of matter tangles, as the
chapter that focused on shape fluctuations of tails. Indeed, the belt trick completed the

free pdf le available at [Link]

An interaction is a process that changes the phase of a wave function, but

differs from a rotation.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

F I G U R E 44 A magnied tangle core shows that the phase can also change due to core deformations;
this leads to gauge interactions.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

F I G U R E 43 In the chapter on quantum theory, the phase was dened assuming a rigidly rotating core;
this approximation was also used in the description of particle translation.

gauge interactions deduced from strands

Reidemeister move I
or twist

Reidemeister move II
or poke

211

Reidemeister move III

or slide

F I G U R E 45 The Reidemeister moves: the three types of deformations that induce crossing switches if
the moves are properly dened in three dimensions.

proof that

All space-time symmetries translation, rotation, boost, spin and particle exchange are
due to tail deformations; in such tail deformations, the tangle core is assumed to remain
unchanged and rigid (in its own rest frame).
In contrast, the present chapter focuses on shape fluctuations in tangle cores.* We will
discover that
Gauge symmetries are due to core deformations.

When the phase of a core changes through rigid orientation change, we speak
of core rotation.
When the phase of a core changes through core shape deformation, we speak
of interaction.

Ref. 179

* The contrast between tail deformations and core deformations has a remote similarity to gravity/gauge
duality, or AdS/CFT correspondence, and to space-time duality. For example, in the strand model, the three
Reidemeister moves on tangle cores represent the three gauge interactions, whereas the three Reidemeister
moves on the vacuum represent (also) gravitational effects.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 178

We thus need to understand two things: First, what kinds of core deformation exist?
Secondly, how precisely is the phase i.e., each arrow definition influenced by core
deformations? In particular, we have to check the answers and deductions with experiment.
The first question, on the classification of the core deformations, is less hard than
it might appear. The fundamental principle events are crossing switches of strands

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Let us explore the tangle core in more detail. Figure 44 shows a magnified view of the
core and its phase arrow. The figure makes it clear that the phase arrow will be sensitive
to the shape fluctuations and deformations of the strand segments that make up the core.
In nature, any phase change of the wave function that is not due to a space-time symmetry is due to an interaction. For the strand model, this connection implies:

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Space-time symmetries are due to tail deformations.

212

Ref. 180

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

implies that deformations are observable only if they induce crossing switches. Other
deformations do not have any physical effect. (Of course, certain deformations will have
crossing switches for one observer and none for another. We will take this effect into
consideration.) Already in 1926, the mathematician Kurt Reidemeister classified all those
tangle deformations that lead to crossing switches. The classification yields exactly three
classes of deformations, today called the three Reidemeister moves; they are shown in
Figure 45.
The first Reidemeister move, or type I move, or twist, is the addition or removal of a twist in a strand.
The second Reidemeister move, or type II move, or poke, is the addition or
removal of a bend of one strand under (or over) a second strand.

The type number of each Reidemeister move is also the number of involved strands. We
will discover that despite appearances, each Reidemeister move induces a crossing switch.
To find this connection, we have to generalize the original Reidemeister moves, which
were defined in a two-dimensional projection plane, to the three-dimensional situation
of tangle cores.
The three Reidemeister moves turn out to be related to the three gauge interactions:
The first Reidemeister move corresponds to electromagnetism.
The third Reidemeister move corresponds to the strong nuclear interaction.
We will prove this correspondence in the following.
For each Reidemeister move we will explore two types of core deformation processes:
One deformation type are core fluctuations, which correspond, as we will see, to the emission and absorption of virtual interaction bosons. The other deformations are externally
induced core disturbances, which correspond to the emission and absorption of real interaction bosons. As the first step, we show that both for fluctuations and for disturbances,
the first Reidemeister move, the twist, is related to the electromagnetic interaction.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

The second Reidemeister move corresponds to the weak nuclear interaction.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

The third Reidemeister move, or type III move, or slide, is the displacement
of one strand segment under (or over) the crossing of two other strands.

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electrodynamics and the first reidemeister move

photon

213

vacuum
twist
transfer

fermion

fermion
with
different
phase

F I G U R E 46 A single strand changes the rotation of a tangle: twist transfer is the basis of

electromagnetism in the strand model. No strand is cut or reglued; the transfer occurs only through the
excluded volume due to the impenetrability of strands.

In the strand model of electromagnetism, spin 1 bosons such as the photon are made of
a single strand. How can a single strand change the phase of a tangle? The answer is
given in Figure 46: a twisted loop in a single strand will influence the rotation of a tangle
because it changes the possible fluctuations of the tangle core. Due to the impenetrability

free pdf le available at [Link]

Strands and the twist, the first Reidemeister move

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Experiments show that all four fundamental interactions are described by potentials. Experiments also show that potentials change the phase, the rotation frequency and the
wave number of wave functions. Experiments show that interactions result from the
absorption and the emission of gauge bosons. In particular, for electromagnetism, the
potentials are due to the flow of real and virtual, massless, uncharged spin-1 photons.
Photons are emitted from or absorbed by charged elementary particles; neutral elementary particles do not emit or absorb photons. There are two types of charge, positive
and negative. The attraction and repulsion of static charges diminishes with the inverse
square of the distance. Charge is conserved. All charged particles are massive and move
slower than light. The Lagrangian of matter coupled to the electromagnetic field has a
U(1) gauge symmetry. Electromagnetism has a single fundamental Feynman diagram.
The electromagnetic coupling constant at low energy, the so-called fine structure constant, is measured to be 1/137.035 999 074(44); its energy dependence is described by
renormalization.
The previous paragraph contains everything known about the electromagnetic interaction. For example, Maxwells field equations follow from Coulombs inverse square
relation, its relativistic generalization, and the conservation of charge. More precisely, all
experimental observations about electricity and magnetism follow from the Lagrangian
of quantum electrodynamics, or QED. In short, we now need to show that the Lagrangian
of QED follows from the strand model.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

electrodynamics and the first reidemeister move

214

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

The photon
Strand model :

Observation :
time average
of crossing
switches
electric
field
strength

helicity

helicity

speed
wavelength

phase

F I G U R E 47 The photon in the strand model.

A photon is a twisted strand. An illustration is given in Figure 47.

The electromagnetic interaction is the transfer of twists, i.e., the transfer of
first Reidemeister moves, between two particles, as shown in Figure 46.

Can photons decay, disappear or break up?

The strand model of the photon, as shown in Figure 47, might be seen to suggest that
photons can disappear. For example, if a photon strand is straightened out by pulling the
ends of the helical deformation, the helix might disappear. A helix might also disappear
by a shape fluctuation.
A full image of a photon also includes the vacuum strands around it. In the strand

free pdf le available at [Link]

The transfer of a twist from a single strand to a tangle core thus models the absorption
of a photon. We stress again that this transfer results from the way that strands hinder
each others motion, because of their impenetrability. No strand is ever cut or reglued.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 219

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 165

of strands, an approaching twisted loop will sometimes transfer its twist to the tangle and
thereby change its phase. The observed effect of an electromagnetic field on the phase of
a charged fermion is the time average of all such twist transfers.
Twisted loops are single strands and can have two twist senses. Single strands represent bosons, as we saw above. Single, twisted and unknotted strands have no mass; in
other words, twisted loops move with the speed of light. And twisted loops, being curved,
carry energy.
Approaching twisted loops will change the phase, i.e., the orientation of a matter tangle. Twisted loops correspond to a local rotation of a strand segment by . But twists
can be generalized to arbitrary angles. These generalized twists can be concatenated. Because they are described by a single angle, and because a double twist is equivalent to no
twist at all, twists form a U(1) group. We show this is detail shortly.
In summary, twists behave like photons in all their properties. Therefore, the strand
model suggests:

electrodynamics and the first reidemeister move

215

The twist move (or first

Reidemeister move)
applied to an interacting
tangle and loop :

The twist move (or first

Reidemeister move)
in textbook form :

fermion

The unique
generator
of the twist
move is a
rotation by .

photon

vacuum

The basic twist can be described

as a local rotation by .
A full rotation, from - to ,
produces a crossing switch.

affected

Random twist emission by chiral

tangles leads to Coulombs law :

not affected

strand
model

observed
time average

Challenge 145 e

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 329

model, the energy of the photon is localized in the system formed by the photon strand
and the surrounding vacuum strands. In the strand model, energy is localized in regions
of strand curvature. If the helical strands disappears, the surrounding vacuum strands
are curved instead, or more strongly, and the energy is taken up by these surrounding
strands. The net result is that the helix is transferred, permanently or for a short time, to
another strand. In other terms, in the strand model, photons can also move by hopping
from one strand to the next.
The only way in which a photon can disappear completely is by transferring its energy
to a tangle. Such a process is called the absorption of a photon by a charged particle.
A single photon strand cannot break up into several photon strands of smaller helical
diameter. Such a process is prevented by the fundamental principle.
In short, due to energy conservation, the strand model prevents the decay, disappearance or splitting of photons, as long as no electric charge is involved. Linear and angular
momentum conservation also lead to the same conclusion. Photons are stable particles
in the strand model.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

F I G U R E 48 Electromagnetism in the strand model: the electromagnetic interaction, electric charge and
Coulombs inverse square relation.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Random twists affect

only certain tangles :

216

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

Electric charge
Surrounded by a bath of photon strands, not all fermion tangles will change their phase.
A tangle subject to randomly approaching virtual photons will feel a net effect over time
only if it lacks some symmetry. In other words, only tangles that lack a certain symmetry
will be electrically charged. Which symmetry will this be?
In a bath of photon strands, thus in a bath that induces random Reidemeister I moves,
only chiral fermion tangles are expected to be influenced. In other terms:
Electric charge is due to tangle chirality.
Conversely, we have:

Challenge: What knot invariant is electric charge?

Page 356

Electric and magnetic fields and potentials

The definition of photons with twisted strands leads to the following definition.
The electric field is the volume density of (oriented) crossings of twisted

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 390

Mathematicians defined various topological invariants for knot and tangles. Topological
invariants are properties that are independent of the shape of the knot or tangle, but
allow to distinguish knots or tangles that differ in the ways they are knotted. Several
invariants are candidates as building blocks for electric charge: chirality c, which can be
+1 or 1, minimal crossing number n, or topological writhe , i.e., the signed minimal
crossing number.
A definition of electric charge q, proposed by Claus Ernst, is q = c (n mod 2). Another
option for the definition of charge is q = /3. Equivalent definitions use the linking
number. We will come back to detailed connection between charge and chirality later
on.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Equating electric charge with tangle chirality allows modelling several important observations. First, because chirality can be right-handed or left-handed, there are positive and
negative charges. Second, because strands are never cut or reglued in the strand model,
chirality, and thus electric charge, is a conserved quantity. Third, chirality is only possible
for tangles that are localized, and thus massive. Therefore, chiral tangles charged particles always move slower than light. Fourth, a chiral tangle at rest induces a twisted
strand density around it that changes as 1/r 2 , as is illustrated in Figure 48. Finally, photons are uncharged; thus they are not influenced by other photons (to first order).
In short, all properties of electric charge found in nature are reproduced by the tangle
model. Let us check this in more detail.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Electrically charged particles randomly emit twisted strands. Due to the

tangle chirality, a random emission will lead to a slight asymmetry, so that
right-handed twists will be in the majority for particles of one charge, and
left-handed twists will be in the majority for particles of the opposite charge.

electrodynamics and the first reidemeister move

217

loops.
The magnetic field is the flow density of (oriented) crossings of twisted
loops.
The electric potential is the density of twisted loops.
The magnetic potential is the flow density of twisted loops.

The L agrangian of the electromagnetic field

In classical electrodynamics, the energy density of the electromagnetic field is used to
deduce its Lagrangian density. The Lagrangian density describes the intrinsic, observer-

free pdf le available at [Link]

The strand model thus reproduces electromagnetic energy.

We note that in the strand model, the definition of the fields implies that there is no
magnetic charge in nature. This prediction agrees with observation.
The strand model predicts limit values to all observables. They always appear when
strands are as closely packed as possible. This implies a maximum electric field value
Emax = c 4 /4Ge 1.9 1062 V/m and a maximum magnetic field value Bmax = c 3 /4Ge
6.3 1053 T. All physical systems including all astrophysical objects, such as gamma-ray
bursters or quasars are predicted to conform to this limit. Also this prediction agrees
with observations.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Challenge 146 e

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 173

The simplest way to check these definitions is to note that the random emission of twisted
loops by electric charges yields Coulombs inverse square relation: the force between two
static spherical charges changes with inverse square of the distance. The strand model
implies that in this case, the crossing density is proportional to the square of the loop density; in other words, the potential falls of as the inverse distance, and the electric field as
the square distance.
The definition of the magnetic field simply follows from that of the electric field
by changing to moving frame of reference. The two field definitions are illustrated in
Figure 49.
We note that the electric field is defined almost in the same way as the wave function:
both are oriented crossing densities. However, the electric field is defined with the crossing density of twisted loops, whereas the wave function is defined with the crossing density of tangles. The definitions differ only by the topology of the underlying strand structures.
In the strand model, energy, or action per time, is the number of crossing switches
per time. The electromagnetic field energy per volume is thus given by the density of
crossing switches per time that are due to twisted loops. Now, the strand model implies
that the crossing switch density per time is given by half the square of the crossing density
plus half the square of the crossing density flow. For twisted loops, we thus get that the
energy density is half the square of the electric plus half the square of the magnetic field.
Inserting the proportionality factors that lead from Planck units to SI units we get the
well-known expression

1 2
E
= 0 E2 +
B .
(147)
V
2
20

218

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

twisted
loop

average
loop
motion

t1
t2

small
volume
element
with
crossing

electric
field
E

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

magnetic
field
B

charge
velocity

where the electromagnetic field F is defined with the electromagnetic potential A as

F = A A .

(149)

Since the strand model reproduces the electromagnetic energy, it also reproduces the
Lagrangian of classical electrodynamics. In particular, Maxwells equations for the electromagnetic field follow from this Lagrangian density. Maxwells field equations are thus
a consequence of the strand model. Obviously, this is no news, because any model that
reproduces Coulombs inverse square distance relation and leaves the speed of light in-

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independent change that occurs in a system. In addition, the Lagrangian density must
be quadratic in the fields and be a Lorentz-scalar.
A precise version of these arguments leads to the Lagrangian density of the electromagnetic field F

1 2
1
LEM = 0 E 2
B =
F F
(148)
2
20
40

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

F I G U R E 49 Moving twists allow us to dene electric elds as the density of twisted loop crossings
and magnetic elds as the corresponding ow.

electrodynamics and the first reidemeister move

Freedom of crossing phase definition:

219

crossing
orientation

phase

phase

phase

Strand model :

Observation :
time average
of crossing
changes

Matter :
spin

spin

probability
amplitude

core

helicity

helicity

U(1) phase
definition
freedom
electromagnetic
potential
F I G U R E 50 The freedom in denition of the phase of a single crossing and the resulting change of
gauge in the case of electrodynamics.

U(1) gauge invariance induced by twists

In nature, the electromagnetic potential A is not uniquely defined: one says that there
is a freedom in the choice of gauge. The change from one gauge to another is a gauge
transformation. Gauge transformations are thus transformations of the electromagnetic
potential that have no effect on observations. In particular, gauge transformations leave
unchanged all field intensities and field energies on the one hand and particle probabili-

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variant automatically contains Maxwells field equations.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Photons :

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U(1) phase
definition
freedom

220

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

Twists on tangle cores

form a U(1) group

axis

axis

The basic twist, or Reidemeister I

move, is a local rotation, by
an angle around the axis,
of the core region enclosed
by a dashed circle.
Generalized to arbitary angles,
the basic twist generates
a U(1) group.

F I G U R E 51 How the set of generalized twists the set of all local rotations of a single strand segment
around an axis forms a U(1) gauge group.

A gauge choice for radiation and for matter is the choice of definition of the
respective phase arrow.
A gauge transformation is a change of definition of the phase arrow.

There is only a small step from a gauge choice to a gauge interaction. We recall:
A gauge interaction is a change of phase resulting from a strand deformation
of the particle core.

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U(1) gauge interactions induced by twists

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

In the case of electrodynamics, the gauge freedom is a result of allowing phase choices
that lie in a plane around the crossing orientation. (The other interactions follow from
the other possible phase choices.) The phase choice can be different at every point in
space. Changing the (local) phase definition is a (local) gauge transformation. Changing
the phase definition for a single crossing implies changing the phase of wave functions
and of the electromagnetic potentials. A schematic illustration of the choice of gauge is
given in Figure 50.
We note that gauge transformations have no effect on the density or flow of crossings or crossing switches. In other words, gauge transformations leave electromagnetic
field intensities and electromagnetic field energy invariant, as observed. Similarly, gauge
transformations have no effect on the number of crossing switches of rotating tangles. A
rotation by 4 does not change the phase, independently of which definition of arrow is
chosen. Therefore, gauge transformations leave probability densities and even observable phase differences unchanged. This agrees with experiment.
A gauge transformation on a wave functions also implies a gauge transformation on
the electrodynamic potential. The strand model thus implies that the two transformations are connected, as is observed. This connection is called minimal coupling. In short,
minimal coupling is a consequence of the strand model.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

ties and particle energies on the other hand.

All these observations can be reproduced with strands. In the strand model, the following definitions are natural:

electrodynamics and the first reidemeister move

221

The L agrangian of QED

Given the U(1) gauge invariance of observables, the Lagrangian of quantum electrodynamics, or QED, follows directly, because U(1) gauge invariance is equivalent to minimal coupling. We start from the Lagrangian density L of a neutral, free, and relativistic
fermion in an electromagnetic field. It is given by

Page 207

1
F F .
40

(150)

We deduced the fermion term in the chapter of quantum theory, and we deduced the
electromagnetic term just now, from the properties of twisted loops.
As we have seen, the strand model implies minimal coupling. This changes the Lagrangian density for a charged, i.e., interacting, relativistic fermion in the electromagnetic
field, into the Lagrangian density of QED:
/ c 2 m)
LQED = (icD

1
F F .
40

(151)

Page 353

Minimal coupling implies that the Lagrangian density of QED is invariant under U(1)
gauge transformations. We will discuss the details of the charge q later on.
We have thus recovered the Lagrangian density of quantum electrodynamics from
strands. Strands thus reproduce the most precisely tested theory of physics.

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/ = D is the gauge covariant derivative that is defined through minimal couHere, D

pling to the charge q:
D = iqA .
(152)

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

L = (ic / c 2 m)

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In particular, electromagnetism results from the transfer of twists; twists are one of the
three types of core deformations that lead to a crossing switch.
The basic twist, or first Reidemeister move, corresponds to a local rotation of some
strand segment in the core by an angle , as illustrated by Figure 51. Twists can be generalized to arbitrary angles: we simply define a generalized twist as a local rotation of a
strand segment by an arbitrary angle. The rotation axis is chosen as in shown by Figure 51.
Generalized twists can be concatenated, and the identity twist no local rotation at all
also exists. Generalized twists thus form a group. Furthermore, a generalized twist by 2
is equivalent to no twist at all, as is easily checked with a piece of rope. These properties
uniquely define the group U(1). In short, Figure 51 shows that generalized twists define
the group U(1), which has the topology of a circle.
In summary, the addition of a twist to a fermion tangle or to a photon strand changes
their phase, and thus represents a gauge interaction. We have shown that core fluctuations induced by twists produce a U(1) gauge symmetry. Electromagnetic field energy
and particle energy are U(1) invariant. In short, the strand model implies that the gauge
group of quantum electrodynamics is U(1). With this result, we are now able to deduce
the full Lagrangian of QED.

222

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

Strand model :

charged
fermion

time average
of crossing
switches

photon

Observation :

charged
fermion

t2

photon

t2
t1
charged
fermion

charged
fermion

t1

(Only crossing switches

are observable, strands
are not.)

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

time

F I G U R E 52 The fundamental Feynman diagram of QED and its tangle version.

real
electron

virtual
photon

real
electron

t2

virtual
electron

t2

t2

real
photon

t2

t2

vacuum
t1

t1

t1
real
electron

virtual
electron

time

virtual
electron

vacuum

real
photon

t1

vacuum

vacuum

t1

time

t1
virtual
electron

virtual
electron

t2

t2

time

real
positron

t2

t2

t1

t1

t1
real
electron

time

virtual
positron

t2

t2

t1
real
photon

real
electron

real
positron

virtual
electron

t2

t2

vacuum

time

real
positron

t2

t2
vacuum

t1

t1
real
photon

time

t1

t1
virtual
photon

time

t1

t1
virtual
photon

vacuum

time

F I G U R E 53 The different variations of the fundamental Feynman diagram of QED and their tangle

versions.

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virtual
electron

vacuum

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

t2

real
photon

electrodynamics and the first reidemeister move

223

Virtual pair creation:

t3
t3
t2

t2
electron

positron

electron

positron

t1
time

t1

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Electron-positron annihilation:
t3
t3
t2

t2
t1
positron

t1
time
electron

positron

F I G U R E 54 Some Feynman diagrams of QED with their tangle versions.

Feynman diagrams and renormalization

Page 294

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Page 213

Feynman diagrams are abbreviations of formulas to calculate effects of quantum electrodynamics in perturbation expansion. Feynman diagrams follow from the Lagrangian of
QED. All Feynman diagrams of QED can be constructed from one fundamental diagram,
shown on the right-hand side of Figure 52. Important Feynman diagrams are shown on
the left-hand sides of Figure 53 and of Figure 54.
In the strand model, the fundamental Feynman diagram can be visualized directly in
terms of strands, as shown on the left-hand side of Figure 52. This is the same diagram
that we have explored right at the start of the section on electrodynamics, when we defined electrodynamics as twist exchange. (The precise tangles for the charged fermions
will be deduced later on.) Since all possible Feynman diagrams are constructed from the
fundamental diagram, the strand model allows us to interpret all possible Feynman diagrams as strand diagrams. For example, the strand model implies that the vacuum is full
of virtual particle-antiparticle pairs, as shown in Figure 54.
In quantum field theory, Lagrangians must not only be Lorentz and gauge invariant,

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

electron

224

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

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The anomalous magnetic moment of the electron and of the muon is given by the wellknown expression

=1+
O( 2 ) ,
(153)
2
2

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

The anomalous magnetic moment

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

but must also be renormalizable. The strand model makes several statements on this issue. At this point, we focus on QED only; the other gauge interactions will be treated below. The strand model reproduces the QED Lagrangian, which is renormalizable. Renormalizability is a natural consequence of the strand model in the limit that strand diameters are negligible. The reason for renormalizability that the strand model reproduces the
single, fundamental Feynman diagram of QED, without allowing other types of diagrams.
The twist deformations underlying the strand model for QED also suggest new ways
to calculate higher order Feynman diagrams. Such ways are useful in calculations of factors of charged particles, as shown in the next section. In particular, the strand model
for QED, as shown in Figure 52, implies that higher order QED diagrams are simple strand
deformations of lower order diagrams. Taking statistical averages of strand deformations
up to a given number of crossings thus allows us to calculate QED effects up to a given
order in the coupling. The strand model thus suggests that non-perturbative calculations
are possible in QED. However, we do not pursue this topic in the present text.
For precise non-perturbative calculations, the effective diameter of the strands must
be taken into account. The diameter eliminates the Landau pole and all ultraviolet divergences of QED. In the strand model, the vacuum energy of the electromagnetic field is
automatically zero. In other words, the strand model eliminates all problems of QED; in
fact, QED appears as an approximation of the strand model for negligible strand diameter.
In passing, we thus predict that perturbation theory for QED is valid and converges if the
strand model, and in particular the finite strand diameter, is taken into account. (The
diameter is the only gravitational influence predicted to affect QED.)
The strand model also suggests that the difference between renormalized and unrenormalized mass and charge is related to the difference between minimal and nonminimal crossing switch number, or equivalently, between tangle deformations with few
and with many crossings, where strands are deformed on smaller distance scales. In other
terms, unrenormalized quantities the so-called bare quantities at Planck energy can
be imagined as those deduced when the tangles are pulled tight, i.e., pulled to Planck
distances, whereas renormalized mass and charge values are those deduced for particles
surrounded by many large-size fluctuations.
In summary, the strand model provides a new underlying picture or mechanism for
Feynman diagrams. The strand model does not change any physical result at any experimentally accessible energy scale. In particular, the measured running with energy of
the fine structure constant and of the masses of charged particles are reproduced by the
strand model, because Feynman diagrams of all orders are reproduced up to energies just
below the Planck scale. Deviations between QED and the strand model are only expected
near the Planck energy, when tangles of Planck diameter are pulled tight.

electrodynamics and the first reidemeister move

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Page 362

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Challenge 147 e

where /2 is half the so-called g-factor, with a measured value of 1.00116(1), and is
the fine structure constant, with a measured value of 1/137.036(1). Julian Schwinger
discovered this expression in 1948; the involved calculations that led Schwinger to this
and similar results in quantum field theory earned him the 1965 Nobel Prize for physics.
The result is also inscribed on the memorial marker near his grave in Mount Auburn
Cemetery. The strand model proposes a simple explanation for this result.
The factor /2 describes the ratio between the mechanical rotation frequency the
rotation of the particle mass that leads to spin and magnetic rotation frequency the
rotation of the particle charge that leads to the magnetic moment.
The mechanical rotation frequency is related to the ratio of the angular momentum
L and the mass m. Using the definitions from classical physics, we have L/m = r .
The magnetic rotation frequency is related to the ratio of the magnetic moment and
the electric charge e. Classically, this ratio is /e = r . Therefore, in classical physics
and also in the first order of the PauliDirac description of the electron the two rotation
frequencies coincide, and the factor /2 is thus equal to 1. However, as mentioned, both
experiment and QED show a slight deviation from unity, called the anomalous magnetic
moment.
In the strand model, the mechanical rotation of a charged elementary particle is due
to the rotation of the tangle core as a rigid whole, whereas the magnetic rotation also
includes phase changes due to the deformations of the tangle core. In particular, the magnetic rotation of a charged elementary particle includes phase changes due to emission
and reabsorption of a virtual photon, i.e., of a twisted loop.
In nature, the probability of the emission and reabsorption of a photon is determined
by the fine structure constant. This process leads to an additional angle that makes the
magnetic rotation angle differ from the mechanical rotation angle. Since the fine structure constant describes the rotation of the phase due to virtual photon exchange, the
emission and reabsorption of a virtual photon leads to an angle difference, and this angle difference is given by the fine structure constant itself. The ratio between the purely
mechanical and the full magnetic rotation frequency is therefore not one, but increased
by the ratio between the additional angle and 2. This is Schwingers formula.
The strand model also implies that Schwingers formula is valid for all charged elementary particles, independently of their mass, as is indeed observed. In short, the
strand model reproduces Schwingers celebrated formula almost from thin air. Higher
order corrections also appear naturally. Finally, the strand model implies that the complete expression, with all orders included, must converge, because the total result is due
to the shape and dynamics of the tangle core. The discussions about the existence of the
perturbation limit in QED are thus laid to rest.
In addition, the strand description of particle rotation suggests a way to calculate the
fine structure constant. We will explore it below.

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Page 210

225

226

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

Maxwells equations
The strand model also allows us to check Maxwells field equations of classical electrodynamics directly. The equations are:

,
0
B=0 ,
B
,
E=
t
1 E
B= 2
+ 0 J .
c t
E=

(154)

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copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014
free pdf le available at [Link]

The first of these equations is satisfied whatever the precise mechanism at the basis
of twisted loop emission by electric charges may be. Indeed, any mechanism in which a
charge randomly sends out or swallows a handle yields a 1/r 2 dependence for the electrostatic field and the required connection between charge and the divergence of the
electric field. This is not a deep result: any spherically-symmetric system that randomly
emits or swallows some entity produces the equation, including the underlying inversesquare dependence. The result can also be confirmed in another, well-known way. In any
exchange interaction between two charges, the exchange time is proportional to their
distance apart r; in addition, quantum theory states that the exchanged momentum is
inversely proportional to the distance r. Therefore, the force, or momentum per unit
time, varies as 1/r 2 . This relation is valid independently of the underlying motion of the
twisted loops, because space has three dimensions: all localized sources automatically
fulfil the inverse square dependence.
The constant on the right-hand side of the first equation results from the definition
of the units; in the language of the strand model, the constant fixes the twisted loop
emission rate for an elementary charge.
The second of the field equations (154) expresses the lack of magnetic charges. This
equation is automatically fulfilled by the strand model, as the definition of the magnetic
field with strands does not admit any magnetic sources. In fact, strands suggest that no
localized entity can have a magnetic charge. Also this equation is valid independently of
the details of the motion of the strands. Again, this is a topological effect.
The third field equation relates the temporal change of the magnetic field to the curl
of the electric field. In the strand model, this is satisfied naturally, because a curl in
the electric field implies, by construction, a change of the magnetic field, as shown by
Figure 49. Again, this relation is valid independently of the details of the motion of the
strands, as long as the averaging scale is taken to be large enough to allow the definition
of electric and the magnetic fields.
The most interesting equation is the last of the four Maxwell equations (154): in
particular, the second term on the right-hand side, the dependence on the charge current.
In the description of electrodynamics, the charge current J appears with a positive sign
and with no numerical factor. (This is in contrast to linearized gravity, where the current
has a numerical factor and a negative sign.) The positive sign means that a larger current
produces a larger magnetic field. The strand model reproduces this factor: strands lead to

electrodynamics and the first reidemeister move

227

Curiosities and fun challenges about QED

Challenge 148 e

Can you confirm that the strand model of quantum electrodynamics does not violate
charge conjugation C nor parity P at any energy?

Challenge 149 e

Can you confirm that the strand model of quantum electrodynamics conserves colour
and weak charge at all energies?

Challenge 150 e

Can you determine whether the U(1) gauge group deduced here is that of electrodynamics or that of weak hypercharge?

Challenge 151 d

Can you find a measurable deviation of the strand model from QED?

In the strand model, photons are single, helically twisted strands, randomly exchanged
between charges; charges are chiral tangles, and therefore they effectively emit and absorb real and virtual photons. This is the complete description of QED using strands.
In particular, we have shown that Reidemeister I moves or twists of tangle cores
lead to U(1) gauge invariance, Coulombs inverse square relation, Maxwells equations of
electrodynamics and to Feynman diagrams. In short, we have deduced all experimental
properties of quantum electrodynamics, except one: the strength of the coupling. Despite this open point, we have settled one line of the millennium list of open issues in
fundamental physics: we know the origin of the electromagnetic interaction and of its

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Summary on QED and experimental predictions

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

an effect that is proportional both to charge (because more elementary charges produce
more crossing flows) and to speed of movement of charge (large charge speed lead to
larger flows). Because of this result, the classical photon spin, which is defined as L/,
and which determines the numerical factor, namely 1, that appears before the charge
current J, is recovered. Also this connection is obviously independent of the precise
motion of the underlying strands.
The first term on the right-hand side of the fourth equation, representing the connection between a changing electric field and the curl of the magnetic field, is automatically
in agreement with the model. This can again be checked from Figure 49 and again,
this is a topological effect, valid for any underlying strand fluctuation. As an example,
when a capacitor is charged, a compass needle between the plates is deflected. In the
strand model, the accumulating charges on the plates lead to a magnetic field. The last
of Maxwells equations is thus also confirmed by the strand model.
In summary, the strand model reproduces Maxwells equations. However, this is not
a great feat. Maxwell-like equations appear in many places in field theory, for example
in solid-state physics and hydrodynamics. Mathematical physicists are so used to the
appearance of Maxwell-like equations in other domains that they seldom pay it much
attention. The real tests for any model of electrodynamics, quantum or classical, are the
deviations that the model predicts from electrodynamics, especially at high energies.

228

Page 154

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

properties.
Is there a difference between the strand model and quantum electrodynamics? The
precise answer is: there are no measurable differences between the strand model and QED.
For example, the -factor of the electron or the muon predicted by QED is not changed
by the strand model. The U(1) gauge symmetry and the whole of QED remain valid at all
energies. There are no magnetic charges. There are no other gauge groups. QED remains
exact in all cases as long as gravity plays no role.
The strand model prediction of a lack of larger gauge symmetries is disconcerting.
There is thus no grand unification in nature; there is no general gauge group in nature,
be it SU(5), SO(10), E6, E7, E8, SO(32) or any other. This result indirectly also rules out
supersymmetry and supergravity. This unpopular result contrasts with many cherished
habits of thought.
In the strand model, the equivalence of Feynman diagrams and strand diagrams implies that deviations of the strand model from QED are expected only when gravity starts
to play a role. The strand model predicts that this will only happen just near the Planck
energy c 5 /4G . At lower energies, QED is predicted to remain valid.
The strand model also confirms that the combination of gravity and quantum theory
turns all Planck units into limit values, because there is a maximum density of strand
crossings in nature, due to the fundamental principle. In particular, the strand model
confirms the maximum electric field value Emax = c 4 /4Ge 1.9 1062 V/m and a maximum magnetic field value Bmax = c 3 /4Ge 6.3 1053 T. So far, these predictions are not
in contrast with observations.
Thus the strand model predicts that approaching the electric or magnetic field limit
values given by quantum gravity is the only option to observe deviations from QED.
But measurements are not possible in those domains. Therefore we can state that there
are no measurable differences between the strand model and QED.
Our exploration of QED has left open only two points: the calculation of the electromagnetic coupling constant and the determination of the spectrum of possible tangles
for the elementary particles. Before we clarify these points, we look at the next Reidemeister move.

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the weak nuclear interaction and the second reidemeister move

229

Reidemeister move II, or poke, in textbook form :

The basic poke
can be described
as a local rotation by .
A full rotation, from - to ,
produces crossing switches.
A poke transfer :

weak boson of
unbroken SU(2)

poke
transfer

fermion
with
different
phase

F I G U R E 55 Poke transfer is the basis of the weak interaction in the strand model. No strand is cut or
reglued; the transfer occurs only through the excluded volume due to the impenetrability of strands.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 237

In nature, the weak interaction is the result of the absorption and the emission of massive spin-1 bosons that form a broken weak triplet. The W and the Z bosons are emitted
or absorbed by particles with weak charge; these are the left-handed fermions and righthanded antifermions. In other words, the weak interaction breaks parity P maximally.
The W boson has unit electric charge, the Z boson has vanishing electric charge. The
emission or absorption of W bosons changes the particle type of the involved fermion.
The weak bosons also interact among themselves. All weakly charged particles are massive and move slower than light. The Lagrangian of matter coupled to the weak field has
a broken SU(2) gauge symmetry. There are fundamental Feynman diagrams with triple
and with quartic vertices. The weak coupling constant is determined by the electromagnetic coupling constant and the weak boson masses; its energy dependence is fixed by
renormalization.
The previous paragraph summarizes the main observations about the weak interaction. More precisely, all observations related to the weak interaction are described by its
Lagrangian. Therefore, we need to show that the weak interaction Lagrangian follows
from the strand model.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

the weak nuclear interaction and the second

reidemeister move

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

fermion

vacuum

230

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

Pokes on tangle cores

form an SU(2) group

The poke, or Reidemeister II move,

is a local rotation, by an angle ,
of the core region enclosed by a
dashed circle.

The three basic pokes on tangle cores

are local rotations by an angle around
the three coordinate axes of the core region
enclosed by a dashed circle. The three
basic pokes generate an SU(2) group.

The SU(2) group appears most

clearly when the analogy to the
belt trick is highlighted.

axis

axis
y

F I G U R E 56 How the set of all pokes the set of all deformations induced on tangle cores by the weak
interaction forms an SU(2) gauge group. The relation to the belt trick, with a pointed buckle and two
belts, is also shown.

Page 209

As explained above, any gauge interaction involving a fermion is a deformation of the

tangle core that changes the phase and rotation of the fermion tangle. We start directly
with the main definition.
The weak interaction is the transfer of a poke, i.e., the transfer of a Reidemeister II move, between two particles. An illustration is given in Figure 55.
Strands are not cut in this process; they simply transfer the deformation as
a result of their impenetrability.

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Strands, pokes and SU(2)

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

axis

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

the weak nuclear interaction and the second reidemeister move

Challenge 152 e

Strands describe the weak interaction as exchange of pokes. In tangle cores, the basic
pokes induce local rotations by an angle , as shown on the top of Figure 55: each basic
poke rotates the region enclosed by the dotted circle. Given a spin axis, there are three,
linearly independent, basic pokes, in three mutually orthogonal directions. The three
basic pokes x , y and z are illustrated in Figure 56. This figure also shows that the three
pokes act on the local region in the same way as the three possible mutually orthogonal
rotations act on a belt buckle.
In this discussion, we assume that the two strand segments are parallel. This is an
idealized situation. But it is also the average over all strand configurations of two strands.
In fact, the arguments given in the following apply also to all other configurations of two
strands.
The pokes of Figure 56 show that the product of two different basic pokes gives the
third poke, together with a sign which depends on whether the sequence is cyclic or not
and a factor of i. Using the definition of 1 as a local rotation by 2, we also find that
the square of each basic poke is 1. In detail, we can read off the following multiplication
table for the three basic pokes:

x
y
z

x
y
z
1
iz i y
iz 1
ix
i y ix 1

(155)

Weak charge and parity violation

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 277

A particle has weak charge if, when subject to random pokes, a preferred phase change
occurs. Surrounded by a bath of strands that continuously induce random pokes, not all
tangles will change their phase. Only tangles that lack symmetry will. One symmetry
that must be lacking is spherical symmetry. Therefore, only tangles whose cores lack
spherical symmetry have the chance to be influenced by random pokes. Since all tangles
with knotted or braided cores lack spherical symmetry, all such tangles, i.e., all massive
particles, are candidates to be influenced, and thus are candidates for weakly charged
particles. We therefore explore them in detail.
If a tangle is made of two or more knotted or braided strands, it represents a massive spin-1/2 particle (except for a simple twist, which represents the graviton). All such
fermion cores lack spherical and cylindrical symmetry. When a fermion spins, two

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

In other terms, the three basic pokes form the generators of an SU(2) group. When
seen as local rotations, pokes can be generalized to arbitrary angles, and they can be
concatenated. We thus find that general pokes form the full SU(2) group. We already
expected this from the equivalence with the belt trick.
The different gauge choices are not illustrated in Figure 56. The choices arise from
the different ways in which the basic pokes x , y and z can be assigned to the set of
deformations that describe the belt trick.
In summary, we can state that in any definition of the phase of a tangled fermion core,
there is an SU(2) gauge freedom. In other words, the gauge group of the unbroken weak
interaction is SU(2).

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Page 178

231

232

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

Pokes on cores generate an SU(2) group, like the belt trick does :

z
y

The basic pokes,

local rotations by p,
form the
3 generators of SU(2).

Random pokes affect only tangles of identical spin and belt trick handedness :

poke requires a

tangle.

F I G U R E 57 The three basic pokes and weak charge in the strand model.

Page 204

Non-vanishing weak charge for fermions appears only for tangle cores
whose spin handedness and untangling handedness match.

free pdf le available at [Link]

In other words, the strand model predicts that random pokes will only affect a core if
the core rotation and the belt trick are of the same handedness. In physical terms, random pokes will only affect left-handed particles or right-handed antiparticles. Thus, the
strand model predicts that the weak interaction violates parity maximally, This is exactly
as observed. In other terms, weak charge and the parity violation of the weak interaction
are consequences of the belt trick. This relation is summarized in Figure 57.
If a tangle is made of a single knotted strand, we expect it to be influenced by large
numbers of pokes. Such tangle cores are massive spin-1 bosons; their cores lack spherical and cylindrical symmetry. The core rotation will induce a left-right asymmetry that
will lead to a higher effect of a poke than of its reverse. Single knotted strands are thus
predicted to carry weak charge. We therefore expect that the weak bosons themselves

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

things happen: the core rotates and the belt trick occurs, which untangles the tails.
Compared to the direction of motion, the rotation and the untangling can be either lefthanded or right-handed, giving four combinations in total. (As explained above, these
combinations form the four components of the Dirac spinor.)
A particle has weak charge if random pokes lead to a preferred phase change. In order
to feel any average effect when large numbers of random pokes are applied, a core must
undergo different effects for a poke and its reverse. As mentioned, this requires a lack
of core symmetry. But even if the core has no symmetry, different phase effects will
only occur if the core rotation and the tail untangling are of the same handedness. For
opposite handedness, effects of pokes and antipokes cancel.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

the weak nuclear interaction and the second reidemeister move

Weak bosons of
unbroken SU(2)

233

Weak bosons of
broken SU(2)

Wx

Wy

W0

W+

Z0

Weak bosons
In 2008, the following ideas led to the strand model of the W and Z bosons.

Gauge bosons are those particles that are exchanged between interacting fermions: gauge
bosons induce phase changes of fermions. In the strand model, all spin-1 bosons are
* Non-Abelian gauge theory was introduced by Wolfgang Pauli. In the 1950s, he explained the theory in
series of talks. Two physicists, Yang Chen Ning and Robert Mills, then wrote down his ideas. Yang received
the Nobel Prize in Physics with Lee Tsung Dao for a different topic, namely for the violation of parity of the
weak interaction.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Weak intermediate bosons are families of knotted single strands, whose simplest family member is unknotted. An illustration is given in Figure 58.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

interact weakly. In other words, the strand model predicts that the weak interaction is a
non-Abelian gauge theory.*
If a tangle is made of a single unknotted strand, it is not affected by random pokes. The
strand model thus predicts that the photon has no weak charge, as is observed. The same
also holds for gluons.
The strand definition of weak charge leads to two conclusions that can be checked
by experiment. First, in the strand model, only massive particles interact weakly; in
fact, all massive particles interact weakly. In other words, all weakly charged particles
are predicted to move more slowly than light and vice versa. Secondly, all electrically
charged particles being massive and having cores that lack cylindrical symmetry are
predicted to be also weakly charged. Both conclusions agree with observation.
In short, all properties of weak charge found in nature are reproduced by the tangle
model. In particular, core fluctuations induced by pokes produce a SU(2) gauge symmetry.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

F I G U R E 58 Poke-inducing strands (left) differ from weak vector bosons (right) because of symmetry
breaking. The gure shows only the simplest possible tangles for each weak gauge boson.

234

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

made of a single strand. Single strands that induce phase changes in fermions interacting
weakly are shown on the left side of Figure 58. They generate the three basic pokes x ,
y and z . Unknotted strands, however, are massless. In the strand model, single strands
that induce pokes differ from the knotted weak intermediate bosons, as shown on the
right of Figure 58. This difference is due to the breaking of the SU(2) gauge symmetry,
as we will find out soon.
The L agrangian of the unbroken SU(2) gauge interaction

(156)

This expression is SU(2) gauge invariant. Indeed, SU(2) gauge transformations have no
effect on the number of crossing switches due to weak bosons or to the motion of pokes.
Thus, gauge transformations leave weak field intensities and thus also the energy of the
weak fields invariant, as observed.
We can now write down the Lagrangian for weakly charged fermions interacting with
the weak vector bosons. Starting from the idea that tangle core deformations lead to
phase redefinitions, we have found that pokes imply that the unbroken weak Lagrangian
density for matter and radiation fields is SU(2) gauge invariant. In parallel to electrodynamics we thus get the Lagrangian

1 3
W a Wa ,
4 a=1

(157)

/ is now the SU(2) gauge covariant derivative and the first sum is taken over
where D
all fermions. In this Lagrangian, only the left-handed fermions and the right-handed
antifermions carry weak charge. This Lagrangian, however, does not describe nature:
the observed SU(2) breaking is missing.

free pdf le available at [Link]

/ m f c 2 ) f
Lunbroken weak = f (icD

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

1 3
L = W a Wa ,
4 a=1

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 217

The energy of the weak field is given by the density of weak gauge boson strands. As
long as the SU(2) symmetry is not broken, the energy of the weak field and the energy of
fermions are both SU(2) invariant. As a consequence, we are now able to deduce a large
part of the Lagrangian of the weak interaction, in the case that the SU(2) symmetry is
unbroken.
As long as SU(2) is unbroken, the vector bosons are described as unknotted strands
that induce pokes, as was shown on the left of Figure 58. There are three such bosons.
Since they are made of a single strand, they have spin 1; since they are unknotted, they
have zero mass and electric charge.
Energy is the number of crossing switches per time. As long as SU(2) is unbroken
and the weak bosons are massless, the energy of the weak boson field and thus their
Lagrangian density is given by the same expression as the energy of the photon field. In
particular, the energy density is quadratic in the field intensities. We only have to add
the energies of all three bosons together to get:

the weak nuclear interaction and the second reidemeister move

235

Boson mass generation

and SU(2) breaking
through overcrossing :
a

W0

g
W boson
Wx

SU(2) breaking

Mass generation for bosons and the related SU(2) symmetry breaking are
due to strand overcrossing at the border of space that leads to knitted cores.
Figure 59 illustrates the idea.
In this description, overcrossing is assumed to occur at the border of space, more precisely, in a region where physical space is not defined any more; in such a region, over-

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 239

In nature, the weak interaction does not have an SU(2) gauge symmetry. The symmetry
is only approximate; it said to be broken. The main effect of SU(2) symmetry breaking
are the non-vanishing and different masses for the W and Z bosons, and thus the
weakness and the short range of the weak interaction. In addition, the symmetry breaking implies a mixing with the electromagnetic interaction that yields the electroweak
interaction. (This is often called electroweak unification.)
The strand model suggests the following description:

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

F I G U R E 59 In the strand model, mass generation and the breaking of the SU(2) gauge symmetry in the
weak interaction is due to overcrossing (a, b, c, d, h and g are scalar factors); the third process, usually
explained with the Higgs boson, will be claried later on.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

photon

W0

Z0

Z boson

236

Page 332

Page 239
Page 238

Page 332

Open issue: are the W and Z knots correct?

In 2014, a reader of the text has raised an issue: If a tangle version of the W and Z could
be found, without any knot and without any need for the overcrossing process at infinity,

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 334

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 298

crossing is not forbidden and can occur. The probability of overcrossing is low, because
the crossings have first to fluctuate to that region and then fluctuate back. Nevertheless,
the process can take place. Overcrossing appears only in the weak interaction. It does not
appear in the other two gauge interactions, as the other Reidemeister moves do not allow
processes at the border of space. In the strand model, this is the reason that only SU(2)
is broken in nature. In short, SU(2) breaking is a natural consequence of the second
Reidemeister move.
Overcrossing transforms the unknotted, and thus massless, poke strands into the
knotted, and thus massive W and Z strands. Overcrossing leads to knots and therefore is
a mass-generating process. The precise mass values that it generates will be determined
below. The strand model thus confirms that mass generation is related to the breaking of
the weak interaction.
When producing the mass of the Z boson, overcrossing mixes it with the original
photon. This is shown in Figure 59. The mixing is due to their topological similarities in
the strand model. The Z boson is achiral, and thus electrically neutral, as observed. The
existence of a neutral, massive Z boson implies that elastic neutrino scattering in matter
occurs in nature, as was observed for the first time in 1974. Since any electrically charged
particle also has weak charge, the existence of a Z boson implies that any two electrically
charged particles can interact both by exchange of photons and by exchange of Z bosons.
In other words, SU(2) breaking requires electroweak mixing, or, as is it usually called,
electroweak unification.
Overcrossing takes place in several weak interaction processes, as shown in Figure 61.
Overcrossing thus can change particle topology, and thus particle type. The strand model
thus predicts that the weak interaction changes particle flavours (types), as is observed.
In fact, the strand model also predicts that only the weak interaction has this property.
This is also observed.
On the other hand, strands are never cut or reglued in the strand model, not even
in the weak interaction. As a result the strand model predicts that the weak interaction
conserves electric charge, spin and, as we will see below, colour charge, baryon number
and lepton number. All this is observed.
Overcrossing also implies that the figure-eight knot for the Z boson and the overhand
knot for the W are only the simplest tangles associated with each boson; more complicated knots are higher order propagating states of the same basic open knots. This will
be of great importance later on, for the proof that all gauge bosons of nature are already
known.
In short, the second Reidemeister move leads to overcrossing; overcrossing leads to
all observed properties of SU(2) symmetry breaking. (Equivalently, the strand model
implies that the simplest, unknotted tangles of the weak interaction bosons show SU(2)
symmetry, whereas the more complicated, knotted tangles break this symmetry.) The
value of the mixing angle and the particle masses have still to be determined. This will
be done below.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 233

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

the weak nuclear interaction and the second reidemeister move

Neutral current processes

Charged current processes

quark 1 or
lepton 1

quark 2 or
lepton 2
W

Z
quark 1 or
lepton 1

quark 1 or
lepton 1

Triple boson coupling processes

W

237

Quartic coupling processes

W

Z,

Z,

Z,

F I G U R E 60 The fundamental Feynman diagrams of the weak interaction that do not involve the Higgs

boson.

The electroweak L agrangian

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 307

We can now use the results on SU(2) symmetry breaking to deduce the electroweak Lagrangian density. We have seen that symmetry breaking leaves the photon massless but
introduces masses to the weak vector bosons, as shown in Figure 59. The result of the
boson masses MW and MZ is that kinetic terms for the corresponding fields appear in
the Lagrangian.
Due to symmetry breaking induced by overcrossing, the Z boson results from the
mixing with the (unbroken) photon. The strand model predicts that the mixing can be
described by an angle, the so-called weak mixing angle w . In particular, the strand
model implies that cos w = MW /MZ .
As soon as symmetry breaking is described by a mixing angle due to overcrossing,
we get the known electroweak Lagrangian, though without the terms due to the Higgs
boson. (We will come back to the Higgs boson later on.) We do not write down the Lagrangian of the weak interaction predicted by the strand model, but the terms are the
same as those found in the standard model of elementary particles. There is one important difference: the Lagrangian so derived does not yet contain the quark and lepton
mixing constants. Experiments show that the weak fermion eigenstates are not the same
as the strong or electromagnetic eigenstates: quarks mix, and neutrinos mix. The reason

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Challenge 153 ny

the strand model would gain in simplicity and elegance. Such a tangle could occur from
the unbroken tangles when vacuum strands are included.
It might well be that taking into account the surrounding vacuum strands could lead
to simpler, unknotted models for the two intermediate vector bosons. The possibility is
intriguing and the issue still open.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

238

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

Weak strand diagrams

Weak Feynman diagrams

time average
of crossing
switches

real electron
and virtual Z

virtual electron
and real Z
or

or

electron

t2

Z
t2

vacuum
t1

t1
electron

time

virtual neutrino
and real W

or

or

neutrino

t2

W
t2

vacuum

t1
time

electron
W

or

or

electron

t2

W
t2

vacuum
or

t1

t1

(photon)

time
W

W
t2

t1
Z

t1
time

F I G U R E 61 The strand model for the fundamental Feynman diagrams of the weak interaction.

free pdf le available at [Link]

t2

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

t1

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

real neutrino
and virtual W

electron

the weak nuclear interaction and the second reidemeister move

Page 347

239

for this observation, and the effect that mixing has on the weak Lagrangian, will become
clear only once we have determined the tangles for each fermion.
In summary, the strand model implies the largest part of the Lagrangian of the weak
interaction. The issue of the Higgs boson is still open, and the Lagrangian contains a
number of constants that are not yet clarified. These unexplained constants are the number of the involved elementary particles, their masses, couplings, mixing angles and CP
violation phases, as well as the value of the weak mixing angle.
The weak Feynman diagrams

Fun challenges and curiosities about the weak interaction

The strand model makes clear that the weak interaction and the electromagnetic interaction mix, but do not unify. There is only electroweak mixing, and no electroweak unification, despite claims to the contrary by the Nobel Prize committee and many other
physicists. In fact, Sheldon Glashow, who received the Nobel prize for this alleged uni-

free pdf le available at [Link]

The strand model, like the standard model, predicts that everything about the weak interaction is already known. Nevertheless, the most important weak process, the decay of the
neutron, is being explored by many precision experiments. The strand model predicts
that none of these experiments will yield any surprise.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 233

The W boson and its antiparticle are observed to annihilate through the electromagnetic
interaction, yielding two or more photons. How can this be, given that W bosons are
modelled as overhand knots?
The strand model describes every particle as a collection of various tangles or knots,
i.e., as a family of tangles or knots. This is a consequence of the properties of the weak
interaction, which is able to change tangle topology by overcrossing at the border of
space. In particular, the W boson is not only an overhand knot; it also has other configurations. The most important of these other configurations, the tangle before SU(2)
breaking shown in Figure 58, shows that annihilation due to electromagnetism is possible.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

In nature, the weak interaction is described by a small number of fundamental Feynman

diagrams. Those not containing the Higgs boson are shown in Figure 60. These Feynman
diagrams encode the corresponding Lagrangian of the weak interaction.
In the strand model, pokes lead naturally to strand versions of the fundamental Feynman diagrams. This happens as shown in Figure 61. We see again that the strand model
reproduces the weak interaction: each Feynman diagram is due to a strand diagram for
which only crossing switches are considered, and for which Planck size is approximated
as zero size. In particular, the strand model does not allow any other fundamental diagrams. This finite, small number of possible strand diagrams and thus of Feynman diagrams implies that the weak interaction is renormalizable. For example, the running of
the weak coupling with energy is reproduced by the strand model, because the running
can be determined through the appropriate Feynman diagrams.

240

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

fication, agrees with this assessment.

In the strand model, the mixing of the electromagnetic and the weak interaction can
be seen as a consequence of knot geometry: the poke generators of the weak interaction
also contain twists, i.e., also contain generators of the electromagnetic interaction. In
contrast, generators of other Reidemeister moves do not mix; and indeed, no mixing
with other interactions is observed.
Summary on the weak interaction and experimental predictions

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 154

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 307

We have deduced the main properties of the weak Lagrangian from the strand model.
We have shown that Reidemeister II moves or pokes in tangle cores lead to a broken
SU(2) gauge invariance and to massive weak bosons. We found that the deviation from
tangle core sphericity plus chirality is weak charge, and that the weak interaction is nonAbelian. We have also shown that the weak interaction naturally breaks parity maximally
and mixes with the electromagnetic interaction. In short, we have deduced the main
experimental properties of the weak interaction.
Is there a difference between the strand model and the electroweak Lagrangian of the
standard model of particle physics? Before we can fully answer the question on deviations between the strand model and the standard model, we must settle the issue of the
Higgs boson. This is done later on.
In any case, the strand model predicts that the broken SU(2) gauge symmetry remains
valid at all energies. No other gauge groups appear in nature. The strand model thus
predicts again that there is no grand unification, and thus no larger gauge group, be it
SU(5), SO(10), E6, E7, E8, SO(32) or any other group. This result indirectly also rules out
supersymmetry and supergravity.
The strand model also predicts that the combination of gravity and quantum theory
turns all Planck units into limit values, because there is a maximum density of strand
crossings in nature, due to the fundamental principle. Therefore, the strand model predicts a maximum weak field value given by the Planck force divided by the smallest weak
charge. All physical systems including all astrophysical objects, such as neutron stars,
quark starts, gamma-ray bursters or quasars are predicted to conform to this limit. So
far, no observed field value is near this limit, so that the prediction does not contradict
observation.
Our exploration of the weak interaction has left open a few points: we need to calculate the weak coupling constant and determine the tangle for each particle of the standard
model, including the Higgs boson. But we also need to explain the weak fermion mixings,
CP violation and the masses of all particles. Despite these open points, we have settled
another line of the millennium list: we know the origin of the weak interaction and of
its main properties. Before we clarify the open points, we explore the third Reidemeister
move.

the strong nuclear interaction and the third reidemeister move

Reidemeister move III, or slide, in textbook form :

241

Slide in SU(3) form (one example) :

A slide transfer :

gluon
fermion

fermion
with
different
phase

vacuum

F I G U R E 62 A gluon, made of one strand, changes the phase of a tangle: slide transfer is the basis of the
strong interaction in the strand model. During the interaction, no strand is cut or reglued; the transfer
occurs purely through the excluded volume that results from the impenetrability of strands.

Strands and the slide, the third Reidemeister move

Page 209

As explained above, interactions of fermions are deformations of the tangle core that
change its phase. We start directly by presenting the strand model for the strong interaction.

free pdf le available at [Link]

In nature, the strong interaction is the result of the absorption and the emission of massless, electrically uncharged, spin-1 gauge bosons that are called gluons. Gluons interact
with quarks, the only fermions with colour charge. Fermions can have three different
colour charges, antifermions three different anticolours. Gluons form an octet, are themselves colour charged and therefore also interact among themselves. The Lagrangian
of quarks coupled to the gluon field has an unbroken SU(3) gauge symmetry. There
are three fundamental Feynman diagrams: one for quark-gluon interaction and two for
gluon-gluon interactions: a triple and a quadruple gluon vertex. The strong coupling
constant is about 0.5 at low energy; its energy dependence is determined by renormalization.
The previous paragraph summarizes the main observations about the strong interaction. All known observations related to the strong interaction, without any known
exception, are contained in its Lagrangian. Therefore, we need to show that the strong
interaction Lagrangian follows from the strand model.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

the strong nuclear interaction and the third

reidemeister move

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

slide
transfer

242

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

The eight gluons :

blue

anti-red

blue

anti-red

blue
anti-red

anti-green

anti-green

anti-green

green
red

green
red

anti-blue

green
red

anti-blue

anti-blue
(only 2 are linearly
independent)

The strong interaction is the transfer of slides, i.e., the transfer of third Reidemeister moves, between two particles. As shown in Figure 62, strands are
not cut in this process; they simply transfer deformations as a result of their
impenetrability.

As a result of this model, gluons are massless, are electrically neutral and have spin 1. Due
to their asymptotic shape, free gluons would have unbounded energy; therefore do not
exist. Due to the impenetrability of strands, a gluon strand can induce a slide on a tangle
core, as illustrated in Figure 62. The gluon will then be absorbed, i.e., turn into a vacuum
strand, thus leading to an effective slide transfer. Such a slide transfer will influence the
phase of the tangle. Therefore, slide transfers indeed are a type of interaction.
From slides to SU(3)

free pdf le available at [Link]

To find out what algebraic structure is generated by slides, we explore them in detail. The
slide, or third Reidemeister move, involves three pieces of strands. The textbook version
of the third Reidemeister move which is called E0 here and is illustrated in Figure 64
moves or slides one strand, taken to be the horizontal blue one in the figure, against
a crossing of the other two. Equivalently, we can say that a slide pushes two strands
against the blue one that is kept in place. This textbook slide we also call it a pure
slide here does not contain any crossing switch; following the fundamental principle of
the strand model, it is therefore unobservable, or, simply said, of no physical relevance.
However, related strand moves that do involve crossing switches also exist. Three of these
generalized slides, called E1 , E2 and E3 , are shown in Figure 65. These moves can be seen

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 251

Gluons are single, unknotted strands that induce slides on colour-charged

fermion cores. The strand model for the (unobserved) free gluons is shown
in Figure 63. It is deduced below, in Figure 67.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

F I G U R E 63 The strand model for the nine free gluons, the last three not being linearly independent.
Free gluons do not exist, as they would have extremely high energy. More details on gluons are given
in Figure 67.

the strong nuclear interaction and the third reidemeister move

243

A textbook slide, or Reidemeister III move:

E0

F I G U R E 64 The textbook version of the slide move, or third Reidemeister move, is unobservable,
because it does not involve crossing switches.

free pdf le available at [Link]

* In particular, the same results should appear if all three strands segments are assumed perpendicular to
each other, instead of lying in a plane.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

as combined deformations and slides of the other two strands against the horizontal blue
strand. We can imagine these moves like those of the belt trick, but acting only on an
imaginary buckle formed by the other two strands. These generalized slides do contain
crossing changes; therefore they are observable and are of physical relevance.
In this discussion, we assume similarly to what we did in the discussion about the
weak interaction that the three strand segments are in a plane. This is an idealized situation. But it is also the average over all strand configurations of three strands. In fact, the
arguments given in the following apply also to all other configurations of three strands.*
We note that the rotation axes of the generalized slides E1 and E2 are not aligned or orthogonal to the paper plane; in fact, the rotation axes of E1 , E4 and E6 are perpendicular
to the sides of a cube. E2 , E5 and E7 are perpendicular to them. The blue triplet E1 , E2
and E3 forms an orthonormal basis; the same is valid for the other two triplets.
We note that slide is not a perfect term for these generalized deformations; in fact,
we should call them slide-rotations. More precisely, they are slide-rotations by an angle
that are applied to an imaginary belt buckle. Despite the involved construction, these
generalized, observable moves remain modelled on the textbook slide E0 and require
three strand segments. For these reasons the generalized, observable moves just defined
differ from twists and pokes; thus they differ from Reidemeister I and II moves. Therefore
we will continue to call the generalized, observable moves just defined slides.
The observable, generalized slides in the triplet E1 , E2 and E3 can be concatenated.
We distinguish two cases. The first case is the concatenation of any such slide with itself.
The result corresponds to a rotation by 2 of the chosen strand pair and its imaginary

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Colours and arrows are only added for clarity.

The textbook slide is unobservable, because it lacks crossing switches.
It is thus not physical and uninteresting.

244

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

The generalized slides, or Reidemeister III moves, acting on three strands, form an SU(3) group.
The generalized slides acting on tangle cores are shown below.
They are local slides and rotations by an angle of an
imaginary buckle formed by (usually) two strands.
The strands lie (mostly) in a paper plane.

The rotation axes of the eight generators of SU(3) are (mostly)

arranged at right angles to each other, as shown on the right.
Only the rotation axes 3, 9 and 10 lie in the paper plane. The three
imaginary belt buckles for the three SU(2) subgroups are also
shown. The buckles are arranged like the sides of a cube.

Starting
position

8
10
=
3/2
+ 83/2

red

green

E4 = e i 4 / 2

E6 = e i 6 / 2

E2 = e i 2 / 2

9 = 3 / 2
8 3 / 2

E7 = e i 7 / 2

E5 = e i 5 / 2

E3 = e i 3 / 2

E8 = e i 8 / 2

belt buckle, and thus induces a corresponding amount of tail twisting. In fact, when any
slide of the triplet is concatenated four times with itself, the result is the identity matrix.
Comparing a twofold and a fourfold concatenation, we see that they differ only by an
entangling or algebraically, by a minus sign for the imaginary buckle. This reminds us of
the belt trick.
The second case is the concatenation of two different slides of the triplet. The result is
always the third slide of the triplet (up to a sign that depends on whether the combina-

free pdf le available at [Link]

F I G U R E 65 The strand deformations for the rst three generalized slide moves, and their belt trick
analogies. The corresponding generators lead to an SU(3) structure, as shown in the text.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

E1 = e i 1 / 2

blue

the strong nuclear interaction and the third reidemeister move

245

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

* This U(2) subgroup, often sloppily labeled as SU(2)xU(1), is given by those 3 by 3 matrices that contain
a unitary 2 by 2 matrix in the upper left, contain zeroes in the remaining four off-diagonal elements, and
contain the inverse value of the determinant of the 2 by 2 matrix in the remaining, lower right diagonal

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

tion is cyclical or not). This behaviour is also seen in the belt trick. In short, the triplet
containing the first three generalized slides forms an SU(2) group. More precisely, the
infinitesimal slide-rotations corresponding to E1 , E2 and E3 generate the SU(2) algebra
of an SU(2) Lie group. As we will find out shortly, this is one of the three linearly independent SU(2) subgroups of SU(3). We thus retain that we can indeed visualize the
first three generalized slides with the help of the three orthogonal rotations by of an
imaginary belt buckle formed by the red and green strands.
We now need to specify the remaining generalized slides that are possible in the threestrand configuration. For each of the three strand segments there are three possible observable slides; this yields a total of nine possible generalized slides for the observer defined by the paper plane. All these new slides act on an imaginary belt buckle, that is
usually formed by two strands. All the generalized slides, together with their rotation
axes, are illustrated in Figure 65. The slides corresponding to E1 and E2 are called E4 and
E5 in the next triplet, and E6 and E7 in the third triplet. However, of the three slides corresponding to E3 we call the other two E9 and E10 only two are linearly independent.
The additional, linearly independent, generalized slide is usually taken orthogonal to E3
and is called E8 ; it is a linear combination of E9 and E10 . In total, this gives eight linearly
independent generalized slides.
We note that the first triplet differs from the other two triplets. In the moves of the
first triplet, the imaginary belt buckle made of the other two strands does not keep the
blue strand undeformed, because the blue strand is trapped in between. Therefore, in
this triplet we take as imaginary buckle the set of all three central segments. But also in
this exceptional triplet, a generalized slide still consists of a rotation followed by a slide.
Therefore, we still have a SU(2) subgroup for the first triplet.
We further note that the slide E8 differs from the other slides. It describes a motion
that readjusts the orientation of the central segment of the horizontal blue strand around
the E8 -axis. Simply speaking, we can picture the slide E8 as tightening or loosening the
horizontal blue strand, as illustrated in Figure 65. E8 is thus the only slide that is not well
described with an imaginary belt buckle, or by the term slide. It is straightforward to
check that E8 commutes with E1 , E2 , E3 and obviously with itself, but not with the other
generators that were just defined. In addition, we find that E8 commutes with E9 and E10 .
The commutation of E8 with the first triplet implies that together, these four slides
generate a U(2) subgroup of SU(3).* Slides thus reproduce also the U(2) subgroup of
SU(3).
We saw that the infinitesimal versions of the slides E1 , E2 and E3 generate an SU(2)
subgroup. The same holds for the corresponding triplet E4 , E5 and the linear combination
E9 = E3 /2 E8 3 /2 (corresponding to E3 ), and for the triplet E6 , E7 and E10 = E3 /2 +
E8 3 /2. In short, for each triplet, the infinitesimal slides generate an SU(2) group. The
three resulting SU(2) groups are linearly independent. Therefore, each SU(2) group can
be represented by a separate imaginary buckle. We thus conclude that the configuration
of three slides can be visualized, in many aspects though not completely with the
help of three imaginary buckles, as illustrated in Figure 65.

246

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

3
G

R
8

Starting
position

blue

green
E6 = e i 6 / 2

E5 = e i 5 / 2

E7 = e i 7 / 2

first rotates red and green,

then blue and green strands:

E4E1

first rotates blue and green,

then red and green strands:

E2E4

first rotates red and green,

then blue and green strands:

E4E2

first rotates blue and green,

then red and green strands:

Figures to be completed

E4 E1 , and the products E2 E4 and E4 E2 . Only the three-dimensional arrangement of the axes yields the
correct combinations of E6 and E7 .

We now need to check whether the generalized slides really generate the full SU(3) Lie
group. For this check, we need to explore the concatenation of generators; more precisely,
we need to check whether the generators reproduce the multiplication table of the SU(3)
element.

free pdf le available at [Link]

F I G U R E 66 Selected concatenations, i.e. multiplications, of generating slides: the products E1 E4 and

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

E1E4

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

E2 = e i 2 / 2

10
=
3/2
+ 83/2

red
E4 = e i 4 / 2

E1 = e i 1 / 2

9 = 3 / 2 8 3 / 2

the strong nuclear interaction and the third reidemeister move

247

Lie algebra. We recall that the eight generalized slides En of Figure 65 are in one-to-one
correspondence with the so-called infinitesimal generators n via the relation
En = ei /2 .

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

Vol. V, page 218

The expression implies that the infinitesimal generators n describe the difference between an infinitesimal generalized slide thus a slide-rotation with a rotation by an infinitesimal angle and the unit matrix.
We can now explore concatenations of generators. Concatenation is equivalent to
group multiplication. The most important multiplication products of generators are illustrated in Figure 66. We already know the multiplication results for any two members
of the same triplet; those results follow from the equivalence of each triplet with the belt
trick and from the three-fold symmetry of the strand configuration. We thus only need
to check the remaining products. In fact, because of the three-fold symmetry, we only
need to check one multiplication result between slides from different triplets. We choose
the product 1 4 .
We note a basic difference between the product 1 4 and any product of two generators from the same triplet. The product 1 4 , like the other concatenations of generators
from different triplets, does not yield a single generator, but yields a combination, i.e.,
a sum of generators. Figure 66 illustrates this. This behaviour does not appear in concatenations from the same triplet. The figure also shows that the product 1 4 yields a
situation related 6 and 7 . Simple inspection also shows the difference between 1 4
and 4 1 . The concatenation of generators is not commutative.
The conclusion about products from different triplets agrees with the properties of
scalar multiplication and addition of strands found above: sums deform strand configurations. The deformation is more involved than the effect of a pure rotation.
Also products from different driplets involving the non-generators 9 = 3 /2
8 3 /2 or 10 = 3 /2+ 8 3 /2 yield a sum of generators. In contrast, products involving 8 do so only for the last two triplets, because of the special, asymmetric definition
of the last generator shown in Figure 65. The illustration of 8 directly allows us to deduce the results of the multiplication with each of the other generators. In particular, we
find that the product always remains within the corresponding triplet.
Using the visualization with three strands, we can thus deduce all products of generators from two different triplets. The multiplication table that appears is given in Table 10.
Figure 65 and Table 10 also illustrate that the three operations E2 , E5 and E7 generate
an SO(3) group, the rotation group in three dimensions. In order to see this, we observe
that these three slides generate all possible rotations in three dimensions of the central
triangle. An SO(3) group also appears for the slides 1, 4 and 7, for the slides 1, 5 and 6,
and for the slides 2, 4 and 6. These are the four basic SO(3) subgroups of SU(3). The
remaining four combinations consisting of three operations from three different triplets
such as 1, 4 and 6 do not generate any subgroup. This can be confirmed by exploring
the corresponding strand moves.
As announced, the multiplication table shown in Table 10 is well known: when reduced to the operations 1 to 8 , the table reproduces the algebra of the Gell-Mann matrices, i.e., the algebra of the generators of the Lie group SU(3).

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 178

(158)

248

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

TA B L E 10 The multiplication table for the generators 1 to 8 , and for the additional, linearly dependent

operations 9 = 3 /2 8 3 /2 and 10 = 3 /2 + 8 3 /2 that are not generators.

10

2/3
+8 /3

i3

i2

6 /2
+i7 /2

i6 /2
+7 /2

1 /2
+i2 /2

4 /2
+i5 /2

i4 /2
+5 /2

1 /2
+i2 /2

1 /3

i3

2/3
+8 /3

i1

i6 /2
7 /2

6 /2
+i7 /2

i1 /2
2 /2

i4 /2
+5 /2

4 /2
i5 /2

i1 /2
+2 /2

2 /3

i2

i1

2/3
+8 /3

4 /2
+i5 /2

i4 /2 1/3 3 /3 6 /2
+5 /2
+9 /3
i7 /2

i6 /2 1/3 + 3 /3 3 /3
7 /2
+10 /3

4 /2
i5 /2

2/3 + 3 /2
8 /23

i9

i5

1 /2
+i2 /2

i1 /2
2 /2

4 /2
i5 /2

4 /23
i 3 5 /2

i6 /2 6 /2
+7 /2 i7 /2

i4 /2
+5 /2

i9

2/3 + 3 /2
8 /23

i4

i1 /2
+2 /2

1 /2
+i2 /2

i4 /2
5 /2

i 3 4 /2
5 /23

1 /2 i1 /2 1/3 3 /3
i2 /2 2 /2
+9 /3

i5

i4

+4 /2 i4 /2
i5 /2 +5 /2

6 /2
+i7 /2

1 /2
i2 /2

i1 /2
+2 /2

6 /2
+i7 /2

2/3 3 /2
8 /23

i10

i7

6 /23
i 3 7 /2

i4 /2 4 /2
+5 /2 +i5 /2

i6 /2
7 /2

i1 /2
2 /2

1 /2
i2 /2

i6 /2
+7 /2

i10

2/3 3 /2
8 /23

i6

i 3 6 /2
7 /23

10

1 /2 i1 /2 1/3 + 3 /3 4 /2
+i2 /2 2 /2
10 /3
+i5 /2

i7

i6

2/3 3 /3
+9 /3

1
+9

1 /3 2 /3

1
+9

2/3
8 /3

3 /3

2/3 + 23 /3 6 /2
+9 /3
i7 /2

i4 /2 1/3 9 /3
5 /2
+10 /3

4 /23 i 3 4 /2
+i 3 5 /2 5 /23

1
+10

i6 /2 1/3 9 /3
+7 /2
+10 /3

6 /23 i 3 6 /2
+i 3 7 /2 7 /23

1
+10

0 1 0
cos /2 i sin /2 0
1 = 1 0 0 , D1 () = ei1 /2 = i sin /2 cos /2 0 ,
0 0 0
0
0
1
E1 = e

i1 /2

0 i 0
= i 0 0
0 0 1

free pdf le available at [Link]

The Gell-Mann matrices 1 to 8 are complex 33 matrices that form the fundamental
3-dimensional representation of SU(3). In fact, the Gell-Mann matrices are a specific and
conventional choice of matrices that fulfils the multiplication table. The Gell-Mann matrices, the corresponding transformations Dn for general angles and the transformations
En for the finite angle are given by:

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

6 /2 i6 /2
i7 /2 7 /2

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

the strong nuclear interaction and the third reidemeister move

249

0 i 0
cos /2 sin /2 0
2 = i 0 0 , D2 () = ei2 /2 = sin /2 cos /2 0 ,
0 0 0
0
0
1
E2 = e

i2 /2

0 1 0
= 1 0 0
0 0 1

1 0 0
cos /2 + i sin /2
0
0
0
cos /2 i sin /2 0 ,
3 = 0 1 0 , D3 () = ei3 /2 =
0 0 0
0
0
1
i 0 0
E3 = ei3 /2 = 0 i 0
0 0 1

0 0 i
E4 = ei4 /2 = 0 1 0
i 0 0

0 0 1
E5 = ei5 /2 = 0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 0
1
0
0
6 = 0 0 1 , D6 () = ei6 /2 = 0 cos /2 i sin /2 ,
0 1 0
0 i sin /2 cos /2

0 0 0
1
0
0
7 = 0 0 i , D7 () = ei7 /2 = 0 cos /2 sin /2 ,
0 i 0
0 sin /2 cos /2
E7 = e

i7 /2

1 0 0
= 0 0 1
0 1 0

free pdf le available at [Link]

1 0 0
E6 = ei6 /2 = 0 0 i
0 i 0

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

0 0 i
cos /2 0 sin /2
i5 /2
0
1
0 ,
=
5 = 0 0 0 , D5 () = e
i 0 0
sin /2 0 cos /2

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

0 0 1
cos /2 0 i sin /2
1
0 ,
4 = 0 0 0 , D4 () = ei4 /2 = 0
1 0 0
i sin /2 0 cos /2

250

8 =

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

1 0 0
1
0 1 0 ,
3 0 0 2
D8 () = e3 i8 /2 =

cos /2 + i sin /2
0
0
0
cos /2 + i sin /2
0
,
0
0
cos i sin

i 0 0
E9 = D9 () = 0 1 0
0 0 i

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 292

1 0 0
(160)
E10 = D10 () = 0 i 0
0 0 i
follow from linear combinations of 3 and 8 ; in particular, we have 3 + 9 + 10 = 0, as
illustrated in Figure 65. Therefore, 9 and 10 are not Gell-Mann matrices.
We can conclude: in a region with three strands crossing each other, the eight linearly
independent, generalized slides that can be applied to that region define the group SU(3).
In other words, the group SU(3) follows from the third Reidemeister move. In the same way
as for the other gauge groups, we find that particles, and fermions in particular, can be
subject to an SU(3) gauge interaction. In experiments, this interaction is called the strong
nuclear interaction. Like for the other interactions, a particle will only interact strongly if
its tangle is not too symmetric, because in the symmetric case, averaged over time, there
will be no net interaction. We will clarify the details below, when we discuss the specific
tangles of the various elementary matter particles.
Physically, the eight slides defined by their corresponding Gell-Mann matrices represent the effects of the eight gluons, the intermediate vector bosons of the strong interaction, that can act on a fermion. Figure 67 illustrates the correspondence. We saw a similar
correspondence in the other gauge interactions. In the electromagnetic interaction, the
intermediate vector boson, the photon, can be described as an strand that continuously
performs a U(1) operation, i.e., a rotation. In case of the weak interaction, a weak inter-

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

0 0 0
1
0
0
0
10 = 0 1 0 , D10 () = ei10 /2 = 0 cos /2 + i sin /2
,
0 0 1
0
0
cos /2 i sin /2

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

i 0 0
(159)
E8 = D8 () = 0 i 0
0 0 1
There are eight Gell-Mann matrices n , i.e., eight generators, with 33 complex elements.
Each matrix n corresponds to a linearly independent tangle deformation. The fourfold
concatenation of each matrix in is the identity matrix except for the case i8 . There is
no ninth or tenth Gell-Mann matrix. As already mentioned, such a matrix would not be
linearly independent from the first eight ones. Indeed, the two matrices deduced from
3 with symmetry considerations, namely
1 0 0
cos /2 i sin /2 0
0
i9 /2
0
0
0
0
1
0
, D9 () = e
=
,
9 =
0 0 1
0
0 cos /2 + i sin /2

the strong nuclear interaction and the third reidemeister move

251

From the Reidemeister III move to the gluon:

continuously
ongoing
rotation

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 242

free pdf le available at [Link]

mediate vector boson can be described as a strand that continuously performs an SU(2)
operation, i.e. an operation from the belt trick. (This is most evident in the unbroken
form of the weak bosons.) Analogously, in the strong interaction, a gluon, or strong intermediate vector boson, can be can be described as a strand that continuously performs
an SU(3) operation, or generalized slide move.
The slide model for the strong interaction implies that gluons must be single unknotted strands that impart slide-rotations to tangle cores. A simple image is to describe real
gluons as loops that rotate two strands during the slide, as shown in Figure 67 and in
Figure 63. The single strand model for gluons also reproduces their vanishing mass and
their spin 1 value.
The SU(3) multiplication table confirms that the eight gluons transform according to
the adjoint (and faithful) representation of SU(3). Each row or column in a Gell-Mann
matrix thus corresponds to one of the three colours of the strong interaction. In short,
we thus deduced the central properties of quantum chromodynamics from the strand
model.
As mentioned, the eight gluons transform according to the adjoint (and faithful) representation of SU(3). The slide concatenation table shows that two general slides do not
commute and do not anticommute. The group SU(3) is non-Abelian. This implies that
gluons interact among themselves. Both the multiplication table and the strand model
for gluons imply that two interacting gluons can yield either one or two new gluons, but
not more. This is illustrated in Figure 68. Because gluons do not change the topology
of the particle tangles they act upon, but only change their shape, gluons are predicted
to be massless in the strand model, despite interacting among themselves. And because
gluons interact among themselves, free gluons do not appear in nature.
We also find that slides i.e., gluon emission or absorption never change the topology of tangles, and in particular, of matter tangles. Therefore, the strand model predicts that the strong interactions conserve electric charge, baryon number, weak isospin,
flavour, spin and all parities. This is indeed observed. In particular, there is a natural

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

F I G U R E 67 An illustration of the correspondence between generalized slides or Reidemeister III

moves and gluons.

252

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

A triple gluon vertex :

anti-green

green
t2

red
anti-blue

t2

vacuum
t1

red

t1
time

anti-blue
The quartic gluon vertex :

t2

anti-green

green

red

t1

t1
time

anti-blue

lack of C, P and CP violation by slides. This is precisely what is observed for the strong
interaction.
In summary, we have shown that in the strand model, the strong interaction and its
properties appear automatically. More precisely, the strand model implies that the Lagrangian of strongly interacting fermions has a SU(3) gauge invariance that is due to
generalized slide deformations.

Challenge 154 ny

The argument that leads to the gluon tangle is somewhat hand-waving. Can you give a
better argument? Why do the last two gluons have infinite energy, despite having linedup tails? Or are the gluon tangles not correct at all?
The gluon L agrangian
Gluons are massless particles with spin 1. As a result, the field intensities and the Lagrangian are determined in the same way as for photons: energy density is the square
of crossing density, i.e., the square of field intensity. Since there are 8 gluons, the La-

free pdf le available at [Link]

Open issue: better arguments for the gluon tangles

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

F I G U R E 68 The two types of self-interaction of gluons in the strand model. The interactions include

tail-shifting.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

t2

the strong nuclear interaction and the third reidemeister move

253

Strong charge, or colour :

Random slides affect
only rational tangles
with broken threefold
tail symmetry :

Random slides
do not affect
knotted tangles :

Random slides
affect gluons :

Random slides
do not affect photons :

grangian density becomes

(161)

where the gluon field intensities, with two greek indices, are given naturally as
a
= Ga G a f abc G b Gc ,
G

Page 217

(162)

and fabc are the structure constants of SU(3) that can be deduced from the multiplication
table given above. The quantities G a , with one greek index, are the gluon vector potentials. The last term in the definition of the field intensities corresponds to the diagram
of Figure 68. The Lagrangian is simply the natural generalization from the U(1) case of
photons to the SU(3) case of gluons. In short, we obtain the usual free gluon Lagrangian
from the strand model.

Surrounded by a bath of gluons that randomly induce slides of all kinds, not all fermion
cores will change their rotation state. Generally speaking, particles have colour if a bath
of random gluons changes their phase. Only tangles which lack some symmetry will
therefore possess colour charge. Tangle that are symmetric will be neutral, or white.
Which symmetry is important here?
We see directly that the photon tangle is not sensitive to a gluon bath. The same is
valid for W and Z bosons. The strand model predicts that they are colour-neutral, i.e.,
that they are white, as is observed.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Colour charge

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

1 8 a
Lgluons = G
Ga
4 a=1

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

F I G U R E 69 Tangles with and without colour charge.

254

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

Strong interaction diagram :

real
quark

Feynman diagram :
time average
of crossing
switches

virtual
gluon

real
quark

t2

virtual
gluon
t2

core is
rotated by
2/3 around
vertical axis

t1
t1

quark
time

Coloured rational tangles automatically have three possible colours:

The three colour charges are the three possibilities to map a tangle to the
three belt model.* Each colour is thus a particular orientation in ordinary
Challenge 155 ny

* Can you define a topological knot invariant that reproduces colour charge? Or even a geometric knot
invariant that does so?

free pdf le available at [Link]

A fermion tangle has colour charge if its three-belt model is not symmetric
for rotations by 2/3.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

As just mentioned, the multiplication properties given above shows that gluons interact among themselves and thus that they have colour charge. In fact, group theory
shows that their properties are best described by saying that gluons have a colour and an
anticolour; this is the simplest way to describe the representation to which they belong.
Fermions behave differently. In the strand model, a fermion has colour charge if the
corresponding triple belt model is affected by large numbers of random gluons. The first
tangles that come to mind are tangles made of three strands, such as the simple tangles
shown in Figure 65. But a short investigation shows that such tangles are colour-neutral,
or white. We will see below that this implies that leptons are colour-neutral, or white.
In contrast, a rational fermion tangle made of two strands does not suffer this fate. In a
bath of gluon strands that induce slides, i.e., third Reidemeister moves, a general rational
tangle made of two strands is expected to be influenced, and thus to be colour-charged.
Rational tangles made of two strands are the simplest possible tangles. An example is
shown in Figure 70. Such tangles break the three-fold symmetry of the three-belt structure, and are thus colour-charged. We will show below how these tangles are related to
quarks. We can thus say:

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

F I G U R E 70 The Feynman diagram of the strong interaction for a quark. The upper triplet of tails
correspond to the three belts.

the strong nuclear interaction and the third reidemeister move

255

space.

Page 298

If we explore more complicated types of tangles of two strands, such as prime tangles or
locally knotted tangles, we find that their colour depends on their structure. If the knots
are reduced with overcrossing as much as possible, the colour of such a complicated
tangle is the colour of the rational tangle that we obtain after the reduction. The strand
model thus predicts that rational tangles made of two strands are the basic colour states.
And indeed, in nature, quarks are the only fermions with colour charge.
Properties of the strong interaction

The L agrangian of Q CD

/ mq c 2 qq )q
LQCD = q (icD
q

1 8 a
G G ,
4 a=1 a

(163)

where the index q counts the coloured fermion, i.e., the quark. In this Lagrangian density,
/ is now the SU(3) gauge covariant derivative
D
(164)

where is the gauge coupling, a are the generators of SU(3), i.e., the Gell-Mann matrices
given above, and the G a are, as before, the gluon vector potentials. The last term in the
covariant derivative corresponds to the Feynman diagram and the strand diagram of
Figure 70. This is the Lagrangian density of QCD.
In summary: the strand model reproduces QCD. However, we have not yet deduced
the number and masses mq of the quarks, nor the strong gauge coupling .

free pdf le available at [Link]

/ = / G a a ,
D

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

We started from the idea that tangle core deformations lead to phase redefinitions. We
then found that slides imply that the strong interaction Lagrangian for matter and for
radiation fields is SU(3) gauge invariant. If we include these two gauge invariances into
the fermion Lagrangian density from the Dirac equation, we get

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

In the strand model, all interactions are deformations of the tangle core. Specifically, the
strong interaction is due to exchange of slides. Particles have strong charge, or colour, if
their tangles lack the three-belt symmetry just specified. In the case of coloured fermions,
colour change is a change of the mapping to the three-belt model, i.e., a change of orientation of the tangle in space.
If we use the strand definition of the strong interaction, visual inspection shows us
that slide exchanges, and thus gluon exchanges, are deformations that conserve topology;
therefore gluon exchange conserves colour. Since the strong interaction conserves the
topology of all involved tangles and knots, the strong interaction also conserves electric
charge, parity, and, as we shall see below, all other quantum numbers except colour
itself, of course. All these results correspond to observation.

256

9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

Renormalization of the strong interaction

Page 312, page 320

Curiosities and fun challenges about SU(3)

Vol. V, page 281

Ref. 181

Challenge 156 ny

We have discussed the shape deformations that lead to the SU(3) group. But what are the
precise phase choices for a crossing that lead to SU(3) invariance?

Challenge 157 ny

Do the two linear independent gluons with lined-up tails have the same properties as the
other six gluons?

Deducing the Lie groups U(1), SU(2) and SU(3) directly from a basic principle contradicts another old dream. Many scholars hoped that the three gauge groups have something to do with the sequence complex numbers, quaternions and octonions. The strand
model quashes this hope or at least changes it in an almost unrecognizable way.

Challenge 159 e

The tangle for the W and Z bosons have no colour charge. Can you confirm this?

free pdf le available at [Link]

Challenge 158 s

Three strands can cross each other also in another way, such that the three strands are
interlocked. Why can we disregard the situation in this section?

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Deducing the Lie group SU(3) from a three-dimensional model is a new result. In particular, deducing the gauge group SU(3) as a deformation gauge group is new. Frank
Wilczek, Alfred Shapere, Alden Mead, Jerry Marsden and several others have confirmed
that before this discovery, only the geometric Lie group SO(3) and its subgroups had
been found in deformations. The fundamental principle of the strand model shows its
power by overcoming this limitation. (Apparently, nobody had even realized that the
belt trick already implies the possibility of an SU(2) gauge group for deformations.)

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 316

The slide move description of the strong interaction implies that only three Feynman diagrams are possible: one QCD Feynman diagram is possible for quarks, and only the triple
and the quadruple vertices are possible among gluons. This limited range of options allowed us to deduce the QCD Lagrangian. The limited range of options is also essential for
the renormalization of QCD. The strand model thus automatically ensures that the strong
interaction is renormalizable.
In short, the strand model provides a new underlying picture for the Feynman diagrams of the strong interaction, but does not change the physical results at any energy
scale accessible in the laboratory. In particular, the running of the strong coupling constant is reproduced. Indeed, in the strand model, a flux-tubelike bond between the
quarks appears automatically, as we will see when exploring hadrons. At high kinetic energies, the bond has little effect, so that quarks behave more like free particles. In short,
we will find that the strand model reproduces asymptotic freedom and also provides an
argument for quark confinement.

the strong nuclear interaction and the third reidemeister move

257

Challenge 160 ny

The Lie group SU(3) is also the symmetry group of the three-dimensional harmonic oscillator. What is the geometric relation to the Lie group SU(3) induced by slides?

Challenge 161 e

Confirm that the strand model does not contradict the ColemanMandula theorem on
the possible conserved quantities in quantum field theory.

Challenge 162 e

Confirm that the strand model does not contradict the WeinbergWitten theorem on
the possible massless particles in quantum field theory.

Are the Wightman axioms of quantum field theory fulfilled by the strand model with
interactions? The HaagKastler axioms? Is Haags theorem circumvented?

Ref. 182
Challenge 164 ny

Show that the BCFW recursion relation for tree level gluon scattering follows from the
strand model.
Summary on the strong interaction and experimental predictions

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 330

free pdf le available at [Link]

We have deduced the Lagrangian density of QCD from the strand model with the help of
slides. Is there a difference between the strand model and QCD? No, not as long as gravity
plays no role. The strand model predicts that gravitation only come into play near the
Planck energy c 5 /4G . And indeed, accelerator experiments have not yet found any
effect that contradicts QCD, and thus no effect that contradicts the strand model of the
strong interaction.
The strand model also predicts that the strong interaction is naturally CP-invariant.
This means that axions particles invented to explain the invariance are unnecessary:
as shown below, the strand model even predicts that they do not to exist. So far, both
predictions agree with experiment.
The strand model of the strong interaction implies that the SU(3) gauge symmetry
is valid at all energies. No other gauge group plays a role in the strong interaction. The
strand model thus predicts again that there is no grand unification in nature, and thus no
larger gauge group. Often discussed groups such as SU(5), SO(10), E6, E7, E8 or SO(32)
are predicted not to apply to nature. Also this prediction is not contradicted by experiment.
The strand model further predicts that the combination of gravity and quantum theory turns all Planck units into limit values. The strand model thus predicts a maximum
strong field value given by the Planck force divided by the strong charge of the quark. All
physical systems including all astrophysical objects, such as neutron stars, quark stars,
gamma-ray bursters or quasars are predicted to conform to this field limit. So far, this
prediction is validated by experiment.
In summary, we have shown that Reidemeister III moves or slides in tangle cores
lead to an SU(3) gauge invariance and a Lagrangian that reproduces the strong interac-

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 163 d

258

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9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

tion. Strong charge is related to the topology of certain rational tangles. In this way, we
have deduced the origin and most observed properties of the strong interaction. We have
thus settled another issue of the millennium list. However, we still need to deduce the
tangles and the number of quarks, their masses and the strength of the strong coupling.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014
free pdf le available at [Link]

summary on millennium issues abou t gauge interactions

259

summary on millennium issues abou t gauge

interactions
Page 143

Prediction about the number of interactions

Ref. 180

Unification of interactions
Ref. 142

We can also state that there is only one Reidemeister move. This becomes especially clear
if we explore the three-dimensional shape of knots instead of their two-dimensional diagrams: all three Reidemeister moves can be deduced from the same deformation of a
single strand. Only the projection on a two-dimensional diagram creates the distinction
between the three moves. In the terms of the strand model, this means that all gauge

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Already in 1926, Kurt Reidemeister proved an important theorem about possible deformations of knots or tangles that lead to changes of crossings. When tangles are described
with two-dimensional diagrams, all possible deformations can be reduced to exactly three
moves, nowadays called after him. In the strand model, the two-dimensional tangle diagram describes what an observer sees about a physical system. Together with the equivalence of interactions as crossing-changing deformations, Reidemeisters theorem thus
proves that there are only three gauge interactions in nature. Searches for other gauge
interactions are predicted to fail, as they have up to now.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

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Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 141

At this point of our adventure, we have deduced gauge theory and the three known gauge
interactions from strands. Using only the fundamental principle, we explained the dimensions of space-time, the Planck units, the principle of least action, the appearance
of the gauge groups U(1), broken SU(2) and SU(3), of renormalization, of Lorentz symmetry and of permutation symmetry. Thus we have deduced all the concepts and all the
mathematical structures that are necessary to formulate the standard model of elementary particles.
In particular, the strand model provides a description and explanation of the three
gauge interactions at Planck scales that is based on deformations of strands. The deduction of the three gauge interactions given in this text, with the help of the Reidemeister
moves, is the first and, at present, the only explanation of the three gauge forces. No other
explanation or deduction has ever been given.
We have shown that quantum field theory is an approximation of the strand model.
The approximation appears when the strand diameter is neglected; quantum field theory
is thus valid for all energies below the Planck scale. In other words, in contrast to many
other attempts at unification, the strand model is not a generalization of quantum field
theory. The strand model for the three gauge interactions is also unmodifiable. These
properties are in agreement with our list of requirements for a final theory.
We have not yet deduced the complete standard model: we still need to show which
particles exist, which properties they have and what couplings they produce. However,
we have found that the strand model explains all the mathematical structures from the
millennium list that occur in quantum field theory and in the standard model of particle
physics. In fact, the strand explanation for the origin of the gauge interactions allows us
to make several much stronger statements.

260

interactions are in fact aspects of only one basic process, a fluctuation of strand shape,
and that the three gauge interactions are only distinguished by their projections. In this
way, the three gauge interactions are thus unified by the strand model.
The plane of projection used in a strand diagram defines a mapping from strand fluctuations to Reidemeister moves. The projection plane is defined by the observer, i.e.,
by the frame of reference. Depending on the projection plane, a general deformation is
mapped into different Reidemeister moves. At first sight, the nature of an interaction
whether electromagnetic, strong or weak seems to depend on the observer. In nature, however, this is not the case. But this contradiction is only apparent. In the strand
model, the nature of interaction of a particle results from the type of asymmetry of its
tangle core. Certain strand deformations do not lead to interactions, because their effects
are suppressed by the averaging of short-time fluctuations underlying every observation.
In other words, the averaging process at the basis of observations also ensures that interactions are effectively observer-independent at low energy.
In short, the strand model provides a natural unification of the interactions. And this
unification of the interactions differs completely from any past proposal. The final test,
of course, can only be provided by experiment.
Predictions about grand unification and supersymmetry

No new observable gravity effects in particle physics

Page 8

In the cube structure of physics shown in Figure 1, the transition from the final, unified
description to quantum field theory occurs by neglecting gravity, i.e., by assuming flat
space-time. The same transition occurs in the strand model, where neglecting gravity in
addition requires neglecting the strand diameter. In this way, the gravitational constant
G disappears completely from the description of nature.

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Page 141
Page 368

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 364

The three gauge interactions are due to the three Reidemeister moves. Therefore, the
strand model asserts that there is no single gauge group for all interactions: there is
no so-called grand unification. The absence of grand unification implies the absence of
large proton decay rates, the absence of additional, still undiscovered gauge bosons, the
absence of neutronantineutron oscillations, and the absence of sizeable electric dipole
moments in elementary particles. All these searches are ongoing at present; the strand
model predicts that they yield null results.
Reidemeister moves are confined to three spatial dimensions. Indeed, the strand
model is based on exactly three spatial dimensions. There are no other, undetected dimensions. There is no supersymmetry and no supergravity. The strand model thus predicts the absence of all conjectured superparticles. The strand model also predicts the
absence of non-commutative space-time, even though, with some imagination, strands
can be seen as remotely related to that approach. In short, the strand model differs both
experimentally and theoretically from many unification proposals made in the twentieth
century.
In simple terms, the strand model predicts the absence of additional symmetries and
of additional space-time properties at high energy. These predictions are unpopular, but
they agree with our list of requirements for a final theory. And so far, all these predictions
agree with experiment.

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9 gauge interactions deduced from strands

summary on millennium issues abou t gauge interactions

Page 291

261

We can summarize our findings on quantum field theory also in the following way: the
strand model predicts that masses are the only observable effect of gravity in particle physics.
This result will be complemented below by a second, equally restrictive result that limits
the observable quantum effects in the study of gravity. In short, the strand model keeps
particle physics and general relativity almost completely separated from each other. This
is a consequence of the different effects of tail deformations and core deformations. The
resulting prediction of a lack of additional gravitational effects in particle physics agrees
with all experiments so far.
The status of our quest

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 143

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 154

In this chapter, we have deduced that strands predict exactly three interactions, because
interactions are deformations of tangle cores and because only three classes of such tangle core deformations exist. The three classes of deformations are given by the three
Reidemeister moves. Because of the properties of the Reidermeister moves, the three
interactions are described by a U(1), a broken SU(2) and a SU(3) gauge symmetry, respectively.
Strands also show that the three interactions are renormalizable, relativistically invariant, and that they follow the least action principle. Strands thus imply the three interaction Lagrangians of the standard model of particle physics. In addition, strands predict
the absence of other interactions, symmetries and space-time structures.
If we look at the millennium list of open issues in fundamental physics, we have now
solved all issues concerning the mathematical structures that appear in quantum field
theory and in the standard model of particle physics. All mathematical structures found
in quantum physics result from the fundamental principle of the strand model given above.
This is an intriguing result that induces to continue the exploration. Only two groups of
issues are still unexplained: the theory of general relativity and the spectrum of elementary particles. We proceed in this order.

free pdf le available at [Link]

C h a p t e r 10

GENER AL R EL ATIVIT Y DEDUCED

FROM STR ANDS

Flat space, special relativity and its limitations

Page 197

Page 61

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 85

We have seen above that any observer automatically introduces a 3+1-dimensional background space-time. We have also seen that in the case of quantum theory, physical spacetime, the space-time that is formed by the fluctuations of the vacuum strands, is naturally
3+1-dimensional and flat. In the absence of gravity, physical space and background space
coincide.
Using strands, we have deduced the invariant limit c for all energy speeds and shown
that it is realized only for free massless particles, such as photons. Strands also showed us
that massive particles move more slowly than light. In short, strands reproduce special
relativity.
The strand model thus predicts that pure special relativity is correct for all situations
and all energies in which gravity and quantum theory play no role. The strand model
also predicts that when gravity or quantum effects do play a role, general relativity or
quantum theory must be taken into account. This means that there is no domain of
nature in which intermediate descriptions are valid.
It is sometimes suggested that the invariant Planck energy limit for elementary particles might lead to a doubly special relativity that deviates from special relativity at high
particle energy. However, this suggestion is based on two assumptions: that at Planck
energy point masses are a viable approximation to particles, and that at Planck energy
vacuum and matter differ. In nature, and in the strand model, both assumptions are incorrect. Nature, as general relativity shows, does not allow the existence of point masses:
the densest objects in nature are black holes, and these are not point-like for any mass
value. Furthermore, at Planck energy, matter and vacuum cannot be distinguished. Put

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 194

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

eneral relativity describes the deformations of the vacuum. In everyday life,

ravitation is the only such effect that we observe. But on astronomical scale,
ravity shows more phenomena: vacuum can deflect light, producing gravitational lenses, can wobble, giving gravitational waves, and can accelerate, yielding the
darkness of the sky and the fascinating black holes. All these observations require general
relativity for their description. Therefore, general relativity must be part of any unified
description of nature.
In the following, we deduce the field equations of general relativity, the entropy of
black holes and cosmology from the strand model. In fact, strands provide the simplest
known model of quantum gravity that allows these deductions.

general rel ativit y deduced from strands

first mass

gravitational
interaction
~1/r2

263

second mass

distance r

Ref. 183

simply, no system at Planck energy can be described without general relativity or without
quantum gravity. In short, the strand model predicts that the approach of doubly special
relativity cannot be correct.
Classical gravitation

Challenge 165 e

The tail crossings fluctuate; averaged of time, the fluctuations lead to a crossing switch
density. The resulting energy density where energy is the number of crossing switches
per time changes like the inverse distance from the central mass. This is the reason
for the 1/r-dependence of the gravitational potential and the 1/r 2 -dependence of gravitational acceleration. (This applies to all those cases where curvature is negligible.) In
simple words, in the strand model, the inverse square dependence of gravitational acceleration is due to the three-dimensionality of space combined with the one-dimensionality

free pdf le available at [Link]

Gravitation is due to the fluctuations of tail crossings.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

In nature, at low speeds and in the flat space limit, gravitation is observed to lead to an
acceleration of test masses that changes as the inverse square distance from the gravitating mass. This acceleration is called universal gravitation or classical gravitation. It is an
excellent approximation for the solar system and for many star systems throughout the
universe.
Universal gravitation is the weak field limit of gravitation. Gravitation appears because
any mass M generates vacuum curvature around it. Equivalently, any mass generates vacuum energy, around it. The strand model reproduces this connection. In the strand
model, every space-time effect, including gravitation, is due to the behaviour of tangle
tails. In the strand model, every mass, i.e., every system of tangles, is connected to the
border of space by tails. The nearer a mass is to a second mass, the more frequently
the tails of the two masses cross and get tangled. Figure 71 illustrates the situation. The
strand model states:

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

F I G U R E 71 Gravitational attraction as result of strands.

264

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10 general rel ativit y deduced from strands

of strands.
The strand model also shows that masses and energies are always positive: every tangle has tails. The model also shows qualitatively that larger masses produce stronger attraction, as they generally have more tails. We will show below that the effective number
density of tails is indeed proportional to the mass.
In the strand model, crossing switches are not only related to energy; they are also
related to entropy. A slightly different but equivalent view on gravitation therefore
appears when we put the stress on the entropic aspect.
Deducing universal gravitation from black hole properties

Ref. 184

T=

M 2G
E
=
.
2S
A kc

(166)

Inserting this expression into the above expression (165) for the FullingDaviesUnruh
acceleration, we get
M
(168)
a=G 2 .
R
This is universal gravitation, as discovered by Robert Hooke and popularized by Isaac
* An inertial or a freely falling mass (or observer) thus measures a vanishing vacuum temperature.

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Neglecting spatial curvature, we can set A = 4R2 ; this gives a temperature at the enclosing sphere given by
M G
.
(167)
T= 2
R 2 kc

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

where k is the Boltzmann constant. This relation is called the FullingDaviesUnruh effect and relates vacuum temperature and local acceleration.* In the strand model, the vacuum temperature at the surface of the enclosing sphere is given by the crossing switches
that the tails starting at the mass induce there. We can determine the vacuum temperature by dividing the energy E contained inside the sphere by twice the maximum possible
entropy S for that sphere. This maximum value is the entropy the sphere would have if it
were a black hole horizon; it can be calculated by the strand model, as we will see shortly.
This calculation yields the expression

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 269

Black holes have entropy. This implies universal gravitation. There are at least two ways
to explain this connection.
An especially clear explanation was recently given by Erik Verlinde. In this view, gravity appears because any mass M generates an effective vacuum temperature around it. A
gravitating mass M attracts test masses because during the fall of a test mass, the total
entropy decreases. It is not hard to describe these ideas quantitatively.
Given a spherical surface A enclosing a gravitating mass M at its centre, the acceleration a of a test mass located somewhere on the surface is given by the local vacuum
temperature T:
2 kc
,
(165)
a=T

general rel ativit y deduced from strands

Page 274

265

Newton. Since spatial curvature was neglected, and the central mass was assumed at
rest, this expression is only valid for large distances and small speeds. We have thus
deduced universal gravity from the effects of gravitating masses on vacuum temperature.
Below, we generalize this sequence of arguments to the relativistic case and deduce the
field equations of general relativity.
An alternative deduction of universal gravitation from black hole entropy is the following. The gravitational force F on a test mass m is given by the vacuum temperature
created by the central mass M and by the change of entropy S per length that is induced
by the motion of the test mass:
dS
F =T
.
(169)
dx

2 kc
dS
=m
.
dx

(170)

Using the temperature found above in expression (167), we get an expression for the
gravitational force given by
Mm
(171)
F =G 2 .
R

Summary on universal gravitation from strands

Page 269

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 185

The last explanations of universal gravitation started from the temperature and from the
entropy of black hole and of the vacuum. In the strand model, these temperature and
entropy values are a consequence of the underlying strand crossing switches; we will
show this shortly. Universal gravitation thus (again) appears as an effect of the crossing
switches induced by masses.
We thus have several explanations of universal gravitation using strands. We have deduced universal gravitation from the energy of strands, from the temperature of strands
and from the entropy of strands. We also deduced universal gravitation from the maximum force, which strands fulfil as well. In short, strands explain the origin of universal
gravitation.
Incidentally, modelling mass as a source for strand crossing switches is remotely
reminiscent of Georges-Louis Lesages eighteenth-century model of gravitation. Lesage
proposed that gravity appears because many tiny, usually unnoticed corpuscules push
masses together. In fact, as we will see shortly, there is a similarity between these assumed tiny corpuscules and virtual gravitons. And interestingly, all criticisms of Lesages

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 32

This is universal gravitation again. This time we have thus deduced universal gravitation
from the entropy generated by gravitating masses.
We note that the temperature and entropy of black holes are limit values. We can thus
say that universal gravitation is a consequence of natures limit values.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

The change of entropy dS/dx when a test mass m moves by a distance x can be determined from the strand model in a simple manner. When a mass m moves by a (corrected) Compton wavelength, in the strand model, the mass has rotated by a full turn:
the entropy change is thus 2k per (corrected) Compton wavelength. Thus we have

266

10 general rel ativit y deduced from strands

The partial link :

2R

axis

other vacuum strands

Vol. I, page 202

Curved space
In nature, observation shows that physical space is not flat around masses, i.e., in the presence of gravity. Near mass and energy, physical space is curved. Observations also show
that curved space-time remains 3+1-dimensional. The observation of this type of curvature was predicted long before it was measured, because curvature follows unambiguously when the observer-invariance of the speed of light c and the observer-invariance
of the gravitational constant G are combined.
We continue directly with the strand model of spatial curvature and show that all
observations are reproduced.

In the case of curvature, physical space-time, which is due to averaged strand

crossing switches, differs from flat background space-time, which usually
corresponds to the tangent or to the asymptotic space-time. In Figure 72,
the grey background colour can be taken as visualization of the background
space.
Mass is a localized defect in space and is due to knotted or tangled strands.

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Curvature (of physical space-time) is due to simple, unknotted and weakly

localized defects in the tangle of strands that make up the vacuum. An example is shown in Figure 72.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

model then cease to hold. First, there is no deceleration of free masses in inertial motion, thanks to the built-in special-relativistic invariance. Secondly, there is no heating
of masses, because the entangled tails represent virtual gravitons that scatter elastically.
Thirdly, and most of all, by replacing the corpuscules ultra-mondains of Lesage by virtual
gravitons and finally by strands we can predict an additional effect of gravity that is
not described by the inverse square dependence: space-time curvature.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

F I G U R E 72 A schematic model of the fundamental defect, and thus the fundamental type of curvature:
the partial link.

general rel ativit y deduced from strands

General horizon :
(side view)

267

Black hole :

F I G U R E 73 A schematic model of a general and a spherical horizon as tight weaves, as pictured by a

distant observer. In the strand model there is nothing, no strands and thus no space, behind a horizon.

Energy in a volume is the number of crossing switches per unit time. As a

result, mass is equivalent to energy. As a second result, energy also curves
space.
Gravitation is the space-time curvature originating from compact regions
with mass or energy.

Vol. II, page 274

In general relativity, another concept plays a fundamental role. In the strand model we
have:
A horizon is a tight, one-sided weave of strands.
Therefore, there are no strands behind the horizon. This implies that behind a horizon,
there is no matter, no light, no space and no time just nothing. Indeed, this is the
experience of any observer about a horizon. A horizon is thus a structure that limits
physical space. It does not limit background space.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Horizons and black holes

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 332

These natural definitions show that curvature is due to strand configurations. In particular, curvature is built of unknotted i.e., massless defects. The massless defects leading
to curvature are usually dynamic: they evolve and change. Such curvature defects virtual gravitons originate at regions containing matter or energy. In fact, the curvature of
space around masses is a natural result of fluctuations of the strands that make up matter
tangles.
We note that curved space, being a time average, is continuous and unique. Vacuum or
curved space, more precisely, curved physical space, thus differs from background space,
which is flat (and drawn in grey in the figures).
Incidentally, the distinction between physical and background space also avoids Einsteins hole argument; in fact, the distinction allows discussing it clearly, as only physical
space describes nature.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Thus mass curves space around it.

268

10 general rel ativit y deduced from strands

One particular type of horizon is well-known:

A black hole is a tight, one-sided and closed weave of strands.

Is there something behind a horizon?

The strand model allows us to calculate the energy content of a closed horizon. Energy is
action per unit time. In the strand model, the energy of a non-rotating spherical horizon
is given by the number Ncs of crossing switches per time unit. In a tight weave, crossing

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Energy of black hole horizons

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

A drawing of a horizon weave, such as the one of Figure 73, clearly points out the difference between the background space and the physical space. The background space is the
space we need for thinking, and is the space in which the drawing is set. The physical
space is the one that appears as a consequence of the averaging of the strand crossings.
Physical, curved space exists only on the observer side of the horizon. The physical space
around a black hole is curved; it agrees with the background space only at infinite distance from the horizon. But the main point remains: the strand model implies that there
is nothing, not even a singularity, inside a black hole horizon.
Horizons are obviously observer-dependent. Both the existence and the shape of a
horizon depends on the observer. As we will see, this happens in precisely the same way
as in usual general relativity. In the strand model, there is no contradiction between the
one observer who says that there is nothing behind a horizon, not even physical space,
and another observer, who does not observe a horizon, and who says that there is something there. In the strand model, the two statements transform into each other under
change of viewpoint. The transformation between the two viewpoints is a deformation
of the involved strands.
We note that the equivalence of viewpoints and the statement that there is nothing
behind a horizon is based on the combination of general relativity and quantum theory.
If we would continue thinking that space and time is a manifold of points thus disregarding quantum theory these statements would not follow.
In summary, one-sided tight weaves are a natural definition of horizons.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

In principle, closed horizons can have any shape. The simplest case is the spherical, nonrotating horizon, which defines the Schwarzschild black hole. It is illustrated on the righthand side of Figure 73.
If an observer is located outside a spherical horizon, the strand model states that there
is nothing inside the horizon: no matter, no light and no vacuum. The strand model
thus provides a simple and drastic view of black hole horizons. Figure 73 also illustrates
that the concept of radius (or size) of a black hole has to be approached with the (wellknown) care. In general, the size of a structure made of strands is the number of crossings
encountered when travelling through it. However, an observer cannot travel through a
black hole: there are no strands inside, thus there is no vacuum there! The size of a black
hole must therefore be defined indirectly. The simplest way is to take the square root
of the area, divided by 4, as the radius. Thus the strand model, like general relativity,
requires that the size of a compact horizon be defined by travelling around it.

general rel ativit y deduced from strands

Challenge 166 e

switches cannot happen in parallel, but have to happen sequentially. As a result, a crossing switch propagates to the neighbouring Planck area on the surface. Since the horizon
weave is tight and the propagation speed is one crossing per crossing switch time, this
happens at the speed of light. In the time T that light takes to circumnavigate the sphere,
all crossings switch. We thus have:
E=

Challenge 167 e

269

Ncs 4R2 c 4
c4
=
=R
.
T
2R 4G
2G

(172)

The nature of black holes

Entropy of vacuum

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Despite the tight weaving, the strands making up a horizon are still fluctuating and moving: the weave shape and topology fluctuates. This fluctuating motion is the reason why
horizons in particular those of black holes have entropy.
The entropy of a horizon is given by the natural logarithm of the number of its possible microstates times k. Here we use the fundamental principle again: a crossing switch
defines the unit of entropy k. The flat and infinite vacuum has vanishing entropy, because the number of crossing switches is zero on average. In contrast, curved space and
horizons have nonvanishing entropy.
In the absence of gravity, the number of microstates of matter is determined as in
usual thermodynamics (thermostatics) by the behaviour of tangle cores.

free pdf le available at [Link]

The strand model also naturally implies the no-hair theorem. Since all strands are the
same, independently of the type of matter that formed or fell into the horizon, a black
hole has no characteristics other than mass, angular momentum and charge. Here we
used a result from the next chapter, when it will become clear that all elementary particles
are indeed made of the same featureless strands. Taking that result as given, we deduce
that flavour quantum numbers and particle number do not make sense for black holes.
We also deduce that weak and strong charge are not defined for black holes. For example,
strands explain naturally why neutral black holes made of antimatter and neutral black
holes made of matter do not differ, if their masses and angular momenta are the same.
In short, the strand model implies the no-hair theorem.
Horizons and black holes are borderline systems between space and matter. This borderline property must be fulfilled by every final theory. The strand model fulfils this
requirement: in the strand model, black holes can either be described as curved space or
as particles in free fall.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Strands thus imply the well-known relation between energy (or mass) and radius of
Schwarzschild black holes.
What is the origin of the crossing switches possible at a horizon of a black hole? This
is an interesting puzzle left to the reader.
The tight-weave model of horizons also illustrates and confirms the Penrose conjecture.
For a given mass, because of the minimum size of crossings, a spherical horizon has the
smallest possible diameter, compared to other possible shapes. This implies that, for a
given mass, spherical black holes are the densest objects in nature.

270

10 general rel ativit y deduced from strands

Side view of a black hole horizon :

Top view :
tail
leading to
additional
crossing

Planck area
under
consideration

n lPl

horizon

n lPl

strip

strip

F I G U R E 74 The entropy of black holes results from the number of possible crossing switches.

Entropy of horizons

S=A

Ref. 186

kc 3
ln 2 .
4G

(173)

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This is the well-known first approximation of black hole entropy: one bit per corrected
Planck area. In the strand model, the proportionality of entropy and area is a direct consequence of the extension of the strands. This proportionality is also well known from
studies of quantum gravity and of strings. In those approaches however, the relation
between the area proportionality and extension is less obvious.
For Schwarzschild black holes, the entropy value of expression (173) is not correct.
In the strand model, this incorrect value is explained as a consequence of neglecting
the effects of the strand tails. Indeed, additional contributions to the entropy appear at
a finite distance from the horizon, due to the crossing of the tails on their way to the
border of space, as shown in Figure 74. The actual entropy will thus be larger than the
first approximation, but still be proportional to the area A.
The correct proportionality factor between the area and the entropy of a black hole
results when the strand tails are taken into account. (The correction factor is called the
BarberoImmirzi parameter in the research literature on quantum gravity.) The calcula-

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Using the weave model of a horizon, illustrated in detail in Figure 74, we can now calculate the corresponding entropy. To a first approximation, on each (corrected) Planck
area of the horizon, the strands can cross in two different ways. The number N2 of Planck
areas is given by N 2 = Ac 3 /4G. The resulting number of microstates is 2N . As mentioned, in the strand model, the entropy is given by the natural logarithm of the number
of the possible microstates times k. This gives an entropy of a horizon of

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

In strong gravity, when the distinction between matter and space is not so clear-cut,
the number of microstates is determined by the possible crossing changes of the strands.
In strong gravity, only tails play a role. This can be seen most clearly in the case of black
holes.

general rel ativit y deduced from strands

tion is simplest for Schwarzschild black holes. By construction, a black hole with macroscopic radius R, being a tight weave, has R/lPl tails. For each given Planck area, there are,
apart from the basic, or lowest crossing, additional crossings above it, along the radial
direction, as shown in Figure 74. These additional crossings are due to the tails from
neighbouring and distant Planck areas.
Taking into effect all strand tails allows us to calculate the average number of crossings
above a given Planck area. The main point is to perform this calculation for all those
tails that start in a circular strip of Planck width centred around the Planck area under
consideration. We then add the probabilities for all possible circular strips. One such
circular strip is drawn in Figure 74.
The definition of horizons as tight weaves implies that a horizon with N 2 Planck areas
is made of N strands. This means that for each circular strip of radius nlPl , there is only
one strand that starts there and reaches spatial infinity as a tail.
For this tail, the average probability p that it crosses above the central Planck area
under consideration is
1
.
(174)
p=
n!
Summing over all strips, i.e., over all values n, we get a total of
n=0 1/n! = e = 2.71828...
microstates on and above the central Planck area under consideration. Thus the number
e replaces the number 2 of the first approximation. In other
words,
the number of horiN2
N2
zon microstates of a Schwarzschild black hole is not 2 , but e . As a consequence, the
entropy of a macroscopic Schwarzschild horizon becomes
kc 3
.
4G

(175)

Ref. 187

The strand model thus makes a specific prediction for the logarithmic correction of
the entropy of a Schwarzschild black hole. This final prediction of the strand model
agrees with many (but not all) calculations using superstrings or other quantum gravity
approaches.
We see that the entropy result (175) is due to the extension of the fundamental entities

free pdf le available at [Link]

This is the BekensteinHawking expression for the entropy of Schwarzschild black holes.
The strand model thus reproduces this well-known result. With this explanation of the
difference between 2 and e = 2.71828..., the strand model confirms the old idea that the
entropy of a black hole is mainly located at and near the horizon.
The above calculation, however, counts some states more than once. Topologically
identical spherical horizons can differ in the direction of their north pole and in their
state of rotation around the northsouth axis. If a spherical horizon is made of N strands,
it has N 2 possible physical orientations for the north pole and N possible angular orien2
tations around the northsouth axis. The actual number of microstates is thus e N /N 3 .
Using the relation between N 2 and the surface area A, namely A = N 2 4G/c 3 , we get
the final result
kc 3 3k A c 3

ln
.
(176)
S=A
4G
2
4G

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

S=A

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271

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10 general rel ativit y deduced from strands

of the strand model and to the three dimensions of space. If either of these properties
were not fulfilled, the entropy of black holes would not result.
Temperature, radiation and evaporation of black holes
The strands that make up a horizon fluctuate in shape. Since every horizon contains
energy, the shape fluctuations imply energy fluctuations. In other words, horizons are
predicted to have a temperature. The value of the temperature can be deduced from
the strand model by noting that the characteristic size of the fluctuations for a spherical
horizon is the radius R of the horizon. Therefore we have
kT =

c
.
2R

(177)

Using the definition of surface gravity as a = c 2 /R, we get

Ref. 57, Ref. 58

a
.
2kc

(178)

The strand model predicts that horizons have a temperature proportional to their surface
gravity. This result has been known since 1973.
All hot bodies radiate. The strand model thus predicts that Schwarzschild black holes
radiate thermal radiation of the horizon temperature, with power and wavelength
P = 2c 2 /R2 , R .

(179)

Black hole limits

free pdf le available at [Link]

In many ways, black holes are extreme physical systems. Indeed, black holes realize many
limits of nature; in this they resemble light, which realizes the speed limit. We now explore some of them.
For a general physical system, not necessarily bound by a horizon, the definitions of
energy and entropy with strands allow some interesting conclusions. The entropy of a
system is the result of the number of crossing possibilities. The energy of a system is
the number of crossing changes per unit time. A large entropy is thus only possible if a
system shows many crossing changes per time. Since the typical system time is given by

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

This is a well-known consequence of the temperature of black holes.

As thermodynamic systems, horizons follow thermodynamics. The strand model implies that in black hole radiation, there is no information loss. In the strand model, black
hole radiation and evaporation occur by reduction of the number of strands that make
up the horizon. The strand model thus predicts that black holes evaporate completely,
until only elementary particles are left over.
In short, strand model reproduce all aspects of black hole evaporation. The strand
model also shows that there is no information loss in this process.

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T=

general rel ativit y deduced from strands

273

the circumference of the system, the entropy of a physical system is therefore limited:
S ER 2k/c .

This relation is known as Bekensteins entropy bound; it thus also follows from the strand
model. The equality is realized only for black holes.
Horizons are the limit systems of general relativity. In the strand model, horizons
are tight, one-sided weaves. For example, this implies that any tangle that encounters
a horizon is essentially flat. Because of tangle flatness and the extension of the tails, at
most one Planck mass can cross a horizon during a Planck time. This yields the mass
rate limit dm/dt c 3 /4G that is valid in general relativity and in nature.
Black holes can rotate. The strand model states that there is a highest angular frequency possible; it appears when the equator of the black hole rotates with the speed of
light. As a result, the angular momentum J of a black hole is limited by J < 2GM 2 /c.
This limit is well known from general relativity.
In the strand model, a horizon is a tight weave. Therefore, a horizon cannot contain
more elementary charges than it can contain knots. Thus, a horizon cannot contain more
elementary charges than crossings. As a result, the strand model predicts that the maximum charge of a horizon is limited by its area. In other words, the charge limit of a
non-rotating black hole is proportional to its mass. The charge limit can be deduced
quickly. The force limit in nature implies that the electrical forces between two charged
black holes must be lower than their gravitational interaction. This means that
(181)

Q 2 40 GM 2 .

(182)

Curvature around black holes

The tails of a black hole extend up to the border of space; the density of tails is highest at
the horizon. A black hole is therefore surrounded by partial links at any finite distance
from the horizon. In other words, the space around a black hole is curved. The value of
the space-time curvature increases as one approaches the horizon, because of the way
in which the partial links hinder each other in their motion. The nearer they are to the

free pdf le available at [Link]

This is the well-known charge limit for (static) black holes given by the Reissner
Nordstrm metric. It follows directly from the maximum force principle and the strand
model.
The strand model limits energy density to the Planck energy per Planck volume, or
to the value c 7 /(16G 2 ). This limit implies a lower size limit for black holes; therefore,
the strand model does not allow singularities, be they dressed or naked. Indeed, no
singularity has ever been observed.
In summary, the strand model reproduces the known limit properties of horizons.
And all these results are independent of the precise fluctuation details of the strands.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

or

Q2
GM 2

,
40 r 2
r2

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(180)

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10 general rel ativit y deduced from strands

horizon, the more they hinder each other. The curvature that appears is proportional to
the density of partial links and to their average strand curvature.
At the horizon, the curvature radius is the horizon radius. By construction, the number of tails departing from a non-rotating black hole is proportional to the horizon radius
R. Hence at a radial distance r from a static black hole, the spatial curvature K is
K

R
.
r3

(183)

So at the horizon itself, the curvature K is (of the order of) the inverse square of the
horizon radius; further away, it decreases rapidly, with the third power of the distance.
This result is a well-known property of the Schwarzschild solution. The rapid decay with
radius is the reason why in everyday situations there is no noticeable curvature of spacetime. In short, strands allow us to deduce the correct curvature of space-time around
black holes and spherical masses.

Page 263
Ref. 22

The field equations can be deduced from the fundamental principle in two different, but
related ways. Essentially, both derivations repeat the reasoning for universal gravitation
given above and extend it to the relativistic case. The first deduction of the field equations
is based on an old argument on the thermodynamics of space-time. Strands show that
horizons have three thermodynamic properties:
an areaentropy relation of S = A kc 3 /4G,
a curvaturetemperature relation of T = a /2kc,

free pdf le available at [Link]

The field equations of general relativity

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

The strand model also explains and visualizes the importance of spherical horizons in
nature. First of all, strands illustrate the non-existence of (uncharged) one-dimensional
or toroidal horizons in 3 + 1 space-time dimensions. Such configurations are unstable,
in particular against transverse shear and rearrangement of the strands.
The strand model also implies that non-rotating, closed horizons are spherical. Obviously, spheres are the bodies with the smallest surface for a given volume. The minimum
horizon surface appears because the strands, through their fluctuations, effectively pull
on each Planck area of the horizon. As a result, all non-rotating macroscopic horizons
will evolve to the spherical situation in a few Planck times. (Deviations from the spherical
shape will mainly occur near Planck scales.) With the definition of gravity waves given
below, it also becomes clear that strongly deformed, macroscopic and non-spherical horizons are unstable against emission of gravity waves or of other particles.
In short, all non-spherical horizons are unstable. The strand model thus confirms that
spherical horizons are favoured and that the most compact bodies with a given mass.
In summary, strands reproduce all known qualitative and quantitative properties of
horizons and of black holes, and thus of general systems with strong gravitational fields.
All predictions from strands agree with observations and with other approaches to quantum gravity. These hints suggest that strands imply the field equations.

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The shape of black holes

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275

a relation between heat and entropy of Q = T S.

Using these three properties, and using the relation
Q = E ,

(184)

that is valid only in case of horizons, we get the first principle of horizon mechanics
E =

Page 30

From this relation, using the Raychaudhuri equation, we obtain the field equations of
general relativity. This deduction was given above.*
In other words, the field equations result from the thermodynamics of strands. It is
worth noting that the result is independent of the details of the fluctuations, as long as
the three thermodynamic properties just given are valid. (This is a condition that must
be fulfilled by any model of space-time; and indeed, several competing models claim to
fulfil these properties.)
We can use the relation between fluctuations and strands to settle an issue mentioned
above, in the section on quantum theory. Strand fluctuations must obey the thermodynamic properties to allow us to define space-time. If they obey these properties, then
space-time exists and curves according to general relativity.
The second derivation of the field equations of general relativity follows the spirit of
the strand model most closely. Strands imply that all physical quantities are limited by
the corresponding Planck limit. These limits are due to the limit to the fundamental
principle, in other words, they are due to the packing limit of strands. In particular, the
fundamental principle limits force by F c 4 /4G and power by P c 5 /4G. We have
already shown above that this limit implies the field equation.
In summary, the strand model asserts that the field equations appear as consequences
of fluctuations of impenetrable, featureless strands. In particular, the strand model implies that a horizon and a particle gas at Planck energy do not differ. However, the value
* Here is the argument in a few lines. The first principle of horizon mechanics can be rewritten, using the
energymomentum tensor Tab , as
c2
Tab k a db =
a A
8G

Tab k a db =

c4
Rab k a db
8G

where Rab is the Ricci tensor describing space-time curvature. This equality implies that
Tab =

c4
(R (R/2 + )ab )
8G ab

where is an undetermined constant of integration. These are Einsteins field equations of general relativity.
The field equations are valid everywhere and for all times, because a coordinate transformation can put a
horizon at any point and at any time.

free pdf le available at [Link]

where db is the general surface element and k is the Killing vector that generates the horizon. The Raychaudhuri equation allows us to rewrite the right-hand side as

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 19
Page 30

(185)

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c2
a A .
8G

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10 general rel ativit y deduced from strands

of the cosmological constant is not predicted from strand thermodynamics.

Equations from no equation

Page 141

Page 196

W=

c3
(R 2) dV ,
16G

(186)

where R is the Ricci scalar, dV = det d4 x is the invariant 4-volume element of the
metric , and is the cosmological constant, whose value we have not determined yet.
As is well known, the description of evolution with the help of an action does not add

free pdf le available at [Link]

We have just shown that the strand model implies the field equations of general relativity.
We have also shown above that, in the strand model, the least action principle is a natural
property of all motion of strands. Combining these two results, we find that a natural
way to describe the motion of space-time is the (extended) Hilbert action given by

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

The Hilbert action of general relativity

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

The strand model asserts that the field equations of general relativity are not the result of
another, more basic evolution equation, but result directly from the fundamental principle. To say it bluntly, the field equations are deduced from a drawing the fundamental
principle shown in Figure 10. This strong, almost unbelievable statement is due to a specific property of the field equations and to two properties of the strand model.
First of all, the field equations are, above all, consequences of the thermodynamics of
space-time. In the strand model, the thermodynamic properties are deduced as a consequence of the strand fluctuations. This deduction does not require underlying evolution
equations; the field equations follow from the statistical behaviour of strands.
The second, essential property of the strand model is its independence from the underlying motion of the strands. In the strand model we obtain the evolution equations
of the vacuum the field equations of general relativity without deducing them from
another equation. We do not need an evolution equation for the strand shape; the deduction of the field equations works for any underlying behaviour of strand shapes, as long
as the thermodynamic properties of the strand fluctuations are reproduced.
The third and last essential property that allows us to deduce the field equations directly from a graph, and not from another equation, is the relation between the graph and
natural physical units. The relation with natural units, in particular with the quantum
of action and the Boltzmann constant k, is fundamental for the success of the strand
model.
In summary, the fundamental principle of the strand model contains all the essential
properties necessary for deducing the field equations of general relativity. In fact, the discussion so far hides another important point: unique, underlying, more basic evolution
equations for the tangle shape cannot exist. There are two reasons. First, an underlying
equation would itself require a deduction, thus would not be a satisfying solution to unification. Secondly, and more importantly, evolution equations are differential equations;
they assume well-behaved, smooth space-time. At Planck scales, this is impossible. Any
principle that allows deducing the field equations cannot itself be an evolution equation.

general rel ativit y deduced from strands

277

The graviton :

wavelength
F I G U R E 75 The graviton in the strand model.

anything to the field equations; both descriptions are equivalent.

Gravitons and gravitational waves

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In the strand model, gravitons can be seen as a special kind of partial links. An example
is shown in Figure 75. As a twisted pair of parallel strands, the graviton returns to itself
after rotation by ; it thus behaves like a spin-2 boson, as required.
Can single gravitons be observed? The strand model implies that the absorption of
a single graviton by an elementary particle changes its spin or position. However, such
a change cannot be distinguished by a quantum fluctuation. The strand model also predicts that gravitons do not interact with photons, because they have no electric charge.
In summary, the strand model predicts that single gravitons cannot be detected.
The situation changes for gravitational waves. Such waves are coherent superpositions
of large numbers of gravitons and are observable classically. In such a case, the argument
against the detection of single gravitons does not apply. In short, the strand model predicts that gravitational waves can be observed.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 189

At scales near the Planck length and the Planck time, space-time fluctuates heavily. John
Wheeler called the situation space-time foam; the term quantum foam is also used. In a
sense, quantum gravity can be defined as the description of space-time foam.
Historically, there have been many speculations on the description of space-time
foam. Apart from its fluctuations, researchers speculated about the appearance of topology changes such as microscopic wormholes about the appearance of additional dimensions of space between six and twenty-two or about the appearance of other
unusual properties such as microscopic regions of negative energy, networks or loop
structures.
The strand model makes a simple prediction that contradicts most previous speculations: space-time foam is made of fluctuating strands. Space-time is not fundamentally
different from everyday space-time. No unusual topology, no additional dimensions, and
no new or unusual properties appear at Planck scales. Above all, the strand model predicts that there are no observable effects of space-time foam, such as space-time noise
or particle diffusion. The strand model of space-time foam is both simple and unspectacular.

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10 general rel ativit y deduced from strands

A candidate
tangle for an
extended
defect :

F I G U R E 76 A speculative, highly schematic model for a cosmic string, a one-dimensional defect in

space-time

Challenge 169 ny

The argument that leads to the graviton tangle is too much hand-waving. Can you make
the argument more compelling? Could the four tails form a cross and thus span a plane?
Other defects in vacuum

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

The strand model provides a quantum description of gravitation. The strand model does
so by explaining physical space as the average of the crossing switches induced by strand
fluctuations among untangled strands. Matter, radiation and horizons are defects in the
sea of untangled strands.
So far, we have been concerned with particles, i.e., localized, zero-dimensional defects,
and with horizons, i.e., two-dimensional defects. But modelling of the vacuum as a set of
untangled strands also suggests the possible existence of one-dimensional defects that are
equivalent to dislocations and disclinations in solids, of other two-dimensional defects,
or of three-dimensional defects. Such defects could model cosmic strings, domain walls,
wormholes, toroidal black holes, time-like loops and regions of negative energy.
An example of such a possible new defect is illustrated in Figure 76. The illustration can be seen as the image of a one-dimensional defect or as the cross section of a
two-dimensional defect. Are such defects stable against fluctuations? The strand model
suggests that they are not; they are expected to decay into a mixture of gravitons, black
holes, matter and radiation particles. However, this issue is still a topic of research, and
will not be covered here.
Exploring the stability of wormholes, time-like loops and toroidal black holes leads
to similar results. It seems that the strand model should not allow time-like loops of
macroscopic size, since any configuration that cannot be embedded locally into three
flat spatial dimensions is either a particle or a black hole. Alternatively, macroscopic
time-like loops would collapse or decay because of the fluctuations of the strands. In
the same way, wormholes or black holes with non-trivial topology should be unstable
against more usual strand structures, such as particles or black holes.
We also note the strand model does not allow volume defects (black holes being
surface-like defects). The most discussed types of volume defects are macroscopic re-

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Open challenge: Improve the argument for the graviton tangle

general rel ativit y deduced from strands

279

TA B L E 11 Correspondences between physical systems and mathematical tangles.

Strands

Ta n g l e t y p e

Vacuum
Dark energy
Elementary vector boson

many infinite unknotted strands

many fluctuating infinite strands
one infinite strand

Quark
Lepton
Meson, baryon
Higher-order propagating
fermion
Virtual particles
Composed systems
Graviton
Gravity wave
Horizon
Young universe

two infinite strands

three infinite strands
three or more infinite strands
two or more infinite strands

unlinked
unlinked
knotted or unknotted
curve
rational tangle
braided tangle
rational tangle
locally knotted or prime
tangle
trivial tangles
separable tangles
specific rational tangle
many graviton tangles
web-like tangle
knot (link)

open or unlinked strands

many strands
two infinite twisted strands
many infinite twisted strands
many tightly woven infinite strands
closed strand(s)

Vol. IV, page 140

What is the gravitational field of a quantum system in a macroscopic superposition? The

issue has been raised by many scholars as an important step towards the understanding
of how to combine gravitation and quantum theory.
The strand model deflates the importance of the issue. The model shows or predicts,
if one prefers that the gravitational field of a superposition is the temporal and spatial
average of the evolving quantum system, possibly under inclusion of decoherence.
In fact, in the strand model, the combination of gravitation and quantum theory is
much simpler than was expected by most researchers. For many decades it was suggested
that the combination was an almost unattainable goal. In fact, in the strand model we

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The gravity of superpositions

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

gions of negative energy. Energy being action per unit time, and action being connected
to crossing changes, the model does not allow the construction of negative-energy regions. However, the strand model does allow the construction of regions with lower
energy than their environment, as in the Casimir effect, by placing restrictions on the
wavelengths of photons.
The strand model thus predicts the absence of additional defects and tangle types.
The final and general connection between tangle types and defects is shown (again) in
Table 11. The next chapter will give details of the tangles corresponding to each particle.
In summary, the strand model reproduces the results of modern quantum gravity
and predicts that none of the more spectacular defects conjectured in the past linear
defects such as cosmic strings, surface defects such as wormholes, volume defects such
as negative-energy regions can appear in nature.

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10 general rel ativit y deduced from strands

can almost say that the two descriptions combine naturally.

Torsion, curiosities and challenges about general relativity
Ref. 190

On the one hand, the strand model denies the existence of any specific effects of torsion
on gravitation. On the other hand, the strand model of matter describes spin with the belt
trick. The belt trick is thus the strand phenomenon that is closest to the idea of torsion.
Therefore, exaggerating a bit in the other direction, it could also be argued that in the
strand model, torsion effects are quantum field theory effects.

Ref. 191

Ref. 155
Ref. 193

Ref. 156

The Planck force is the force value necessary to produce a change in a Planck time over
a Planck length. The Planck force thus appears almost exclusively at horizons.

Ref. 195

Already in the 1990s, Leonard Susskind speculated that black holes could be formed by
a single wound-up string. Strands differ from strings; they differ in the number of dimensions, in their intrinsic properties, in their symmetry properties, in the fields they
carry and in the ways they generate entropy. Nevertheless, the similarity with the strand
model of black holes is intriguing.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Challenge 170 e

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 194

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 192

The strand model describes three-dimensional space as made of tangled strands. Several
similar models have been proposed in the past.
The model of space as a nematic world crystal stands out as the most similar. This
model was proposed by Hagen Kleinert in the 1980s. He took his inspiration from
the famous analogy by Ekkehart Krner between the equations of solid-state elasticity
around line defects and the equations of general relativity.
Also in the 1980s, the mentioned posets have been proposed as the fundamental structure of space. Various models of quantum gravity from the 1990s, inspired by spin networks, spin foams and by similar systems, describe empty space as made of extended
constituents. These extended constituents tangle, or bifurcate, or are connected, or sometimes all of this at the same time. Depending on the model, the constituents are lines,
circles or ribbons. In some models their shapes fluctuate, in others they dont.
Around the year 2000, another type of Planck-scale crystal model of the vacuum has
been proposed by David Finkelstein. In 2008, a specific model of space, a crystal-like
network of connected bifurcating lines, has been proposed by Gerard t Hooft.
All these models describe space as made of some kind of extended constituents in
a three-dimensional background. All these models derive general relativity from these
constituents by some averaging procedure. The lesson is clear: it is not difficult to derive
general relativity from a microscopic model of space. As Luca Bombelli said already in
the early 1990s, the challenge for a microscopic model of nature is not to derive gravity
or general relativity; the challenge is to derive the other interactions. So far, the strand
model seems to be the only model that has provided such a derivation.

general rel ativit y deduced from strands

Page 153

Ref. 153
Ref. 196

281

In September 2010, two years after the strand model appeared, independent research
confirmed its description of physical space, as already mentioned above. In an extended
article exploring the small scale structure of space from several different research perspectives in general relativity, Steven Carlip comes to the conclusion that all these perspectives suggest the common idea that space at a fixed time is thus threaded by rapidly
fluctuating lines.
In 2011, also independently, Marcelo Botta Cantcheff modelled space as a statistic ensemble of one-dimensional strings. He explained the main properties of space, including the thermodynamic properties of black holes.

The strand model assumes that space is not defined at the cosmic horizon, and that therefore, strand impenetrability does not hold there. The same occurs at a black hole horizons.

Page 33

The strand model also allows us to answer the question whether quantum particles are
black holes: no, they are not. Quantum particles are tangles, like black holes are, but
particles do not have horizons.

Ref. 197

The strand model makes the point that entanglement and the vacuum and thus quantum gravity have the same nature: both are due to crossing strands. This idea has been
explored independently by Mark van Raamsdonk.

Ref. 198

The strand model of black holes also confirms a result by Zurek and Thorne from the
1980s: the entropy of a black hole is the logarithm of the number of ways in which it
could have been made.

Challenge 171 ny

Argue that because of the strand model, no black hole can have a mass below the (corrected) Planck mass, about 11 g, and thus that microscopic black holes do not exist. Can
you find a higher lower limit for the mass?

Do atoms or the elementary fermions moving inside matter emit gravitational radiation,
and why? The question was already raised by Albert Einstein in 1916. The strand model
answers the issue in the same way as textbook physics. Elementary particles in atoms
in the ground state do not emit gravitational waves for the same reason that they do not

free pdf le available at [Link]

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Can black hole radiation be seen as the result of trying to tear vacuum apart? Yes and no.
The answer is no, because physical vacuum cannot be torn apart, due to the maximum
force principle. But the answer is also yes in a certain sense, because the maximum force
is the closest attempt to this idea that can be realized or imagined.

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10 general rel ativit y deduced from strands

emit electromagnetic waves: for atoms in the ground state, there is no lower state into
which they could decay. Excited atomic states do not emit gravitational waves because of
the extremely low emission probability; it is due to the extremely low mass quadrupole
values.

Ref. 199

Challenge 172 ny

In 2009 Mikhail Shaposhnikov and Christof Wetterich argued that if gravitation is

asymptotically safe, there is no physics beyond the standard model and the Higgs mass
must be around 126 GeV exactly the value that was found experimentally a few years
afterwards. A quantum field theory is called asymptotically safe if it has a fixed point
at extremely high energies. Does the strand model imply that gravity is maybe only
effectively asymptotically safe?

It is often stated that general relativity does not allow the description of fermions without
if the topology of space is kept fixed. This is wrong: the strand model shows that fermions
can be included in the case that space is seen as an average of extended fundamental
entities.

Ref. 200

Following the fundamental principle of the strand model, G is the fundamental constant
that describes gravitation. The strand model predicts that gravity is the same for all energy scales; in other words, the constant G is not expected to change with energy. This
agrees with recent results from quantum gravity.

As just presented, the strand model makes several verifiable predictions.

The maximum energy speed in nature is c, at all energy scales, in all directions, at all
times, at all positions, for every physical observer. This agrees with observations.
No deviations from special relativity appear for any measurable energy scale, as long
as gravity plays no role. No Double or Deformed Special Relativity holds in nature,
even though a maximum energy-momentum for elementary particles does exist in
nature. This agrees with observations.
There is a maximum power or luminosity c 5 /4G, a maximum force or momentum

free pdf le available at [Link]

Predictions of the strand model about general relativity

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

It has often been written that the biggest challenge from the millennium list is the combination of general relativity and quantum theory. This statement is wrong, and good
physicists always knew it. The present chapter, on general relativity, has confirmed that
strands unify gravitation and quantum theory in a simple way. The simple way results
from the prominence given to the natural units c, and c 4 /4G in the strand model. Unification of quantum theory and general relativity is simple and natural, and follows from
Plancks units. The harder part of unification was to find the origin of gauge interactions
and of elementary particles.

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general rel ativit y deduced from strands

Ref. 97

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 286

All listed predictions are unspectacular; they are made also by other approaches that
contain general relativity and quantum gravity as limiting cases. In particular, the strand
model, like many other approaches, predicts that, with the exception of the cosmological constant, no quantum gravity effects will be observed. Gravity will never yield new
measurable quantum effects.
In other words, we have found no unexpected experimental predictions from the
strand model in the domain of quantum gravity. But this is not a surprise. There are
only two domains in which we can expect surprising predictions: cosmology (including
the value of the cosmological constant) and particle physics. The rest of this chapter deals
with cosmology. The subsequent chapter focuses on particle physics.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

flow c 4 /4G, and a maximum mass change rate c 3 /4G in nature. This agrees with
observations, but experimental data are far from these limit values.
There is a minimum distance and a minimum time interval in nature. There is a
maximum curvature and a maximum mass density in nature. There are no singularities in nature. All this agrees with observations, but experimental data are far from
exhaustive.
There are no deviations from general relativity, as described by the Hilbert action, for
all measurable scales. The only deviations appear in situations with a few strands, i.e.,
in situations where quantum theory is necessary. This agrees with observations, but
experimental data are far from sufficient.
The usual black hole entropy given by Bekenstein and Hawking holds. The value has
never been measured, but is consistently found in all calculations performed so far.
There is no modified Newtonian dynamics, or MOND, with evolution equations that
differ from general relativity. This agrees with most recent observations on galaxies,
but more experimental data are necessary.
There is no effect of torsion that modifies general relativity. This agrees with observations.
There is no effect of higher derivatives of the metric on the motion of bodies. This
agrees with observations, but experimental data are far from sufficient.
Observations are independent of the precise strand fluctuations. Mathematical consistency checks of this prediction are possible.
No wormholes, no negative energy regions and no time-like loops exist. This agrees
with observations, but experimental data are far from complete.
The Penrose conjecture holds. Here, a mathematical consistency check is possible.
There are no cosmic strings and no domain walls. This agrees with observations, but
experimental data are far from exhaustive.
Gravitons have spin 2; they return to their original state after a rotation by and are
bosons. This agrees with expectations.
Gravitational waves exist and can be detected. This agrees with known data, but direct
detection is still missing. Atoms to not emit gravitational waves.
The gravitational constant G does not run with energy. This agrees with expectations
and with data, but the available data is sparse.

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283

284

10 general rel ativit y deduced from strands

Universes
horizon
or
border
of space
(pink)

Universal
tangle
(blue
lines)

Particle
tangle
(tangled
blue
lines)

Physical
space or
vacuum
(white)
Background
space
(grey)

Background
space
(grey)

cosmolo gy

In the strand model, cosmology is based on one idea:

The universe is made of one fluctuating strand. Fluctuations increase the
complexity of the strand knottedness over time.
The existence of finite size and of finite age then follows automatically:

free pdf le available at [Link]

The finiteness of the universe

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Cosmology is an active field of research, and new data are collected all the time. We start
with a short summary.
The sky is dark at night. This and other observations show that the universe is surrounded by a horizon and is of finite size and age. Precise measurements show that
cosmic age is around 13 800 million years. The universe expands; the expansion is described by the field equations of general relativity. The universes expansion accelerates;
the acceleration is described by the cosmological constant also called dark energy that
has a small positive value. The universe is observed to be flat, and, averaged over large
scales, homogeneous and isotropic. The observed average matter density in the universe
is about 18 times smaller than the energy density due to the cosmological constant. In addition, there is a large amount of matter around galaxies that does not radiate; the nature
of this dark matter is unclear. Galaxy formation started from early density fluctuations;
the typical size and amplitude of the fluctuations are known. The topology of space is
observed to be simple.
The strand model, like any unified description of nature, must reproduce and explain
these measurement results. Otherwise, the strand model is wrong.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

F I G U R E 77 In the strand model, the universe is limited by a horizon, as schematically illustrated here.
Physical space (white) matches background space (grey) only inside the horizon. Physical space thus
only exists inside the cosmic horizon.

cosmolo gy

285

The universes horizon appears at the age or distance at which the strand
crossings cannot be embedded any more into a common three-dimensional
background space. The horizon expands over time.

Ref. 201
Ref. 202

Page 286

* Now this connexion or adaptation of all created things to each and of each to all, means that each simple
substance has relations which express all the others, and, consequently, that it is a perpetual living mirror
of the universe.

free pdf le available at [Link]

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Or cette liaison ou cet accommodement de

toutes les choses cres chacune, et de
chacune toutes les autres, fait que chaque
substance simple a des rapports qui expriment
toutes les autres, et quelle est par consquent
un miroir vivant perptuel de lunivers.*
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Monadologie, 56.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 97

The strand model thus has a simple explanation for the finiteness of the universe and the
cosmic horizon that bounds it. A schematic illustration of the cosmic horizon is given
in Figure 77.
The strand model predicts that the cosmic horizon is an event horizon, like that of a
black hole. Until 1998, this possibility seemed questionable; but in 1998, it was discovered
that the expansion of the universe is accelerating. This discovery implies that the cosmic
horizon is indeed an event horizon, as predicted by the strand model.
In fact, the strand model predicts that all horizons in nature are of the same type. This
also means that the universe is predicted to saturate Bekensteins entropy bound. More
precisely, the strand model predicts that the universe is a kind of inverted back hole. Like
for any situation that involves a horizon, the strand model thus does not allow us to make
statements about properties before the big bang or outside the horizon.
In particular, the strand model implies that the matter that appears at the cosmic horizon during the evolution of the universe appears through BekensteinHawking radiation.
This contrasts with the classical explanation form general relativity that new matter appears simply because it existed behind the horizon beforehand and then crosses the horizon into the visible part of the universe.
We note that modelling the universe as a single strand implies that it contains tangles.
In other words, the strand model makes the prediction that the universe cannot be empty,
but that it must contain particles. Strand cosmology also confirms that the question of
initial conditions for the universe does not really make sense: particles appear at the
horizon.
We also note that describing the universe as made of a single strand is a natural,
but somewhat unusual way to incorporate what particle physicists and cosmologists call
holography. Holography is the idea that all observables of a physical system are defined
on a boundary enclosing the system. In other words, if we would know, at Planck scale,
everything that happens on the walls of a room, we could know everything that is and
goes on inside the room. Instead of holography, we could also call it the NSA dream.
Holography is a consequence of the extension of the fundamental constituents of nature
and is a natural consequence of the strand model. As a consequence, strand cosmology
naturally reproduces holographic cosmology.

286

10 general rel ativit y deduced from strands

time

F I G U R E 78 An extremely simplied view of how the universe evolved near the big bang. In this
situation, physical space is not yet dened.

Ref. 203
Page 273

The cosmological constant

In the strand model, vacuum energy, or dark energy, is due to the cosmological constant,
which itself is due to strand fluctuations. As we saw above, the strand model predicts
that the cosmological constant for infinitely extended flat space vanishes, because the
vacuum energy density vanishes in that case. But the strand model also predicts that for
finite extension, the cosmological constant does not vanish. Indeed, in the strand model,
a finite size limits the fluctuations of the strands. Fluctuations with sizes larger than the
size of space are frozen out; this leads to an effective repulsion of strands. This leads to a
cosmological constant given by (the square of) the extension of space:
=

1
.
2
Rmax

(187)

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Page 197

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Any expanding, homogeneous and isotropic matter distribution had earlier stages of
smaller size and higher density. Also the universe must have been hotter and denser
in the past. But the strand model also states that singularities do not appear in nature,
because there is a highest possible energy density. As a result, the big bang might be imagined as illustrated in Figure 78. Obviously, physical space and time are not well defined
near that situation, so that the figure has to be taken with a grain of salt. Nevertheless,
it shows how the evolution of the universe can be seen as resulting from the increase in
tangledness of the strand that makes up nature.
It is conjectured that the evolution of the universal strand just after the big bang automatically leads to a homogeneous and isotropic matter distribution and to flat space.
Also the scale invariance of early density fluctuations seems natural in the strand model.
In short, the strand model looks like a promising alternative to inflation: the hypothesis
of inflation becomes unnecessary in the strand model, because strand cosmology directly
makes the predictions that seem puzzling in classical comology. This topic is still subject
of research.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

The big bang

cosmolo gy

Ref. 204

287

In particular, the strand model predicts a small positive cosmological constant, i.e., a
constant that leads to a small repulsion of masses.
The relation between the cosmological constant und the radius can be found also with
another, more precise argument, based on holography, and given by Balzs and Szapudi.
Bekensteins holographic entropy bound states that for all systems of size R and energy
E one has
2k
.
(188)
S ER
c
For a spherical system, this yields
SA

The application of this inequality to the universe is the FischlerSusskind holographic

conjecture. Using the energyentropy relation E = T S valid for any holographic system,
and introducing the energy density E , we get the limit given by
E

Page 272

T 3kc 3
.
R 4G

(190)

Using the formula for temperature T = c/2kR for a horizon deduced above from
the strand model we get
1 3c 4
1 3c 4
= . 2
(191)
E
A 2G 4R 2G
The strand model predicts that the universe saturates the entropy bound. In other words,
assuming that R is c times the age of the universe t0 , the strand model predicts that the
total energy density of the universe is equal to the so-called critical energy density.
The equality of the measured total energy density and the critical density is well
known. These measurements show that the present total energy density of the universe
is about
(192)
E vac 8.5 1010 J/m3 or m vac = 0.94(9) 1026 kg/m3 .

Ref. 206

Ref. 207

The result confirms the result of expression (187). Modern measurements yield 74 % of
the maximum possible value.
The argument for value of the cosmological constant can be made for any age of
the universe. Therefore, the strand model predicts that the cosmological constant decreases with increasing radius of the universe. In particular, there is no need for a scalar
field that makes the cosmological constant decrease; the decrease is a natural result of
the strand model. The strand model states that the cosmological constant appears in the

free pdf le available at [Link]

In other words, the strand model, like the holographic argument, predicts that the cosmological constant is limited by
3
(193)
2 2 .
c t0

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 206

(189)

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 205

kc 3
.
4G

288

Ref. 208

Challenge 173 s

10 general rel ativit y deduced from strands

field equations as a quantum effect due to the finite size of the universe. The strand model
thus implies that there is no separate equation of motion for the cosmological constant,
but that the constant appears as a large-scale average of quantum effects, as long as the
size of the universe is limited.
In summary, the strand model predicts that like the field equations of general relativity, also the amount of dark energy, the expansion of the universe and its acceleration
result from strand fluctuations. In particular, the strand model implies that the effect proposed by Wiltshire that the cosmological constant is an artefact of the inhomogeneity
of matter distribution is not fundamental, but may at most influence the value somewhat. (Could the difference between the maximum possible and the measured value of
the cosmological constant be due to this effect?)
The value of the matter density

Nb0

Ref. 206
Page 331

(194)

Open challenge: What is dark matter?

Challenge 174 ny

In the arguments above, is there a factor of order 2 missing that induces incorrect conclusions about dark matter density? Might the prediction of dark matter increase, decrease
or even disappear after correction of this missing numerical factor?

free pdf le available at [Link]

Equality would hold only if the contributions of photons, electrons, neutrinos and dark
matter could be neglected. In short, using the age t0 = 13.7 Ga, the strand model predicts
that at most 2.6 1079 baryons exist in the universe at present. Modern measurements
indeed give values around this limit.
In other terms, the strand model states that the sum of all particle energies in the universe is at most t0 c 5 /4G, or 50 % of the critical density; this includes observable matter
as well as dark matter. The experimental value for the total matter density is about 26 %
of the critical density. In observations, 4 % of the matter density is observed, and 22 % is
dark. We will discuss the nature of dark matter later on.
The strand model also makes a clear statement on the change of matter density with
time. As just explained, the number of baryons is predicted to increase with time t, due
to their appearance at the horizon. Also the radius will increase (roughly) with time; as a
result, the strand model predicts that matter density decreases as 1/t 2 . This unexpected
prediction contrasts with the usually assumed 1/t 3 dependence in a matter-dominated
universe. The prediction has yet to be tested with observations.
We note that these arguments imply that the ratio between matter density and vacuum
energy density is a quantity related to the details of the radius increase during the history
of the universe.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 206

t0 c 5 /4G
= 2.6 1079 .
mb c 2

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

The strand model predicts that horizons emit particles. As a consequence, the strand
model predicts an upper limit for the number Nb of baryons that could have been emitted
by the cosmic horizon during its expansion. For a horizon shining throughout the age
of the universe t0 while emitting the maximum power c 5 /4G, we get

cosmolo gy

Challenge 175 ny

289

Conventionally, it is argued that cold dark matter exists for two reasons: First, it is
necessary to grow the density fluctuations of the cosmic microwave background rapidly
enough to achieve the present-day high values. Secondly, it is needed to yield the observed amplitudes for the acoustic peaks in the cosmic background oscillations. Can the
strand model change these arguments?
How does the dark matter prediction of the strand model explain the galaxy rotation
curves? A related issue is the following: Could tangle effects at the scale of a full galaxy
be related to dark matter?
The topology of the universe

Predictions of the strand model about cosmology

In the domain of cosmology, the strand model makes the following testable predictions.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

The universe is not empty. (Agrees with observation.)

Its integrated luminosity saturates the power limit c 5 /4G. (Agrees with observation.)
The energy density of the universe saturates the entropy bound. (Agrees with observation.)
The are no singularities in nature. (Agrees with observation.)
Dark energy exists and results from vacuum/strand fluctuations. (Agrees with observation.)
Dark energy, or vacuum energy, is completely described by a cosmological constant
that is positive and changes with the radius R of the universe as 1/R2 . (This prediction differs from the usual cosmological models, which assume that is constant or
changes with time in other ways. The strand prediction might be checked in the near
future by testing whether the minimum acceleration around galaxies changes with
distance if this minimum is related to .)
The number of baryons in nature is limited by the maximum luminosity times the
age of the universe. The present upper limit is 2.6 1079 baryons. (Agrees with observation.)
The matter density of the universe decreases with age, roughly as 1/t 2 . (Checks are
under way. This prediction differs from the usual cosmological models.)
There is nothing behind the cosmic horizon. Matter, energy and space appear at the
horizon. (Agrees with observations and requirements of logic.)
Early density fluctuations are scale-invariant. (Agrees with observation.)

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

In the strand model, physical space-time, whenever it is defined, cannot be multiply connected. Also all quantum gravity approaches make this prediction, and the strand model
confirms it: because physical space-time is a result of averaging strand crossing switches,
non-trivial topologies (except black holes) do not occur as solutions. For example, the
strand model predicts that wormholes do not exist. In regions where space-time is undefined at and beyond horizons it does not make sense to speak of space-time topology. In these regions, the fluctuations of the universal strand determine observations.
In short, the strand model predicts that all searches for non-trivial macroscopic (and microscopic) topologies of the universe, at both high and low energies, will yield negative
results. So far, this prediction agrees with all observations.

290

10 general rel ativit y deduced from strands

The universe is flat and homogeneous. (Agrees with observation.)

Inflation is unnecessary.
The universes topology is trivial. (Agrees with observation.)
The above statements are independent of the precise fluctuation details. (Can be
tested with mathematical investigations.)

All these predictions can and will be tested in the coming years, either by observation or
by computer calculations.
Summary on millennium issues about relativity and cosmology

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Page 8

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 141

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Page 331

We have deduced special relativity, general relativity and cosmology from the strand
model. The fundamental principle of the strand model implies the invariant Planck units,
the Lagrangian and action of general relativity, the finiteness of the universe and the entropy of black holes.
Space-time foam is replaced by the strand model of the vacuum: empty space is the
time-average of untangled strands. More precisely, space is the thermodynamic average
of crossing switches that are due to shape fluctuations of untangled strands.
The strand model and in particular, the strand model of the vacuum explains the
number of space-time dimensions, the vacuum energy density, the matter density and
the finiteness of the universe. The cosmological constant is a consequence of the finite
size of the universe. The issue of the initial conditions of the universe has been defused.
The macroscopic and microscopic topology of the universe has been clarified. And dark
matter is predicted to be, as shown in the next chapter, a combination of conventional
matter and black holes.
The most important predictions of the strand model are the decrease of the cosmological constant with time and the absence of inflation. Various experiments will test these
predictions with increased precision in the coming years. So far, measurements do not
contradict these predictions.
The strand model confirms that the speed of light c and the corrected Planck force
c 4 /4G are limit values. The strand model also predicts that no variation in space and
time of c, G, and k can be detected, because they define all measurement units.
The strand model is, at present, the simplest but not the only known model of
quantum gravity that allows deducing all these results. Also the strand explanation of
black hole entropy is the simplest explanation known so far.
In particular, we have shown that general relativity is an approximation of the strand
model. The approximation appears when the quantum of action and, in particular, the
strand diameter are neglected. Therefore, general relativity is predicted to be valid for all
energies below the Planck energy. In other words, the strand model is not a generalization of general relativity, in contrast to other attempts at unification, but in agreement
with the list of requirements for the final theory.
In the cube structure of physics shown in Figure 1, the transition from the final, unified theory to general relativity occurs by neglecting quantum effects, i.e., by approximating as 0. In the strand model, the transition is from the description with strands
to a description with continuous variables: neglecting the strands in the strand model
more precisely, averaging over crossing switches of strands with zero diameter leads to

cosmolo gy

Page 260
Page 154

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291

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general relativity and cosmology.

The strand model predicts that the cosmological constant and the masses of the elementary particles are the only quantum effects that will be observed in the study of
gravitation. No effects of space-time foam will ever be observed.
If we look at the millennium list of open issues in physics, we see that except for
the issue of dark matter all issues about general relativity and cosmology have been
settled. The strand model explains the mathematical description of curved space-time
and of general relativity. The strand model also provides a simple model maybe the
simplest known one of quantum gravity. Above, we had already shown that the strand
model explains all mathematical structures that appear in quantum theory and in particle
physics. Together with the results from this chapter we can now say: the strand model
explains all mathematical structures that appear in physical theories. In particular, strands
explain the metric, curvature, wave functions, field intensities and the probabilistic
behaviour of all of them. They all result from averaging crossing switches.
Understanding general relativity and quantum gravity is an encouraging result.
Understanding the mathematical description of nature also encourages us to continue.
And indeed, we are not done yet: we still need to deduce the possible elementary particles and to explain their properties.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

C h a p t e r 11

THE PARTICLE SPECTRUM DEDUCED

FROM STR ANDS

Ref. 209

Page 154

Particles and quantum numbers from tangles

* Voltaire (16941778) was an influential philosopher, politician and often satirical writer.

free pdf le available at [Link]

In nature, we observe three entities: vacuum, horizons and particles. Of these, particles
are point-like entities with specific intrinsic properties, i.e., properties that do not depend
on their motion.
In nature, all intrinsic properties of all particles in fact, also those of all objects
and all images are completely described by three types of basic properties: (1) the behaviour under space-time transformations, (2) the interactions and (3) the elementary
particle content. The full list of these basic intrinsic properties of particles is given in
Table 12. Given the basic properties for each particle, and using the properties of the
gauge interactions, we can deduce all the intrinsic particle properties that are not listed,
such as half life, decay modes, branching ratios, electric dipole moment, T-parity, gyromagnetic ratio and electric polarizability. Given the basic properties for each particle,
and using the properties of the gauge interactions, we can also deduce all properties of
objects and images, such as size, shape, colour, density, elasticity, brittleness, magnetism
and conductance. Understanding all properties of matter and images thus only requires
understanding the basic properties of quantum particles; and understanding the basic
properties of all quantum particles only requires understanding the basic properties of
the elementary particles.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

trands describe quantum theory, gauge interactions and general relativity. But do
trands also settle all issues left open by twentieth-century physics? Do they
ettle the origin of all the elementary particles, their quantum numbers, their
masses and their mixing angles? How does the infinite number of possible tangles lead
to a finite number of elementary particles? And finally, do strands explain the coupling
constants? In the millennium list of open issues in fundamental physics, these are the
issues that remain. The strand model is correct only if these issues are resolved.
In this chapter, we show that the strand model indeed explains the known spectrum
of elementary particles, including the three generations. The strand model is the first
approach of modern physics that provides such an explanation.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

No problem can withstand the assault of

sustained thinking.
Voltaire*

the particle spectrum deduced from strands

293

TA B L E 12 The full list of basic intrinsic properties of quantum particles, from which all other observed

intrinsic properties of particles, objects and images can be deduced.

Propert y

P o s s i b l e Va l u e

Determines

Quantum numbers due to space-time symmetries:

Spin S or J
P parity
C parity

integer or half-integer
multiple of
even (+1) or odd (1)
even (+1) or odd (1)

statistics, rotation behaviour, conservation

behaviour under reflection, conservation
behaviour under charge conjugation,
conservation

Interaction properties:
Mass M

Weak charge
Mixing angles

CP-violating phases between 0 and /2

rational multiple of strong
coupling constant

Lorentz force, coupling to photons,

conservation
weak scattering and decays, coupling to W
and Z, partial conservation
mixing of quarks and neutrinos, flavour
change
degree of CP violation in quarks and
neutrinos
confinement, coupling to gluons,
conservation

Flavour quantum numbers, describing elementary particle content:

Lepton number(s) L integer(s)
integer times 1/3

Isospin Iz or I3

+1/2 or 1/2

Strangeness S

integer

Charmness C

integer

Bottomness B

integer

Topness T

integer

free pdf le available at [Link]

Baryon number B

conservation in strong and e.m.

interactions
conservation in all three gauge
interactions
up and down quark content, conservation
in strong and e.m. interactions
strange quark content, conservation in
strong and e.m. interactions
charm quark content, conservation in
strong and e.m. interactions
bottom quark content, conservation in
strong and e.m. interactions
top quark content, conservation in strong
and e.m. interactions

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Strong charge, i.e.,

colour

gravitation, inertia
Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Electric charge Q

between 0 and the Planck

mass
integer multiples of one
third of electron or proton
charge
rational multiple of weak
coupling constant
between 0 and /2

294

11 the particle spectrum deduced from strands

Tangles made of one strand :

1a
curve

1b
long prime
knot

1c
composed
long knot

1a
unknot

1b
prime
knot

1c
composed
knot

higher orders
of W and Z

found in the early universe and at horizons

Correspondence :
W, Z and their
higher orders

F I G U R E 79 Examples for each class of tangles made of one strand.

The strand model states that all elementary (and all composed) particles are tangles
of strands. This leads us to ask: Which tangle is associated to each elementary particle?
What kinds of elementary particles are possible? Do these tangles reproduce, for each
elementary particle, the observed values of the basic properties listed in Table 12?
It turns out that the strand model only allows a limited number of elementary particles.
In addition, the tangles of these elementary particle have intrinsic properties that match
the observed properties. To prove these strong statements, we first recall that all massive
elementary particles are represented by an infinite sequence of tangles. We now explore
tangles according to the number of strands they are made of.

particles made of one strand

In the strand model, all particles made of one strand have spin 1, are elementary, and
are bosons. Conversely, all elementary particles of spin 1 can only have two tails, and
thus must be made of a single strand. Such one-stranded tangles return to the original
strand after a core rotation by 2. Tangles of more than one strand cannot have spin 1,
except if they represent composed particles. Classifying one-stranded tangles thus allows
classifying all elementary gauge bosons.
Mathematicians have already classified one-stranded tangles; they are usually called
open knots or long knots. To get an overview, we list an example for each class of onestranded tangles on the left-hand side of Figure 79. For completeness, closed curves are
shown on the right-hand side of the figure. We now explore these classes of curves.

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photon,
gluon,
vacuum

particles made of one strand

295

Photon :

Weak vector bosons before SU(2) breaking :

Wx

Wy

W0

Weak vector bosons their simplest form after SU(2) breaking :

W+

and more
complex
tangles of
positive
chirality

and more
complex
tangles of
negative
chirality

and more
complex
achiral
tangles

blue

anti-red

anti-green
green
red
anti-blue

Unknotted curves

Page 235

Gauge bosons

Page 209

Gauge bosons are the carrier particles of the interactions. In the strand model, the gauge
interactions are due to the three Reidemeister moves. The electromagnetic, the weak and
the strong interaction correspond to respectively the first, second and third Reidemeister
move. As we have seen above, when the three Reidemeister moves deform fermion tangle
cores they generate U(1), SU(2) and SU(3) gauge symmetries. The detailed exploration
of the correspondence between tangle deformation and gauge theory led us to the gauge
boson tangles shown in Figure 80.

free pdf le available at [Link]

The simplest type of tangle made of one strand is an unknotted curve, shown as example
1a in Figure 79. The study of gauge interactions has shown that unknotted strands are,
depending on their precise shape, either vacuum strands or gauge bosons.
In the strand model, vacuum strands are, on average, straight. In this property, vacuum strands differ from gauge bosons, which, on average, have curved strands, and thus
carry energy.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

F I G U R E 80 The gauge bosons in the strand model. All are made of one strand. Of the nine gluons,
only eight are linearly independent.

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Gluons g :

296

Page 213

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copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

As explained above, the first Reidemeister move, the twist, leads to the modelling of
photons as helical strands. Therefore, photons have vanishing mass and two possible polarizations. Photons do not have knotted family members; they are massless. Their specific unknotted and twisted strand shapes also imply that photons generate an Abelian
gauge theory and photons they do not interact among themselves. Automatically, photons have no weak and no strong charge. The strand model further implies that photons
have negative P-parity and C-parity, as is observed.
The study of the third Reidemeister move, the slide, led us to the existence of eight
gluons. The eight gluons are unknotted, thus they carry no mass, no electric charge and
no weak charge. Each gluon tangle has two possible polarizations. The strand model
of gluons also implies that they have negative P-parity and no C-parity, as is observed.
Gluons tangles carry colour and interact among themselves, thus they generate a nonAbelian gauge theory. In contrast to the other two interactions, free, single gluons are
short-lived, because their structure induces rapid hadronization: when gluons act on
the vacuum, quarkantiquark pairs are produced. Gluons do not have knotted family
members; they are massless in the high energy limit, when their tails are aligned.
The next simple type of tangle made of one strand is a simple open knot, or, as mathematicians say, a long prime knot. Tangle 1b in Figure 79 is an example. Such tangles
are the simplest non-trivial form of the W and Z bosons after SU(2) symmetry breaking.
Indeed, the study of the second Reidemeister move, the poke, showed that deformations
induced by pokes can also involve the border of space; this leads to the symmetry breaking of the weak interaction. As a result, the observed W and the Z boson strands are
best illustrated by knotted strands, though they also have unknotted family members.
Therefore, the W and the Z boson are massive. We have seen above that a strand with
an overhand knot is a W boson, and a strand with a figure-eight knot is a Z boson. The
tangle of the W is chiral, and thus it is electrically charged. The tangle of the Z is achiral
and thus electrically neutral. Being knotted, the W and the Z also carry weak charge
and thus interact among themselves, generating a non-Abelian gauge theory. The strand
model also implies that the W and the Z have no P-parity, no C-parity and no colour
charge, as is observed.
The strand model, in contrast to all other candidate final theories, states that the origin
of electroweak symmetry breaking is the key to the final theory. Indeed, the strand model
states that mass is due to the knottedness of tangles; and electroweak symmetry breaking
is do to the knotting of tangles.
For completeness we mention that by assignment, all gauge bosons, being made of a
single strand, have vanishing lepton and baryon numbers, and thus also lack all flavour
quantum numbers, as is observed.
The strand model explains the lack of classical SU(2) field waves as a consequence
of the breaking of the SU(2) symmetry and the consequent mass of the weak bosons.
Strands explain the lack of classical SU(3) waves, also called gluonic waves, as a consequence of the topological impossibility to produce such waves, which is related to the
infinite mass of single gluons.
In somewhat sloppy language we can say that the shape and the effects of photons are
one-dimensional, those of the unbroken weak bosons are two-dimensional, and those
of the gluons are three-dimensional. This is the essential reason that they reproduce the
U(1), SU(2) and SU(3) groups, and that no higher gauge groups exist in nature.

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11 the particle spectrum deduced from strands

particles made of one strand

297

In summary, Reidemeisters theorem implies that the list of gauge bosons with spin 1
is complete. But the list of tangles made of a single strand is much more extensive.
Complicated open knots
Page 236

Page 235

Closed tangles: knots

Summary on tangles made of one strand

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 259

In summary, all tangles made of one strand represent elementary particles of spin 1, thus
elementary vector bosons. Conversely, all elementary spin-1 particles are made of one
strand, because other tangles do not reproduce the spin-1 behaviour under rotations:
only one-stranded tangles return to the original strand after a core rotation by 2. Furthermore, the strand model reproduces (or predicts) the quantum numbers for each
gauge boson.
In the strand model, all tangles of one strand are assigned to the known gauge bosons.
In short, there is no room for additional elementary gauge bosons.
In other words, the strand model predicts that all gauge bosons and thus all interactions are already known. We have thus a second argument after the non-existence of
other gauge groups stating that no other gauge interaction exists in nature. (Both arguments against the existence of other gauge interactions are loosely related; both are due
to the three-dimensionality of space.) In particular, we find again that grand unification
and supersymmetry are not allowed in nature.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Figure 79 shows, on the right-hand side, examples for all classes of closed tangles, i.e.,
tangles without tails. They are usually called knots in mathematics. Knots appear in the
strand model only in the early universe, and maybe near horizons. They do not seem to
have physical relevance and we do not explore them here.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Strands can also carry highly complicated knots, with a large number of crossings. We
have explained earlier on that all such possibilities mathematically speaking, all socalled open knots or long knots are higher-order versions of the propagating W and Z
bosons. Such complicated knots are thus due to the weak interaction. The reason for this
assignment is the ability of the weak interaction to change particle topology through overcrossing at the border of space. As a consequence, a simple particle knot can temporarily
be changed into a more complicated particle knot through strand fluctuations. Such complicated, higher-order states include prime tangles with crossing numbers much larger
than examples 1b in Figure 79, and composed tangles, such as 1c. In fact, all complicated
tangles of strands are due to the weak interaction. We will use this connection regularly.
In other terms, the strand model assigns infinitely many long knots to W and Z bosons.
In particular, the strand model classifies all these non-trivial long knots into three classes:
all achiral long knots are assigned to the Z boson, all positively chiral long knots are assigned to the W+ boson, and all negatively chiral long knots are assigned to the W boson.

298

11 the particle spectrum deduced from strands

particles made of t wo strands

In the strand model, particle tangles can also be made of two strands. Examples for all the
classes of two-stranded tangles are given in Figure 81. Each class has a physical particle
assignment.

Quarks
Page 253

free pdf le available at [Link]

The exploration of the strong interaction earlier on has shown that the tangle of a
coloured fermion, thus of a quark, must be rational, must reproduce the three possible
colour options, and must break the three-belt symmetry.
The simplest tangles that realize these requirements are shown in Figure 82. Quark
tangles are rational tangles made of two strands. Higher quark generations have larger
crossing numbers. The four tails form the skeleton of a tetrahedron. Two strands imply spin 1/2. The electric charges of the quarks are 1/3 and 2/3, an assignment that is
especially obvious for up and down quarks and that will become clearer in the study of
hadrons. Parity is naturally assigned as done in Figure 82. Baryon number and the other
flavour quantum numbers isospin, strangeness, charm, bottomness, topness are naturally assigned as usual. Flavour quantum numbers thus simply count the number of
corresponding quark tangles. Like all localized tangles, quarks have weak charge. We

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

We now explore these tangle classes in more detail.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

The simplest tangle made of two strands is the trivial tangle, shown as example 2a
in Figure 81. In the strand model, the trivial tangle, like all separable tangles, is a
composite system. Each of the two strands can represent either the vacuum or a gauge
boson. Simply stated, the trivial tangle is not an elementary particle.
The simplest non-trivial tangle made of two strands is the crossing, shown as 2b in
Figure 81. It is also separable; in the strand model, it is interpreted in the same way
as the trivial tangle, because the two tangles look the same for certain observers. (It
can also represent the simplest state of a down quark, as we will see below.)
A new class of tangles are rational tangles, represented by example 2c. A rational
tangle is a tangle that can only be untangled by moving its tails around. Rational
tangles are distinct from prime and locally knotted tangles, shown as examples 2d and
2e, which require pulling the tail through the tangle to untangle it. Rational tangles
are thus weakly tangled. As we will see, rational tangles represent the graviton and
the quarks; we will discuss them in detail in the next two sections. More complicated
rational tangles are higher-order propagating states of the simpler ones.
Another class of tangles are prime tangles, for which 2d is an example. Using the
argument for complicated one-stranded tangles, we conclude that prime tangles are
higher-order propagating states, involving the weak interaction, of quarks.
Still another class of tangles are locally knotted tangles, shown as example 2e. Also
this class is due to higher-order propagating states of quarks or of weak bosons that
involve the weak interaction.
Finally, closed tangles and links, such as the lower row of examples in Figure 81, and
mixed tangles, such as example 2f, have no role in the strand model except maybe
during the very early universe or near horizons.

particles made of t wo strands

299

Tangles made of two strands :

2a
trivial
tangle

2b
simple
crossing

2c
rational
tangle
(locally
unknotted)

2d
prime
tangle
(locally
unknotted)

2e
locally
knotted
tangle

higher
orders of
quarks

higher
orders of
quarks

Particle correspondence :

2b
Hopf
link

elementary:
quark or
graviton,
and higher
orders

2c
rational
link

2d
prime
link

2e
composed
link

2f
mixed
open-closed
tangle

see open
versions

Correspondence : only found in the early universe or near horizons.

F I G U R E 81 Possible tangles made of two strands.

Page 353
Page 312, page 320

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 302

will explore weak charge in more detail below. Antiquarks are mirror tangles and have
opposite quantum numbers. We will see below that these assignments reproduce the observed quantum numbers of all mesons and baryons, as well as all their other properties.
We note that the simplest version of the down quark is a simple crossing; nevertheless,
it differs from its antiparticle, because the simple crossing mixes with the braid with
seven crossings, 13 crossings, etc.; this mixing is due to the leather trick, as shown below.
And for all quarks, these more complicated braids differ from those of their antiparticles.
For each quark, the four tails form the skeleton of a tetrahedron. In Figure 82 and
Figure 83, the tetrahedral skeletons are drawn with one tail in the paper plane; of the
other three tails, the middle one is assumed to be above the paper plane, and the outer two
tails to be below the paper plane. This is important for the drawing of quark compounds
later on. The three tails allow us to reproduce the strong interaction and the colour charge
of the quarks: each colour is one of three possible orientations in space; more precisely,

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

2a
unlink

composed
of , g or
vacuum
(d quark)

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composed
of , g or
vacuum

300

11 the particle spectrum deduced from strands

Antiquarks :

Parity P = +1, B = 1/3, spin S = 1/2

Q = 1/3
Q = +2/3

P = 1, B = 1/3, S = 1/2
Q = +1/3
Q = 2/3

5.0 1.6 MeV

2.5 1.1 MeV

105 35 MeV

1.27 0.11 GeV

4.20 0.17 GeV

171.3 2.3 GeV

Seen from a larger distance, the tails follow (on average) the skeleton of a tetrahedron :

Page 246
Page 312

Page 316

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 312

the three colours result from the three possible ways to map a quark tangle to the three
belt structure. Each colour corresponds to a different choice for the tail that lies above
the paper plane, as shown in Figure 83. The colour interaction of quarks will be clarified
in the section on mesons.
In the strand model, the quark tangles thus carry colour. In nature, no free coloured
particle has been observed. The strand model reproduces this observation in several
ways. First of all, all leptons and baryons are colour-neutral, as we will see shortly. Secondly, only free quark tangles, as shown in Figure 82, have a definite colour state, because
they have a fixed orientation in space. Thirdly, free quark states, thus quark states in the
tetrahedral configuration of Figure 82, do not fit into vacuum even at large distances
from the core; thus free quarks carry infinitely high energy. In practice, this means that
free quark states do not occur in nature. Indeed, a free, coloured quark tangle can reduce
its energy by interacting with one or several other quarks. The result is a strong colour
attraction between quarks that leads to colourless composites.
In short, also in the strand model, only colourless composites of quarks exist as stable
free particles. We will explore quark composites and the issue of confinement of quarks
in more detail shortly.
In nature, quarks are weakly charged and interact with W bosons. In the strand model,

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

F I G U R E 82 The simplest tangles assigned to the quarks and antiquarks.

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Quarks :

particles made of t wo strands

301

The three colour states for a strange quark :

red

green

F I G U R E 83 The three colours correspond to three possible spatial orientations; the centre tail on the
right is always above the paper plane, the other two tails on the right are below the paper plane.

An example for a flavour-changing charged current :

s quark

Strand model :
s quark

W boson

W boson
`unbroken
`broken

t2

t2
t1

c quark

vacuum

t1

c quark
time

the absorption or the emission of a W boson is the operation that takes a quark tangle
and adds or subtracts a braiding step. This process is illustrated in Figure 84, which
shows that a braiding (unbraiding) operation corresponds to the emission (absorption)
of an unbroken W boson. It is straightforward to check that this operation fulfils all
conservation laws and properties that are observed for these so-called flavour-changing
charged currents. The absorption or emission of an (unbroken) Z boson has no braiding
effect. The strand model thus reproduces the result that only the charged weak bosons
can change quark flavours, as is observed.

free pdf le available at [Link]

F I G U R E 84 Absorption or emission of a W boson changes quark avour.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Observation :

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blue

302

11 the particle spectrum deduced from strands

The leather trick :

F I G U R E 85 The leather trick is the deformation process that changes these two structures into each
other; it limits structures made of three strands to 6 basic types.

Page 305

For completeness, we mention that quarks, being tangles of two strands, have vanishing lepton number. Indeed, as we will see below, lepton tangles are made of three strands.
In summary, all quantum numbers of quarks are reproduced by the strand model.

The graviton
Page 277

One rational tangle made of two strands is special. This special tangle is shown (again)
in Figure 86. It differs from a quark tangle in one property: the tails are parallel (and
near) to each other, and thus lie in a plane. Its tangle core returns to its original state
after rotation by , and therefore models a spin-2 particle. The tangle is not knotted and
not localized; thus it has no mass, no electric and no weak charge. It also has no colour

free pdf le available at [Link]

Challenge 176 e

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 336

We stress that the quark tangles shown Figure 82 represent only the simplest tangle for
each quark. In fact, several infinite classes of more complicated tangles are mapped to
each of the six quarks. The first class is due to the leather trick shown in Figure 85. This
trick is known to all people in the leather trade: if a braid of three strands has n 6
crossings, it can be deformed into a braid with n 6 crossings. Due to the leather trick,
there is thus no way to introduce more than 6 quarks in the strand model. In other
words, the strand model for the quarks implies that there are only 6 quarks, i.e., only
three generations.
In fact, the leather trick argument assumes that the braid end can be moved through
the braids. In the strand model, this must happen at the horizon, a region where space
(and time) are not well-defined, and where such manipulations become possible. The
low probability of this process will be important in the determination of quark masses.
In short, in the strand model, each quark is thus not only represented by the tangles
shown in Figure 82, but also by tangles with 6 additional crossings, with 12 additional
crossings, etc.
In addition, two other infinite classes of tangles are mapped to the quarks; as mentioned above, the prime and the locally knotted tangles correspond to higher-order propagators due to the weak interaction. These two infinite classes of tangles are also mapped
to the six quarks. In summary, the tangle model thus leads us again to map an infinite
number of tangles to the same particle.
As a mathematical check, we can also ask whether all rational tangles are mapped to
quarks. It turns out that this is indeed the case. All the rational tangles that do not appear
in Figure 82 are higher-order propagators of the tangles shown.

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Quark generations

particles made of t wo strands

303

The graviton :

F I G U R E 86 The graviton in the strand model.

Page 262

charge, as expected from the graviton. Similar tangles with higher winding numbers
represent higher orders in the perturbation theory of gravitation.
The chapter on gravitation has shown how gravitons lead to curvature, horizons and
the field equations of general relativity.

Ref. 210, Ref. 211

Ref. 214

The mass gap problem and the Clay Mathematics Institute

Ref. 213

The Clay Mathematics Institute offers a large prize to anybody who proves the following
statement: For any compact simple non-Abelian gauge group, quantum gauge theory exists
in continuous, four-dimensional space-time and produces a mass gap. This is one of their
so-called millennium problems.
The strand model does not allow arbitrary gauge groups in quantum field theory. According to the strand model, the only compact simple non-Abelian gauge group of interest is SU(3), the gauge group of the strong nuclear interaction. And since the strand

free pdf le available at [Link]

Challenge 177 ny

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 212

There is no observational evidence for glueballs yet, even though simulations of QCD on
the lattice predict the existence of several such states in the 1.5 GeV/c 2 mass range. The
lack of experimental confirmation is usually explained by the strong background noise
in the reaction that produces glueballs, and by the expected strong mixing with mesons
of similar quantum numbers. The experimental search for glueballs is still ongoing.
The lowest-mass glueball is usually expected to be made of two gluons. In the strand
model, a glueball made of two gluons would be made of two strands. However, the strand
model of gluons does not seem to allow such a tangle. In other words, the strand model
points to a SU(3) gauge theory without any bound states of the field bosons, and thus
without the possibility of classical gluonic waves which would correspond to electromagnetic waves.
Still, the assumed lack of glueballs in the strand model needs a more precise investigation. Whatever the situation for glueballs might be, the strand model of gluons seems in
contrast with the models of glueballs as knots that were proposed by Buniy and Kephart
or by Niemi. These models are based on closed knots, not on tangles with tails. The
strand model does not seem to allow real particles of zero spin that are composed of gluons. However, if closed knots were somehow possible in the strand model, they would
imply the existence of glueballs. Also a situation in which two gluons are linked in such
a way that the four tails are perpendicular and span a plane might show, through averaging, a zero spin value. The issue of glueballs is still not fully settled; a definitive solution
might lead to additional checks of the strand model.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Glueballs

304

11 the particle spectrum deduced from strands

achiral 6-fold
crossing tangle

chiral 8-fold
crossing tangle

F I G U R E 87 Which particle states are described by these tangles?

Challenge 178 ny

The topic of two-stranded tangles is complete only when the puzzle of Figure 87 is solved.
To which physical states do the three pictured tangles correspond?

free pdf le available at [Link]

A puzzle

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 259

model does not seem to allow for glueballs, for SU(3) it predicts an effective mass gap
of the order of the Planck mass. (If glueballs would exist in the strand model, the mass
gap would still exist but be smaller.) Indeed, the strand model explains the short range
of the strong interaction as a consequence of the details of Reidemeister III moves and
the quark tangle topology.
The strand model further states that space-time and gauge groups are low-energy approximations, because neither points nor fields exist at a fundamental level; points and
fields are approximations to strands. According to the strand model, the quantum properties of nature result from the extension of strands. As a consequence, the strand model
denies the existence of any quantum gauge theory as a separate, exact theory on continuous space-time.
In summary, the strand model does predict a mass gap for SU(3); but the strand model
also denies the existence of quantum gauge theory for any other compact simple nonAbelian gauge group. And even in the case of SU(3) it denies like for any other gauge
groups the existence of a quantum gauge theory on continuous space-time. As deduced
above, the strand model allows only the three known gauge groups, and allows their existence only in the non-continuous strand model of space-time. In short, it is impossible
to realize the wish of the Clay Mathematics Institute.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

chiral 6-fold
crossing tangle

particles made of three strands

305

Tangles made of three strands :

3a
trivial
tangle

3b
simple
crossings

3c
braided
tangle

3e
prime
tangle

3f
locally
knotted
tangle

3g
closed or
mixed
open-closed
tangles

composed:
mesons of
spin 0 and
higher orders

wk. higher
order
mesons,
leptons

wk. higher
order
mesons,
leptons

near the
big bang
or
horizons

Particle correspondence :
composed composed elementary:
of , g, or of , g, or leptons, and
vacuum
vacuum
higher orders

F I G U R E 88 Examples for all classes of tangles made of three strands.

Summary on two-stranded tangles

particles made of three strands

Leptons
The candidate tangles for the leptons, given as example 3c in Figure 88, are the simplest possible non-trivial tangles with three strands. They are shown in more detail in
Figure 89. The lepton tangles are simply braids with tails up to the border of space. The
six tails point along the coordinate axes. These braided tangles have the following properties.

free pdf le available at [Link]

In the strand model, the next group are particles made of three strands. We list examples
for all classes of three-stranded tangles in Figure 88. Several classes of three-stranded tangles turn out to be composites of two-stranded particles. However, a number of tangles
are new and represent elementary particles.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

In summary, the strand model predicts that apart from the six quarks and the graviton, no other two-stranded elementary particles exist in nature. Concerning composite
particles, the two-stranded glueball issue is not completely settled, but points towards
non-existence.
Quarks and the graviton, the elementary particles made of two strands, are rational
tangles. Their strand models are thus not tangled in a complicated way, but tangled in
the least complicated way possible. This connection will be of importance in our search
for elementary particles that are still undiscovered.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

3d
rational
tangle

306

11 the particle spectrum deduced from strands

Lepton tangles, all with spin S = 1/2 , parity P = +1 , lepton number L = 1 and baryon number B = 0 :

0.5 MeV

105 MeV

all three with

Q = 1

1.77 GeV

all three with

Q=0

11 eV

11 eV

Seen from a larger distance, the tails follow (on average) the x, y and z axes of a coordinate system.
F I G U R E 89 The simplest tangles of the leptons. Antileptons are mirror tangles.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Each lepton is localized. Each lepton therefore has mass and has spin 1/2, and thus
follows the Dirac equation. Each lepton has weak charge.
Leptons and antileptons differ. In particular, neutrinos and antineutrinos differ, and
both are predicted to show both chiralities.
Three of the tangles are chiral, thus electrically charged, and three other tangles are
achiral, thus uncharged.
The spatial parity P of the charged lepton tangles is opposite to that of their antiparticles.
Being made of three strands, lepton tangles have vanishing colour charge and vanishing baryon number.
In contrast to quarks, lepton tangles can be inserted in vacuum using a localized, i.e.,
finite amount of energy and are thus predicted to exist as free particles.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

11 eV

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particles made of three strands

307

Ref. 216

Open challenge: Find better arguments for the lepton tangles

Challenge 179 ny

The argument that leads to the lepton tangles is vague. The tangles might even need
corrections. (Improved tangles might solve the different charge definition for leptons
that is mentioned below.) Can you improve the situation?
The Higgs boson the mistaken section from 2009
The existence of the Higgs boson is predicted from the standard model of elementary
particle physics using two arguments. First of all, the Higgs boson prevents unitarity
violation in longitudinal WW and ZZ boson scattering. Secondly, the Higgs boson
confirms the symmetry breaking mechanism of SU(2) and the related mass generation
mechanism of fermions. Quantum field theory predicts that the Higgs boson has spin

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 357

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 215

In summary, tangles of three strands have precisely the quantum numbers and properties of leptons. In particular, the strand model predicts exactly three generations of
leptons, and neutrinos are predicted to be Dirac particles. This implies that searches
for the neutrino-less double beta decay should yield negative results, that the magnetic
moments of the neutrinos should have the exceedingly small values predicted by the standard model of particle physics, and that rare muon and other decays should occur at the
small rates predicted by the standard model.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

The three lepton (flavour) numbers can be assigned as usual; the lepton numbers are
conserved in reactions, apart for neutrino mixing effects, as we will see below.
The strand model predicts that the electron, the charged tangle with the lowest mass,
is stable, as there is no way for it to decay and conserve charge and spin. The other
two generations are predicted to be unstable, due to weak decays that simplify their
topology.
The number of generations is reproduced by the strand model, as every more complicated braid can be seen as equivalent to one of the first six braids, with the same
leather trick argument that limits the number of quarks.
There is a natural mapping between the six quarks and the six leptons that appears
if the final bend of the longer quark strand is extended to the border of space, thus
transforming a two-stranded quark braid into a three-stranded lepton braid. Thus we
get three common generations for quarks and leptons.
The neutrino strands differ by tail overcrossing; the strand model thus predicts that
the weak interaction mixes neutrinos.
All lepton tangles differ from each other. Thus the mass values are different for each
lepton.
Due to the small amount of tangling, the strand model predicts that the masses of the
leptons are much smaller than those of the W and Z boson. This is indeed observed.
(This suggests a relation between the mass and the total curvature of a tight tangle.)
The simplest tangle for the electron neutrino also suggests that the mass values for
the electron neutrino is naturally small, as its tangle is almost not tangled.
The strand model also predicts that lepton masses increase with the generation number. Since the neutrino masses are not precisely known, this prediction cannot yet be
checked.

308

11 the particle spectrum deduced from strands

A candidate tangle for the Higgs boson :

or

F I G U R E 90 A candidate tangle for the Higgs boson in the strand model: the open version (left) and the
corresponding closed version (right). For the left version, the tails approach the six coordinate axes at
innity.

Page 334

Ref. 217

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 195

This mechanism, due to the weak interaction, explains the W and Z boson mass ratio,
as we will see below. The leather trick that explains fermion masses can be seen as the
addition of a sixfold overcrossing. In particular, the rarity of the overcrossing process
explains why particle masses are so much smaller than the Planck mass. In short, the
strand model explains mass without a Higgs boson.
If the Higgs boson does not exist, how is the unitarity of longitudinal W and Z boson
scattering maintained? The strand model states that interactions of tangles in particle
collisions are described by deformations of tangles. Tangle deformations in turn are described by unitary operators. Therefore, the strand model predicts that unitarity is never
violated in nature. In particular, the strand model automatically predicts that the scattering of longitudinal W or Z bosons does not violate unitarity.
In other terms, the strand model predicts that the conventional argument about unitarity violation, which requires a Higgs boson, must be wrong. How can this be? There
are at least two loopholes available in the research literature, and the strand model realizes them both.
The first known loophole is the appearance of non-perturbative effects. It is known
for a long time that non-perturbative effects can mimic the existence of a Higgs boson in
usual, perturbative approximations. In this case, the standard model could remain valid

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Mass is due to strand overcrossing at the border of space.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 235

0, has no electric or strong charge, and has positive C and P parity. In other words, the
Higgs boson is predicted to have, apart from its weak charge, the same quantum numbers
as the vacuum.
In the strand model, there seems to be only one possible candidate tangle for the Higgs
boson, shown on the left of Figure 90. The tangle has positive C and P parity, and has
vanishing electric and strong charge. The tangle also corresponds to the tangle added by
the leather trick; it thus could be seen to visualize how the Higgs boson gives mass to the
quarks and leptons. However, there are two issues with this candidate. First, the tangle
is a deformed, higher-order version of the electron neutrino tangle. Secondly, the spin
value is not 0. In fact, there is no way at all to construct a spin-0 tangle in the strand
model. These issues lead us to reconsider the arguments for the existence of the Higgs
boson altogether.
We have seen that the strand model proposes a clear mechanism for mass generation:

particles made of three strands

309

Strand model for a longitudinal massive spin 1 boson :

Observation :

spin
precession

orthogonal
spin

time average
of crossing
switches

precession

motion

motion
time

Strand model for a transversal massive spin 1 boson :

time average
of crossing
switches

spin

parallel
spin

motion

F I G U R E 91 In the strand model, transverse and longitudinal W and Z bosons differ. (Note added in
2012: this is not correct.)

Ref. 218

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 219

free pdf le available at [Link]

at high energy without the Higgs sector. This type of electroweak symmetry breaking
would lead to longitudinal W and Z scattering that does not violate unitarity.
The other loophole in the unitarity argument appears when we explore the details of
the longitudinal scattering process. In the strand model, longitudinal and transverse W
or Z bosons are modelled as shown in Figure 91. For longitudinal bosons, spin and its
precession leads to a different situation than transversal bosons: longitudinal bosons are
more delocalized than transversal bosons. This is not the case for fermions, where the belt
trick leads to the same delocalization for longitudinal and transverse polarization. Interestingly, it is also known for a long time that different delocalization for longitudinal and
transversal bosons maintains scattering unitarity, and that in the case of delocalization
the conventional argument for the necessity of the Higgs boson is wrong. These are wellknown consequences of the so-called non-local regularization in quantum field theory.
The strand model thus provides a specific model for this non-locality, and at the same
time explains why it only appears for longitudinal W and Z bosons.
The issue of different scattering behaviour for longitudinal and transverse weak
bosons also raises the question whether the mass of the longitudinal and the transversal
bosons are precisely equal. The possibility, triggered by Figure 91, might seem appealing
at first sight in order to solve the unitarity problem. However, the strand model forbids
such a mass difference. In the strand model, mass is due to tangle fluctuations, but does
not depend on spin direction.
In other words, the strand model predicts that the scattering of longitudinal W and Z
bosons is the first system that will show effects specific to the strand model. Such precision scattering experiments might be possible at the Large Hadron Collider in Geneva.
These experiments will allow checking the non-perturbative effects and the regularization

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core
motion

310

11 the particle spectrum deduced from strands

effects predicted by the strand model. For example, the strand model predicts that the
wave function of a longitudinal and a transversally polarized W or Z boson of the same
energy differ in cross section.
In summary, the strand model predicts well-behaved scattering amplitudes for longitudinal W and Z boson scattering in the TeV region, together with the absence of the
Higgs boson.* The strand model explains mass generation and lack of unitarity violations in longitudinal W or Z boson scattering as consequences of overcrossing, i.e., as
non-perturbative and non-local effects, and not as consequences of an elementary spin0 Higgs boson. The forthcoming experiments at the Large Hadron Collider in Geneva
will test this prediction.
The Higgs boson the corrected section of 2012

free pdf le available at [Link]

* If the arguments against the existence of the Higgs boson turn out to be wrong, then the strand model
might be saved with a dirty trick: we could argue that the tangle on the left-hand side of Figure 90
might effectively have spin 0. In this case, the ropelength of the Borromean rings, 29.03, together with
the ropelengths of the weak bosons, lead to a Higgs mass prediction, to first order, in the range from
(29.03/10.1)1/3 80.4 GeV = 114 GeV to (29.03/13.7)1/3 91.2 GeV = 117 GeV, plus or minus a few per
cent.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Is the tangle on the left-hand side of Figure 90 really a higher order version of the
electron neutrino? It seems that this statement is wrong: in contrast to the tangle of
the neutrino, the tangle of Figure 90 is achiral.
Does the tangle of Figure 92 have spin 1/2 or spin 0? As mentioned already in 2009,
an effective spin 0 might be possible, in a similar way that it is possible for spin-0
mesons. Spin 0 behaviour appears because the tangle can be oriented in different
directions; the time average of these orientations has spherical symmetry.
Does the tangle of Figure 92 have the correct, positive, C and P values expected for a
Higgs boson? It seems so.
Is the mentioned non-locality effect for W and Z bosons real? If the effect were real, it
should also appear for other spin-1 particles. In the strand model, mass values should
not depend on spin orientation, but only on tangle core topology. The statements
made in 2009 on delocalization and longitudinal scattering seem wrong in retrospect.
Would the Higgs boson tangle assignment of Figure 92 be testable? Yes; any tangle
assignment must yield the observed mass value and the observed branching ratios
and decay rates. This is a subject of research. But already at the qualitative level, the
proposed tangle structure of the Higgs boson suggests decays into leptons that are
similar to those observed at CERN.
Is the tangle of Figure 92 elementary? Yes.
Are there other possible Higgs boson tangles? This issue is open. The braid structure
seems the most appealing structure, as it embodies the effect of tail overcrossing at

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

In July 2012, CERN researchers from two different experiments announced the observation of a new neutral boson with a mass of 126 GeV. Additional data analysis showed
that the boson has spin 0 and positive parity. All experimental checks confirm that the
boson behaves like the Higgs boson predicted in 1964 by Peter Higgs and a number of
other researchers.
The results lead to question several statements made in 2009 in the previous section.

particles made of three strands

311

Higgs boson :

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 341

free pdf le available at [Link]

the border of space, an effect that is important for the appearance of mass.
Are knots and links, i.e., closed tangles, really forbidden? The discussion about the
Higgs boson concerns the open tangle shown in Figure 92, not the Borromean link
shown on the right-hand side of Figure 90. So far, there is no evidence for closed
tangles in the strand model. Such evidence would mean a departure from the idea
that nature is a single strand.
Does the Higgs boson issue put into question the strand model as a whole? First of all,
SU(2) breaking is unaffected. Secondly, a mistaken tangleparticle assignment can be
accommodated in the strand model; new forces or symmetries cannot. Therefore the
strand model is not put into question.
Could several, possibly charged, Higgs bosons exist? No such tangles seem possible
as long as a tangle with two Figure 92 Higgs cores in sequence is not a separate
particle.
Has some other strand model effect been overlooked? Could other elementary or
composed particles exist? For example, the structure of the Higgs boson might be

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

F I G U R E 92 The tangle of the Higgs boson in the strand model. Spin 0 appears because the braid can
be oriented in different directions, so that the time average has spherical symmetry. The tangle has 9
crossings: 3 crossings appear already in the vacuum conguration, and the additional 6 crossings are
due to the Higgs boson.

312

11 the particle spectrum deduced from strands

seen to suggest that lepton families reappear (roughly) every 126 GeV. Is that the
case? The issue is not completely settled. It seems more probable that those higher
tangles simply yield corrections to the Higgs mass.

Page 311

In short, the existence of the standard model Higgs boson seems compatible with the
strand model. The 2009 mistake also shows that the exploration of the strand model
might not yet be complete. In any case, the strand model has not been falsified by the
discovery of the Higgs boson.
Assuming that the Higgs tangle shown in Figure 92 is correct, we have an intuitive
proposal for one of the mechanisms that influences mass values, complementing tangle
knottedness. The tangle also allows a number of experimental predictions.
2012 predictions about the Higgs

Ref. 221
Ref. 222

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 220

In the strand model, all three-stranded tangles apart from the leptons, as well as all fourstranded tangles represent composite particles. The first example are mesons.
In the strand model, rational tangles of three strands are quark-antiquark mesons with
spin 0. The quark tangles yield a simple model of these pseudoscalar mesons, shown on
the left-hand sides of Figure 93, Figure 95 and Figure 96. The right-hand sides of the
figures show vector mesons, thus with spin 1, that consist of four strands. All tangles are
rational. Inside mesons, quarks and antiquarks bond at three spots that form a triangle
oriented perpendicularly to the bond direction and to the paper plane. To increase clarity, the bonds are drawn as circles in the figures; however, they consist of two crossed
(linked) tails of the involved strands that reach the border of space, as shown in Figure 94.
With this construction, mesons made of two quarks are only possible for the type q q.
Other combinations, such as q q or q q, turn out to be unlinked. We note directly that
this model of mesons resembles the original string model of hadrons from 1973, but also
the Lund string model and the recent QCD string model.
To compare the meson structures with experimental data, we explore the resulting
quantum numbers. As in quantum field theory, also in the strand model the parity of

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Quark-antiquark mesons

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

The Higgs tangle implies a Higgs boson with vanishing charge, positive parity, being
elementary as is observed.
The Higgs tangle implies a mass around 114 to 117 GeV (estimated from the corresponding closed link). The observed mass of 126 GeV complies with this expectation.
The Higgs tangle and the strand model imply that the standard model is correct up to
Planck energy, and that the Higgs mass value should reflect this. The observed mass
of 126 GeV complies also with this expectation.
Therefore, no deviations between the standard model and data should ever be observed in any experiment.
The strand model continues to predict the lack of supersymmetry.
In case that several Higgs bosons exist or if the Higgs tangle does not apply, the strand
model is in trouble.
In case that effects, particles or interactions beyond the standard model are observed,
the strand model is in trouble.

particles made of three strands

313

Pseudoscalar and vector mesons made of up and down quarks :

Spin S = 0, L = 0
Parity P = 1
: 548 MeV

C = +1

+ : 140 MeV

: 140 MeV

,
0

0, 0

uu

uu

ud

ud

ud

ud

0
: 783 MeV
C = 1

+ : 775 MeV

: 775 MeV

0,

0, 0

0 : 775 MeV

dd

dd

C = 1

Circles indicate
pairs of tails to the
border of space

free pdf le available at [Link]

a particle is the product of the intrinsic parities and of wave function parity. The states
with orbital angular momentum L = 0 are the lowest states. Experimentally, the lightest
mesons have quantum numbers J PC = 0+ , and thus are pseudoscalars, or have J PC =
1 , and thus are vector mesons. The strand model reproduces these observed quantum
numbers. (We note that the spin of any composite particle, such as a meson, is lowenergy quantity; to determine it from the composite tangle, the tails producing the bonds
drawn as circles in the figures must be neglected. As a result, the low-energy spin of
mesons and of baryons is correctly reproduced by the strand model.)
In the strand model, the meson states are colour-neutral, or white, by construction,
because the quark and the antiquark, in all orientations, always have opposite colours
that add up to white.
In the strand model, the electric charge is an integer for all mesons. Chiral tangles are
charged, achiral tangles uncharged. The charge values deduced from the strand model
thus reproduce the observed ones.
In experiments, no mesons with quantum numbers 0 , 0+ , or 1+ are observed.
Also this observation is reproduced by the quark tangles, as is easily checked by direct
inspection. The strand model thus reproduces the very argument that once was central
to the acceptance of the quark model itself.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

F I G U R E 93 The simplest strand models for the light pseudoscalar and vector mesons (circles indicate
crossed tail pairs to the border of space), with the observed mass values.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

0 : 135 MeV
C = +1

Spin S = 1, L = 0
Parity P = 1

Note: the larger circle

is above the paper plane.

314

11 the particle spectrum deduced from strands

Simplified drawing :
Spin S = 0, L = 0
Parity P = 1
0 : 135 MeV
C = +1

Spin S = 1, L = 0
Parity P = 1

Note: the large circle

is above the paper plane.

0,

0, 0

dd

dd

0 : 775 MeV
C = 1

Complete drawing :

Simplification used :

F I G U R E 94 The meaning of the circles used in the tangle graphs of mesons and baryons.

Ref. 223

The strand model also predicts directly that all mesons from Figure 93, Figure 95 and
Figure 96, in fact all mesons with vanishing orbital momentum, are prolate. This (unsurprising) result is agreement with observations. Mesons with non-vanishing orbital
momentum are also predicted to be prolate. This latter prediction about meson shapes

free pdf le available at [Link]

Meson form factors

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

It is important to realize that in the strand model, each meson is represented by a

tangle family consisting of several tangle structures. This has three reasons. First, the
circles can be combined in different ways. For example, both the u u and the d d have
as alternate structure a line plus a ring. This common structure is seen as the underlying
reason that these two quark structures mix, as is indeed observed. (The same structure is
also possible for s s, and indeed, a full description of these mesons must include mixing
with this state as well.) The second reason that mesons have several structures are the
mentioned, more complicated braid structures possible for each quark, namely with 6,
12, etc. additional braid crossings. The third reason for additional tangle structures is the
occurrence of higher-order Feynman diagrams of the weak interaction, which add yet
another group of more complicated topologies that also belong to each meson.
In short, the mesons structures of Figure 93, Figure 95 and Figure 96 are only the simplest tangles for each meson. Nevertheless, all tangles, both the simplest and the more
complicated meson tangles, reproduce spin values, parities, and all the other quantum
numbers of mesons. Indeed, in the strand model, the more complicated tangles automatically share the quantum numbers of the simplest one.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Circles indicate
pairs of tails to the
border of space

particles made of three strands

Pseudoscalar and vector mesons containing
strange and charm quarks :
K
su
494 MeV

315
Note: the large circle
is above the paper plane.
K*
su
892 MeV

K*0
sd
899 MeV

K0
sd
498 MeV

K*0
sd
899 MeV

'
ss
958 MeV

'
ss
1020 MeV

D0
cu
1864 MeV

D*0
cu
2007 MeV

D0
cu
1864 MeV

D*0
cu
2007 MeV

D+
cd
1870 MeV

D*+
cd
2010 MeV

D
cd
1870 MeV

D*
cd
2010 MeV

Ds+
cs
1970 MeV

Ds*+
cs
2112 MeV

Ds
cs
1968 MeV

Ds*
cs
2112 MeV

c
cc
2981 MeV

J/
cc
3097 MeV

F I G U R E 95 The simplest strand models for strange and charmed mesons with vanishing orbital angular
momentum. Mesons on the left side have spin 0 and negative parity; mesons on the right side have
spin 1 and negative parity. Circles indicate crossed tail pairs to the border of space; grey boxes indicate
tangles that mix with their antiparticles and which are thus predicted to show CP violation.

free pdf le available at [Link]

K0
sd
498 MeV

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

K*+
su
892 MeV

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

K+
su
494 MeV

316

11 the particle spectrum deduced from strands

Pseudoscalar and vector mesons containing a bottom quark :

Spin S = 0, L = 0
Parity P = 1

Spin S = 1, L = 0
Parity P = 1

Note: the large circle

is above the paper plane.

B*
bu
5325 MeV

B0
bd
5279 MeV

B*0
bd
5325 MeV

B0s
bs
5366 MeV

B*s0
bs
5412 MeV

Bc
bc
6286 MeV

B*c
bc
not yet
discovered

b (C=+1)
bb
9300 MeV

Y (C=1)
bb
9460 MeV

F I G U R E 96 The simplest strand models for some heavy pseudoscalar and vector mesons. Antiparticles
are not drawn; their tangles are mirrors of the particle tangles. Circles indicate crossed tail pairs to the
border of space; grey boxes indicate tangles that mix with their antiparticles and which are thus
predicted to show CP violation.

Meson masses, excited mesons and quark confinement

The strand model also allows us to understand meson masses. We recall that a topologically complicated tangle implies a large mass. With this relation, Figure 93 predicts that
the 0 , and +/ have different masses and follow the observed meson mass sequence
m(0 ) < m(+/ ) < m(). The other mass sequences can be checked with the help of

free pdf le available at [Link]

is made also by all other meson models, but has not yet been checked by experiment.
There is another way to put what we have found so far. The strand model makes
the following prediction: When the meson tangles are averaged over time, the crossing
densities reproduce the measured spatial, quark flavour, spin and colour part of the meson wave functions. This prediction can be checked against measured form factors and
against lattice QCD calculations.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Circles indicate
pairs of tails to the
border of space

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

B
bu
5279 MeV

particles made of three strands

Ref. 224
Page 332

(195)

Ref. 226

Ref. 224

In the weak interaction, the product CP of C and P parity is usually conserved. However,
rare exceptions are observed for the decay of the K 0 meson and in various processes
that involve the B 0 and Bs0 mesons. In each of these exceptions, the meson is found to
mix with its own antiparticle. CP violation is essential to explain the matterantimatter
asymmetry of the universe.
The strand model allows us to deduce whether the mixing of a meson with its own
antiparticle is possible or not. As expected, only neutral mesons are candidates for such
mixing, because of charge conservation. In the strand model, particleantiparticle mix-

free pdf le available at [Link]

CP violation in mesons

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

with an (almost) constant factor 1 for all mesons, about 0.9 GeV/fm. These relations, the
famous Regge trajectories, are explained in quantum chromodynamics as deriving from
the linear increase with distance of the effective potential between quarks, thus from the
properties of the relativistic harmonic oscillator. The linear potential itself is usually seen
as a consequence of a fluxtube-like bond between quarks.
In the strand model, the fluxtube-like bond between the quarks is built-in automatically, as shown in Figure 97. All mesons have three connecting bonds and these three
bonds can be seen as forming one common string tube. In the simplified drawings, the
bond or string tube is the region containing the circles. In orbitally excited mesons, the
three bonds are expected to lengthen and thus to produce additional crossing changes,
thus additional effective mass. The strand model also suggests a linear relation. Since the
mechanism is expected to be similar for all mesons, which all have three bonding circles,
the strand model predicts the same slope for all meson (and baryon) Regge trajectories.
This is indeed observed.
In summary, the strand model reproduces meson mass sequences and quark confinement in its general properties.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Figure 93, Figure 95 and Figure 96; there are no contradictions with observations. However, there is one limit case: the strand model predicts different masses for the 0 , ,
and +/ . So far, observations only partly confirm the prediction. Recent precision experiments seem to suggest that 0 and +/ have different mass; this result has not been
confirmed yet.
More precise mass determinations will be possible with numerical calculations. This
will be explored in more detail later on. In any case, the strand model for mesons suggests that the quark masses are not so important for the determination of meson masses,
whereas the details of the quark-antiquark bond are. Indeed, the light meson and baryon
masses are much higher than the masses of the constituent quarks.
The relative unimportance of quark masses for many meson masses is also confirmed
for the case of excited mesons, i.e., for mesons with orbital angular momentum L. It is
well known that mesons of non-vanishing orbital angular momentum can be grouped
into sets which have the same quark content, but different total angular momentum J =
L + S. These families are observed to follow a well-known relation between total angular
momentum J and mass m, called Regge trajectories:
J = 0 + 1 m 2

Ref. 225

317

318

11 the particle spectrum deduced from strands

Vanishing orbital angular momentum

Simplified drawing :

Spin S = 0, L = 0
Parity P = 1

0 : 135 MeV 0,
C = +1
dd

Spin S = 1, L = 0
Parity P = 1

Note: the large circle

is above the paper plane.
0, 0

0 : 775 MeV

dd

C = 1

Complete drawing :

Simplified drawing :

Complete drawing :

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 224

ing is possible whenever the transition from a neutral meson to its antiparticle is possible in two ways: by taking the mirror of the meson tangle or by shifting the position
of the binding strands. All mesons for which this is possible are shown in grey boxes
in Figure 93, Figure 95 and Figure 96. The strand model also makes it clear that such
mixing requires shifting of the bonds; this is a low-probability process that is due to the
weak interaction. The strand model thus predicts that the weak interaction violates CP
invariance in mesons that mix with their antiparticles.
Since the spin 1 mesons decay strongly and thus do not live long enough, the small
effect of CP violation is de facto only observed in pseudoscalar, spin-0 mesons. The
strand model thus predicts observable mixings and CP violation for the mesons pairs
K 0 K 0 , D 0 D 0 , B 0 B 0 , B 0s B 0s . The prediction by the strand model corresponds
precisely to those systems for which CP violation is actually observed. (CP violation in
D mesons was finally discovered at CERN in 2011, after it was predicted both by the
standard model and the strand model, in earlier editions of this volume.)

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

F I G U R E 97 The strand model for mesons without (top) and with (bottom) orbital angular momentum.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

With orbital angular momentum

particles made of three strands

Page 330

319

In the strand model, mesonantimeson mixing is possible because the various quarks
are braided strands. Because of this braid structure, the existence of mesonantimeson
mixing is a consequence of the existence of three quark generations. The meson structures also make it clear that such mixings would not be possible if there were no third
quark generation. The strand model thus reproduces the usual explanation of CP violation as the result of three quark generations.
For the strong and the electromagnetic interaction, the strand model predicts that
there is no mixing and no CP violation, because gluons and photons do not change particle topology. Therefore, the strand model suggests the absence of axions. The lack of a
suitable tangle for axions, shown later on, then turns this suggestions into a prediction.
In summary, the existence of CP violation in the weak interactions and the lack of CP
violation in the strong interaction are natural consequences of the strand model.
Other three-stranded tangles and glueballs

Challenge 180 ny

Why do three strands sometimes form a spin 0 particle, such as the elementary Higgs
boson, sometimes a spin 1/2 particle, such as the elementary electron, and sometimes a
spin 1 particle, such as a composed meson? The answer depends on how the strands are
free to move against each other. Can you specify the details?
Summary on three-stranded tangles

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 310

Compared to two-stranded tangles, one new class of elementary particles appears for
three strands; the new class is somewhat less tangled than general rational tangles but still
more tangled than the trivial vacuum tangle: the braided tangles. Braided tangles represent the Higgs boson and the leptons; the tangles reproduce all their observed quantum
numbers. The braided tangles also imply that neutrinos and anti-neutrinos differ, are
massive, and are Dirac particles.
The strand model (corrected in 2012) also predicts that apart from the six leptons and
the Higgs boson no other elementary particles made of three strands exist in nature.
In the case of composite particles made of three strands, the strand model proposes
tangles for all pseudoscalar mesons; the resulting quantum numbers and mass sequences
match the observed values. Among the composite particles, the glueball issue is not completely settled.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Spin and three-stranded particles

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 303

In the strand model, complicated tangles made of three strands are either higher-order
propagating versions of the tangles just presented or composites of one-stranded or twostranded particles. For example, intrinsically knotted or prime tangles made of three
strands are all due to weak processes of higher order acting on elementary tangles.
The often conjectured glueballs could also be made of three gluons. In the strand
model, such a structure would be a simple tangle made of three strands. However, the
masslessness of gluons does not seem to allow such a tangle. The argument is not watertight, however, and the issue is, as mentioned above, still subject of research.

320

11 the particle spectrum deduced from strands

tangles of four and more strands

If we add one or more strand to a three-strand tangle, no additional class of tangles appears. The tangle classes remain the same as in the three-strand case. In other words, no
additional elementary particles appear. To show this, we start our exploration with the
rational tangles.
We saw above that the rational tangles made of four strands represent the vector
mesons. We have already explored them together with the scalar mesons. But certain
more complicated rational tangles are also important in nature, as we consist of them.
Baryons

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 223

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 356

free pdf le available at [Link]

In the strand model, rational tangles made of five or six strands are baryons. The quark
tangles of the strand model yield the tangles for baryons in a natural way, as Figure 98
shows. Again, not all quark combinations are possible. First of all, quark tangles do not
allow mixed q q q or q q q structures, but only q q q or q q q structures. In addition, the
tangles do not allow (fully symmetric) spin 1/2 states for u u u or d d d, but only spin 3/2
states. The model also naturally predicts that there are only two spin 1/2 baryons made of
u and d quarks. All this corresponds to observation. The tangles for the simplest baryons
are shown in Figure 98.
The electric charges of the baryons are reproduced. In particular, the tangle topologies imply that the proton has the same charge as the positron. Neutral baryons have
topologically achiral structures; nevertheless, the neutron differs from its antiparticle, as
can be deduced from Figure 98, through its three-dimensional shape. The baryons
have different electric charges, depending on their writhe.
Baryons are naturally colour-neutral, as observed. The model also shows that the
baryon wave function usually cannot be factorized into a spin and quark part: the nucleons need two graphs to describe them, and tangle shapes play a role. Baryon parities are reproduced; the neutron and the antineutron differ. All this corresponds to
known baryon behaviour. Also the observed baryon shapes (in other words, the baryon
quadrupole moments) are reproduced by the tangle model.
The particle masses of proton and neutron differ, because their topologies differ. However, the topological difference is small, as seen in Figure 98, so the mass difference is
small. The topological difference between the various baryons is even smaller, and
indeed, their mass difference is barely discernible in experiments.
The strand model naturally yields the baryon octet and decuplet, as shown in
Figure 99 and Figure 100. In general, complicated baryon tangles have higher mass than
simpler ones, as shown in the figures; this is also the case for the baryons, not illustrated
here, that include other quarks. And like for mesons, baryon Regge trajectories are due
to stretching and tangling of the binding strands. Since the bonds to each quark are
again (at most) three, the model qualitatively reproduces the observation that the Regge
slope for all baryons is the same and is equal to that for mesons. We note that this also
implies that the quark masses play only a minor role in the generation of hadron masses;
this old result from QCD is thus reproduced by the strand model.
The arguments presented so far only reproduce mass sequences, not mass values. Actual hadron mass calculations are possible with the strand model: it is necessary to com-

tangles of four and more strands

321

The proton has two basic graphs,

corresponding to u u d and u u d :
Spin S = 1/2, L = 0,
d parity P = +1
u

uud = p
938 MeV
u

The neutron has two basic graphs,

corresponding to d d u and d d u :
d
d
u

uud=+
1232 MeV

Circles indicate
pairs of tails to the
border of space
u

uuu=++
1232 MeV

ddd=
1232 MeV
d

F I G U R E 98 The simplest strand models for the lightest baryons made of up and down quarks (circles
indicate linked tail pairs to the border of space).

free pdf le available at [Link]

udd=0
1232 MeV

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

The four baryons have one graph each, corresponding

to u u u, u u d, u d d and d d d :
Spin S = 3/2, L = 0,
parity P = +1
u

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

udd = n
940 MeV

322

11 the particle spectrum deduced from strands

Baryons with spin S = 1/2 and angular momentum L = 0 made of up, down and strange quarks :
s

dss=
1322 MeV

uss=0
1315 MeV
d

dds=
1197
MeV

u
s

uds=0
1116
MeV

Parity P = +1 expected
for both baryons, but
not yet measured.

uds=0
1192 MeV

uus=+
1189 MeV

Circles indicate
pairs of tails to the
border of space

udd=n
940 MeV

P = +1 for both
neutron and proton.

uud=p
938 MeV
u

pute the number of crossing changes each tangle produces. There is a chance, but no
certainty, that such calculations might be simpler to implement than those of lattice QCD.
Tetraquarks and exotic mesons
Ref. 211
Ref. 227

Page 303, page 319

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 214

Among the exotic mesons, tetraquarks are the most explored cases. It is now widely believed that the low-mass scalar mesons are tetraquarks. In the strand model, tetraquarks
are possible; an example is given in Figure 101. This is a six-stranded rational tangle. Spin,
parities and mass sequences from the strand model seem to agree with observations. If
the arrangement of Figure 101 would turn out to be typical, the tetraquark looks more
like a bound pair of two mesons and not like a state in which all four quarks are bound in
equal way to each other. On the other hand, a tetrahedral arrangement of quarks might
also be possible. The details of this topic are left for future exploration.
The strand model makes an additional statement: knotted (hadronic) strings in
quarkantiquark states are impossible. Such states have been proposed by Niemi. In the
strand model, such states would not be separate mesons, but usual mesons with one or
several added virtual weak vector bosons. This type of exotic mesons is therefore predicted not to exist.
The situation for glueballs, which are another type of exotic mesons, has already been

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

F I G U R E 99 One tangle (only) for each baryon in the lowest J=L+S=1/2 baryon octet (circles indicate
linked tail pairs to the border of space).

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

P = +1 for all four.

tangles of four and more strands

323

Baryons with spin S = 3/2 and angular momentum L = 0 made of up, down and strange quarks :
s

sss=
1672 MeV

dss=
1535 MeV

udd=0
1232
MeV

uds=0
1384
MeV

uus=+
1383
MeV

uud=+
1232
MeV

uuu=++
1232
MeV

F I G U R E 100 One tangle for each baryon in the lowest J=3/2 baryon decuplet (circles indicate linked

tail pairs to the border of space).

The scalar meson as a tetraquark (ud)(ud), c. 0.5 GeV :

d

F I G U R E 101 The strand model for a specic tetraquark (circles indicate linked tail pairs to the border of

space).

discussed above. They probably do not to exist.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Circles indicate
pairs of tails to the
border of space

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

ddd=
1232
MeV

uss=0
1532 MeV

dds=
1387
MeV

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Circles indicate
pairs of tails to the
border of space

324

11 the particle spectrum deduced from strands

Other tangles made of four or more strands

We do not need to explore other prime tangles or locally knotted tangles made of four
or more strands. They are higher-order versions of rational tangles, as explained already
in the case of two and three strands. We also do not need to explore separable tangles.
Separable tangles are composite of tangles with fewer strands.
One class of tangles remains to be discussed: braided tangles of four or more strands.
Now, a higher-order perturbation of the weak interaction can always lead to the topological entanglement of some vacuum strand with a tangle of fewer strands. Braided tangles
of four or more strands are thus higher-order propagating states of three-stranded leptons or hadrons.
We can also state this in another way. There are no tangles of four or more strands that
are more tangled than the trivial tangle but less tangled than the lepton tangles. Therefore,
no additional elementary particles are possible. In short, the tangle model does not allow
elementary particles with four or more strands.

fun challenges and curiosities abou t particle

tangles
In the strand model, mass appears due to overcrossing at the border of space. But mass
is also due to tangle rotation and fluctuation. How do the two definitions come together?

Challenge 182 e

In the strand model, only crossing switches are observable. How then can the specific
tangle structure of a particle have any observable effects? In particular, how can quantum numbers be related to tangle structure, if the only observables are due to crossing
changes?

No neutral weak currents that change strangeness (and other flavours) are observed. In

free pdf le available at [Link]

Challenge 181 s

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

By exploring all possible tangle classes in detail, we have shown that every localized structure made of strands has an interpretation in the strand model. In particular, the strand
model makes a simple statement on any tangle made of four or more strands: such a
tangle is composite of the elementary tangles made of one, two or three strands. In other
terms, there are no elementary particles made of four or more strands in nature.
The strand model states that each possible tangle represents a physical particle system:
an overview is given in Table 13. The mapping between tangles and particles is only possible because (infinitely) many tangles are assigned to each massive elementary particle.
This, in turn, is a consequence of the topology changes induced by the weak interaction.
The result of this exploration is that the strand model limits the number of elementary
particles to those contained in the standard model of particle physics.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Summary on tangles made of four or more strands

fun challenges and curiosities abou t particle tangles

325

TA B L E 13 The match between tangles and particles in the strand model.

Ta n g l e

Pa r t i c l e

Ty pe

1
1

unknotted
knotted

elementary
elementary

vacuum, photon, gluon

W or Z boson, including higher
orders due to the weak interaction

unknotted

composed

rational

elementary

knotted

elementary

composed of simpler tangles:

vacuum, photons, gluons
quark or graviton, including higher
orders
quarks with higher orders due to
the weak interaction

unknotted

composed

3
3

braided
rational

knotted

elementary
elementary or
composed
elementary or
composed

composed of simpler tangles:

vacuum, photons, gluons
leptons
leptons with higher orders due to
the weak interactions, or mesons
leptons or mesons with higher
orders due to the weak interactions

4 & more

like for 3 strands

all composed

composed of simpler tangles

Ref. 228
Challenge 183 r

In 2014, Marek Karliner predicted the existence of six-quark states. Can the strand model
reproduce them? Can it settle wether they are molecules of three mesons or genuine sixquark states?

Challenge 184 e

Can you use the strand model to show that pentaquarks do not exist?

Ref. 229

What is the relation of the model shown here to the ideas of Viro and Viro on skew lines?

Ref. 230

The most prominent proponent of the idea that particles might be knots was, in 1868,
William ThomsonKelvin. He proposed the idea that different atoms might be differently
knotted vortices in the ether. The proposal was ignored and rightly so because
it did not explain anything: neither the properties nor the interactions of atoms were
explained. The proposal simply had no relation to reality. In retrospect, the main reason
for this failure was that elementary particles were unknown at the time.

free pdf le available at [Link]

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

the strand model this observation is a consequence of the tangle shape of the Z boson.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Strands

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11 the particle spectrum deduced from strands

Purely topological models for elementary particles have been proposed and explored by
various scholars in the past. But only a few researchers ever proposed specific topological
structures for each elementary particle. Such proposals are easily criticized, so that it is
easy to make a fool of oneself; any such proposal thus needs a certain amount of courage.
Ref. 231

Ref. 143

Ref. 232

Ref. 141

Ref. 140

free pdf le available at [Link]

Strands are not superstrings. In contrast to superstrings, strands have a fundamental

principle. (This is the biggest conceptual difference.) In addition, the fundamental principle for strands is not fulfilled by superstrings. In contrast to superstrings, strands have
no tension, no supersymmetry and no own Lagrangian. (This is the biggest physical difference.) Because strands have no tension, they cannot oscillate. Because strands have
no supersymmetry, general relativity follows directly. Because strands have no own Lagrangian, particles are tangles, not oscillating superstrings, and quantum theory follows
directly. In fact, the definitions of particles, wave functions, fields, vacuum, mass and
horizons differ completely in the two approaches.
In contrast to superstrings, strands describe the number of gauge interactions and of
particle generations. In contrast to superstrings, strands describe quarks, hadrons, confinement, Regge behaviour, asymptotic freedom, particle masses, particle mixing and
coupling constants. In the strand model, in contrast to open superstrings, no important configuration has ends. In contrast to open or closed superstrings, strands move
in three spatial dimensions, not in nine or ten; strands resolve the anomaly issue without higher dimensions, because unitarity is automatically maintained, by construction;
strands are not related to membranes or supermembranes. In the strand model, no
strand is bosonic or heterotic, there is no E(8) or SO(32) gauge group, there are no
general pants diagrams for all gauge interactions, there is no AdS/CFT duality, there is

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 139

Herbert Jehle modelled elementary particles as closed knots already in the 1970s.
However, his model did not reproduce quantum theory, nor does it reproduce all
particles known today.
Ng Sze Kui has modelled mesons as knots. There is however, no model for quarks,
leptons or bosons, nor a description for the gauge interactions.
Tom Mongan has modelled elementary particles as made of three strands that each
carry electric charge. However, there is no connection with quantum field theory or
general relativity.
Jack Avrin has modelled hadrons and leptons as Moebius bands, and interactions
as cut-and-glue processes. The model however, does not explain the masses of the
particles or the coupling constants.
Robert Finkelstein has modelled fermions as knots. This approach, however, does not
explain the gauge properties of the interactions, nor most properties of elementary
particles.
Sundance Bilson-Thompson, later together with his coworkers, modelled elementary
fermions and bosons as structures of triple ribbons. The leather trick is used, like in
the strand model, to explain the three generations of quarks and leptons. This is by
far the most complete model from this list. However, the origin of particle mass, of
particle mixing and, most of all, of the gauge interactions is not explained.

fun challenges and curiosities abou t particle tangles

Hanging
situation

Impossible
`flattened
situation

327

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

dropping ring A.

Ref. 144

The strand model implies that there is nothing new at small distances. At small distances,
or high energies, nature consists only of strands. Thus there are no new phenomena
there. The strand model thus confirms the essence of quantum theory, which states that
at small scales, nothing new appears. Quantum theory states that at small scales, there
are no new degrees of freedom. (Quantum theory states that there is no kingdom Lilliput
in nature.) And indeed, the strand model predicts that between the energy scale of the
heaviest elementary particle, the top quark, 173 GeV, and the Planck energy, 1019 GeV,
nothing is to be found. There is a so-called energy desert empty of interesting features,

free pdf le available at [Link]

no landscape with numerous vacuum states, and there is no multiverse. In contrast to

superstrings, strands are based on Planck units. And in contrast to superstrings, strands
yield the standard model of elementary particles without any alternative. In fact, not a
single statement about superstrings is applicable to strands.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

F I G U R E 102 A ring chain gives an impression of motion along the chain, when holding ring B while

328

11 the particle spectrum deduced from strands

more rings be added in horizontal directions?

Translational motion of a photon :

t2

Translational motion of an electron :

t1

t2

particles or phenomena in nature.

Most ropes used in sailing, climbing or other domains of everyday life are produced
by braiding. Searching for braiding machine on the internet yields a large amount of

free pdf le available at [Link]

F I G U R E 104 Motion of photons and electrons through strand hopping.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

t1

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

F I G U R E 103 The ring chain trick produces an illusion of motion (mp4 lm Franz Aichinger). Can
Challenge 185 e

fun challenges and curiosities abou t particle tangles

329

videos. Searching for LEGO braiding machine shows the most simple and beautiful
examples and allows you to see how they work.
Motion through the vacuum and the speed of light

Ref. 233

Translational particle motion is is due to strand substitution, or strand hopping.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

An schematic illustration of translational motion is given in Figure 104. In the strand

model, contrary to the impression given so far, a tangle does not need to move as a whole.
This is seen most easily in the case of a photon. It is easy to picture that the tangle structure corresponding to a photon can hop from strand to strand. At any stage, the structure
is a photon; but the involved strand is never the same.
The idea of motion through strand hopping also works for massive particles. We start
with fermions.
For the motion of a massive fermion, such as an electron, Figure 104 shows that
through unwinding processes at the border of space, the structure that describes an electron can get rid of one strand and grab a new one. This process has a low probability, of
course. In the strand model, this is the reason that massive particles move more slowly
than light.
We note that this explanation of motion is important also for the mapping from strand
diagrams to Feynman diagrams. For many such diagrams, for example for the annihilation of particles and antiparticles in QED, strand hopping and processes at the border
of space play a role. Without them, the mapping from strands to quantum field theory
would not be possible.
For the motion of a W boson, motion is even more complicated. If a W boson (or
even a fermion) were a fixed open knot or a fixed primary tangle all the time, motion
through the vacuum web would be impossible. This impossibility is the main reason
that extended models for particles have not been considered before. But in the strand
model, mass is due to strand processes occurring at the border of space, and the tangles
of massive particles change over time: each massive particle is described by an infinite
family of tangles. What we call a W boson, for example, is the time-average of its tangle
family. To move through vacuum, a W boson in its simplest knotted form first has to
transform to its unknotted form, then hop to a neighbouring strand, and get knotted

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Up to now, one problem was left open: How can a particle, being a tangle of infinite
extension, move through the web of strands that makes up the vacuum? An old trick,
known already in France in the nineteenth century, can help preparing for the idea of
particle motion in space. Figure 102 shows a special chain that is most easily made with a
few dozen key rings. If the ring B is grabbed and the ring A released, this latter ring seems
to fall down along the whole chain in a helical path, as shown in the film of Figure 185.
If you have never seen the trick, try it yourself; the effect is astonishing. In reality, this is
an optical illusion. No ring is actually falling, but the sequence of rings moves in a way
that creates the impression of ring motion. And this old trick helps us to solve a number
of issues about particle motion that we swept under the carpet so far. The main idea is
the following:

330

11 the particle spectrum deduced from strands

back again. And this again has low probability. In short, like for leptons, also the motion
of W and Z bosons requires processes at the border of space.
In summary, tangles of massive particles can move through the vacuum using hopping, and this naturally happens more slowly than the motion of photons, which do not
need any process at the border of space to hop. The speed of photons is thus a limit speed
for massive particles; special relativity is thus recovered completely.

summary on millennium issues abou t particles and

rel ated predictions

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 154

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 310

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 146

We have discovered that the strand model makes a strong statement: elementary particles
can only be made of one, two or three strands. Each particle is represented by an infinite
family of tangles of fixed strand number. The family members are related through various
degrees of knotting, through overcrossing and through the leather trick.
For one-stranded particles, the strand model shows that the photon, the W, the Z and
the gluons form the full list of spin-1 bosons. For two-stranded particles, the strand model
shows that there are precisely three generations of quarks. For three-stranded elementary
particles, the strand model shows that there is a Higgs boson and three generations of
leptons. Neutrinos and antineutrinos differ and are massive Dirac particles. The strand
model thus predicts that the neutrino-less double-beta decay will not be observed. Glueballs probably do not to exist.
The strand model explains the origin of all quantum numbers of the observed elementary particles. Also all predicted quantum numbers for composed particles agree
with observations. Therefore, we have also completed the proof that all observables in
nature are due to crossing switches.
The strand model reproduces the quark model, including all the allowed and all the
forbidden hadron states. For mesons and baryons, the strand model predicts the correct
mass sequences and quantum numbers. Tetraquarks are predicted to exist. A way to
calculate hadron form factors is proposed.
In the strand model, all tangles are mapped to known particles. The strand model
predicts that no elementary particles outside the standard model exist, because no tangles
are left over. For example, there are no axions, no leptoquarks and no supersymmetric
particles in nature. The strand model also predicts the lack of other gauge bosons and
other interactions. In particular, the strand model (corrected in 2012) reproduces the
existence of the Higgs boson. In fact, any new elementary particle found in the future
would contradict and invalidate the strand model.
The strand model thus shows that the number 3 that appears so regularly in the standard model of particle physics 3 generations, 3 interactions, 3 colours and SU(3) is, in
each case, a consequence of the three-dimensionality of space. In fact, the strand model
adds a further, but related number 3 to this list, namely the maximum number of strands
in elementary particles.
In simple words, the strand model explains why the known elementary particles exist
and why others do not. We have thus settled two further items from the millennium list
of open issues. In fact, the deduction of the elementary particle spectrum given here is,

summary on millennium issues abou t particles and rel ated predictions

331

the first and, at present, also the only such deduction in the research literature.
Predictions about dark matter, the LHC and the universe

Page 154

There is nothing to be discovered about nature outside general relativity and

the standard model of particle physics.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

Strands predict that there is no hidden aspect of nature. In particular, the strand model
predicts a so-called high-energy desert: it predicts the lack of any additional elementary
particle. Equivalently, the strand model predicts that apart from the Planck scale, there
is no further energy scale in particle physics.
In other words, there is no room for discoveries beyond the Higgs boson at the Large
Hadron Collider in Geneva, nor at the various dark matter searches across the world. If
any new elementary particle is discovered, the strand model is wrong. More precisely, if
any new elementary particle that contradicts the strand model is discovered, the strand
model is wrong. That some unknown elementary particle has been missed in the present
exploration of tangle classes is still a logical possibility.
Because the strand model confirms the standard model and general relativity, a further prediction can be made: the vacuum is unique and stable. There is no room for other
options. For example, the universe will not decay or change in any drastic manner, and
there are no domains walls or between different vacuum states.
In summary, the strand model predicts a lack of any kind of science fiction in modern
physics.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Astrophysical observations show that galaxies and galaxy clusters are surrounded by
large amounts of matter that does not radiate. This unknown type of matter is called
dark matter.
In the strand model, the known elementary particles are the only possible ones. Therefore, the galactic clouds made of dark matter must consist of those particles mentioned
up to now, or of black holes. The strand model thus predicts that dark matter is a mixture
of the particles of the standard model and black holes. This statement settles a further
item from the millennium list of open issues.
The prediction of a lack of new elementary particles in dark matter is at odds with
the most favoured present measurement interpretations, but cannot yet be ruled out. In
fact, the prediction provides another hard test of the model: if dark matter is found to be
made of yet unknown particles, the strand model is wrong.
We can condense all the results found so far in the following statement:

C h a p t e r 12

PARTIC LE PROPERTIES DEDUCED

FROM STR ANDS

the masses of the elementary particles

* Everything you see, I owe it to spaghetti. Sofia Villani Scicolone is an Italian actress and Hollywood star.

free pdf le available at [Link]

The mass describes the inertial and gravitational effects of a body. The strand model
must reproduce all mass values observed in nature; if it doesnt, it is wrong. To reproduce
the masses of all bodies, it is sufficient that the strand model reproduces the measured
masses, mixing angles and coupling strengths of the elementary particles. We start with
their masses.
In nature, the gravitational mass of a particle results from the space curvature that
it induces around it. In the strand model, this curvature is due to the fluctuations that
result from the presence of a tangle core, in particular to the fluctuations of the particle
tails and of the modified vacuum strand fluctuations around the particle position. The
fluctuations produce a crossing switch distribution around the tangle core; the crossing
switch distribution leads to spatial curvature; at sufficiently large distances, this curvature
distribution is detected as a gravitational mass.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

he Planck units, via strands and the fundamental principle, explain almost all
hat is known about motion: strands explain what moves and how it moves. But
he strand model is only correct if it also explains every measured property of
every elementary particle. So far, we only deduced the quantum numbers of all elementary particles. Three kinds of particle properties from the millennium list remain open:
the masses, the mixing angles and the couplings. These measured quantities are important, because they determine the amount of change or physical action induced by the
motion of each elementary particle.
As long as we do not understand the measured properties of elementary particles,
we do not understand motion. And because the strand model makes no predictions
that go beyond general relativity and the standard model, explaining the properties of
elementary particles is the only way to confirm the strand model. Many ways to refute
the strand model are possible; but only a calculation of the measured particle properties
can confirm it.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Tutto quel che vedete, lo devo agli spaghetti.*

Sophia Loren

the masses of the elementary particles

Page 263

333

In contrast, inertial mass appears in the Dirac equation. In the strand model, inertial
mass is determined by the frequency and wavelength of the rotating phase vector. These
quantities in turn are influenced by the type of tangle knottedness, by the fluctuations
induced by the particle charges, by the topology changes induced by the weak interaction,
and, in the case of fermions, by the average frequency and size of the belt and leather
tricks. Also these processes are all due to strand fluctuations.
In short, both gravitational and inertial particle mass are due to strand fluctuations
and, more specifically, mainly to the fluctuations of the tails of particle tangles. The strand
model thus suggests that gravitational and inertial mass are automatically equal. In particular, the strand model suggests that every mass is surrounded by fluctuating crossing
switches whose density decreases with distance and is proportional to the mass itself. As
discussed above, this idea leads to universal gravity.
General properties of particle mass values

free pdf le available at [Link]

The general properties of particle masses are reproduced by the strand model. Therefore,
continuing our exploration makes sense. We start by looking for ways to determine the
mass values from the tangle structures. We discuss each particle class separately, and we
first look at mass ratios, then at absolute mass values.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 345

The strand model implies that the masses of elementary particles are not free parameters, but that they are determined by the topology, or knottedness, of the underlying
tangles and their tangle families. Particle masses are thus fixed and discrete in the
strand model, as is observed.
The strand model implies that masses are always positive numbers.
The strand model implies that the more complex a tangle is, the higher its mass value
is. This follows from the behaviour of tangle tail fluctuations around the tangle core.
Because particle masses are due to strand fluctuations, the strand model also implies
that all elementary particle masses are much smaller than the Planck mass, as is observed. Also this result follows from the behaviour of tangle tail fluctuations around
the tangle core.
Because particle masses are due to strand fluctuations, particle and antiparticle
masses are always equal, as is observed.
Because particle masses are due to strand fluctuations, particle masses do not depend
on the age of the universe, nor on their position in the universe, nor on any other state
variable: The strand model predicts that particle masses are constant and invariant,
as is observed.
Because particle masses are due to strand fluctuations, and the fluctuations differ
somewhat for tight and loose tangles of the same shape, the strand model predicts
that particle masses change or run with energy, as is observed.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

So far, our adventure allows us to deduce several results on the masses of elementary
particles:

334

12 particle properties deduced from strands

F I G U R E 105 A tight open overhand knot and a tight open gure-eight knot ( Piotr Pieranski, from

Ref. 234)

W/Z boson mass ratios and the weak mixing angle

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 233

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 235

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 333

Mass calculations are especially simple for the W and Z bosons, because in the strand
model, they are clean systems: each boson is described by a relatively simple tangle family; furthermore, W and Z bosons do not need the belt trick to rotate.
We expect that the induced curvature, and thus the gravitational mass, of an elementary boson is due to the disturbance it introduces into the vacuum. At Planck energy,
this disturbance will be, to a large extent, a function of the ropelength introduced by the
corresponding tight tangle. Let us clarify these concepts.
Tight or ideal knots and tangles are those knots or tangles that appear if we imagine
strands as being made of a rope of constant diameter that is infinitely flexible, infinitely slippery and pulled as tight as possible. Two examples of tight knots are shown in Figure 105.
Tight knots and tangles do not exist in everyday rope; they are mathematical idealizations. But tight tangles of strands are of interest: if we recall that each strand has a diameter of one Planck length, tight tangles realize the Planck limit of the strand model.
The ropelength of a tight closed knot is the length of a perfectly flexible and slippery
rope of constant diameter required to tie the tight knot. In other words, the ropelength is
the smallest amount of idealized rope needed to tie a knot. The ropelength of a tight open
knot, such as the simplest tangle of each weak boson, is the length by which a rope tied
into a tight knot is shortened. (With some care, the concept of ropelength can be also be
defined for tangles of several strands.) In the following, the ropelength is assumed to be
measured in units of the rope diameter.
The ropelength thus measures, to a large extent, the amount by which a tight knot or
tangle disturbs the vacuum around it. The ropelength fulfils all the properties of particle
mass mentioned above: the ropelength is discrete, positive, increases with tangle complexity, is equal for particles and antiparticles, and is a constant and invariant quantity.
The ropelength will thus play an important role in any estimation of the particle mass.
It is known from quantum field theory that the masses of W and Z bosons do not
change much between Planck energy and everyday energy, whatever renormalization
scheme is used. This allows us, with a good approximation, to approximate the weak
boson masses at low, everyday energy with their mass values at Planck energy.
In the strand model, the gravitational mass of a spin 1 boson is given by the radius
of the disturbance that it induces in the vacuum. For a boson, this radius, and thus the
mass, scales as the third root of the ropelength of the corresponding tight knot. The
simplest tangle of the W boson is an open overhand knot, and that of a Z boson is an
open figure-eight knot, as shown in Figure 105. The corresponding ropelength values for

the masses of the elementary particles

Ref. 234

tight tangles are 10.1 and 13.7 rope diameters. The strand model thus predicts a W/Z mass
ratio given by the cube root of the ropelength ratio:
mW
L 1/3
W = 0.90 .
mZ
LZ

Ref. 224

Page 235

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 161

This value has to be compared with the experimental ratio of 80.4 GeV/91.2 GeV=0.88.
The agreement is satisfactory. In particular, the strand model reproduces the higher value
of the neutral Z bosons mass. It is also clear why the calculated mass ratio cannot match
the experimental result. First of all, the simple open knots represent W and Z bosons
only to the simplest approximation. As mentioned above, in the strand model, every
massive particle is represented by an infinite family of tangles. The simple open knots
are only the simplest tangles for each weak boson. The strand model thus also predicts
that the match between the calculated and the measured ratio mW /mZ should improve
when higher-order Feynman diagrams, and thus more complicated tangle topologies, are
taken into account. Improving the calculation is still a subject of research. Secondly, approximating the tight knot with an effective radius implies neglecting their actual shape,
and approximating their shape by a sphere. Thirdly, as already mentioned, this calculation assumes that the low energy mass ratio and the mass ratio at Planck energy are
equal.
Despite the used approximations, the tight tangle estimate for the mass ratio gives a
satisfactory agreement with experiment. The main reason is that we expect the strand
fluctuations from the various family members to be similar for particles with the same
number of strands. For these mass ratios, the overcrossing processes cancel out. Also the
other two approximations are expected to be roughly similar for the two weak bosons.
This similarity explains why determining the Z/W boson mass ratio is possible with satisfactory accuracy.
The W/Z mass ratio also determines the weak mixing angle w of the weak interaction
Lagrangian, through the relation cos w = mW /mZ . The strand model thus predicts the
value of the weak mixing angle to the same accuracy as it predicts the W/Z mass ratio.
This argument leads to a puzzle: Can you deduce from the strand model how the W/Z
mass ratio changes with energy?
The inertial masses of the W and Z bosons can also be compared. In quantum theory, the inertial mass relates the wavelength and the frequency of the wave function. In
the strand model, a quantum particle that moves through vacuum is a tangle core that
rotates while advancing. The frequency and the wavelength of the helix thus generated
determine the inertial mass. The process is analogous to the motion of a body moving
at constant speed in a viscous fluid at small Reynolds numbers. Despite the appearance
of friction, the analogy is possible. If a small body of general shape is pulled through a
viscous fluid by a constant force, such as gravity, it follows a helical path. This analogy implies that, for spin 1 particles, the frequency and the wavelength is above all determined
by the effective radius of the small body. The strand model thus suggests that the inertial
mass inversely proportional to the path frequency and the path wavelength squared
of the W and Z bosons is approximately proportional to their tight knot radius. This is
the same result as for the gravitational mass.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 183, page 200

(196)

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Challenge 186 ny

335

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12 particle properties deduced from strands

On the other hand, the inertial mass is not exactly proportional to the average tight
knot radius; the precise shape of the tight knot plays a role. The strand model thus predicts that a more accurate mass calculation has to take into account this effect.
In summary, the strand model predicts a W/Z mass ratio and thus a weak mixing
angle close to the observed ratio, and explains the deviation of the approximation from
the measured value.
2013: Higgs/Z boson and Higgs/W boson mass ratio
Page 311

The observed mass value of the Higgs boson is 126(1) GeV. The strand model again suggests using the ropelength to determine the mass of the Higgs boson tangle of Figure 92.
A rough mass estimate was provided already in this text in 2009, by using the ropelength
of the Borromean rings of Figure 90; their ropelength is close to the ropelength of the
corresponding open tangle. The ropelength value 29.03 leads to an estimate of the Higgs
mass near the range from (29.03/10.1)1/3 80.4 GeV to (29.03/13.7)1/3 91.2 GeV, or

Ref. 236

(197)

The range is not expected to be accurate, because the ropelengths of closed and open
tangles differ. Despite this caveat, the agreement with observation is acceptable.
Using the corrected Higgs boson strand, the excess radius can be calculated and turns
out to be 23.44. This yields a naive mass estimate of (23.44/13.7)1/3 91.2 GeV, or
mHiggs 109 GeV .

(198)

Quark mass ratios

Page 298

First of all, the simplest quark tangles are clearly less tangled than the tangles of the
W and Z boson. The model thus predicts that light quarks are less massive than the
W and Z bosons, as is observed.
The quark masses are also predicted to be the same for each possible colour charge,
as is observed.
Furthermore, the progression in ropelength of the tight basic tangles for the six
quarks suggests a progression in their masses. This is observed, though with the exception of the up quark mass. For this exceptional case, effects due to the leather trick

free pdf le available at [Link]

The strand model makes several predictions about quark mass ratios.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

The estimate is more distant from the measured value 126 GeV than the value deduced
from the closed tangle. In fact, the strand model of mass suggests that for a strongly
non-spherical shape such as the shape of the Higgs tangle the effective mass is higher
than the value deduced from ropelength alone. Deducing a better mass estimate from
the Higgs tangle is still subject of research.
In summary, the strand model predicts a Higgs/Z mass ratio in the region of the observed ratio; the model also explains the deviations of the approximation from the observed value.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

114 GeV mHiggs 117 GeV .

the masses of the elementary particles

337

Antiquarks :

Parity P = +1, B = 1/3, spin S = 1/2

Q = 1/3
Q = +2/3

P = 1, B = 1/3, S = 1/2
Q = +1/3
Q = 2/3

5.0 1.6 MeV

2.5 1.1 MeV

105 35 MeV

1.27 0.11 GeV

4.20 0.17 GeV

171.3 2.3 GeV

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Quarks :

Seen from a larger distance, the tails follow (on average) the skeleton of a tetrahedron :

Page 347

i.e. tail overcrossing and to quark mixing are expected to play a role, as argued
below.

m eaL

Ref. 237

(199)

where a is an unknown number of order 1. We note directly that such a relation promises general agreement with the observed ratios among quark masses. Actual ropelength
calculations by Eric Rawdon and Maria Fisher show that the ropelength of quark tangles

free pdf le available at [Link]

Let us try to extract numerical values for the quark mass ratios. We start by exploring
the tight quark tangles, thus Planck-scale mass values, and we assume that quarks have
spherical shape. For each quark number q, the quark mass will be the weighted average
over the mass of the family tangles with q, q + 6, q + 12, ... crossings, where the period
6 is due to the leather trick. Each tight tangle has a certain ropelength. The mass of
each tangle will be determined by the frequency of the belt trick. The quark mass and
average over all family tangles will be determined by the frequency of the leather trick.
The frequency of the belt and leather tricks will be an exponentially small function of
the ropelength L; we thus expect a general mass dependence of the type

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

F I G U R E 106 The simplest tangles assigned to the quarks and antiquarks.

338

12 particle properties deduced from strands

TA B L E 14 Calculated ropelengths, in units of the rope diameter, of tight quark tangles of Figure 82
(Page 300) with tails oriented along the skeleton of a tetrahedron.

Difference

Ropelength

skeleton
simplest d
simplest u
simplest s
simplest c
simplest b
simplest t

138.564065
139.919533
142.627837
146.175507
149.695643
153.250364
157.163826

base value
1.355468
2.708305
3.547670
3.520136
3.554721
3.913462

1.355468
4.063773
7.611443
11.131578
14.686299
18.599761

increases roughly linearly with q, as expected from general knot theoretic arguments.
Their results are given in Table 14. Comparing these calculated ropelength differences
with the known quark masses confirms that the number a has an effective value in the
range between 0.4 and 0.9, and thus indeed is of order one.
The results given in Table 14 also suggest that something special is going on for the d
quark, which is somehow out of line with the other ones. More about this issue below.
The results of Table 14 also suggest that the top quark is particularly heavy as is observed.
The table shows that ropelength alone is not sufficient to understand quark mass ratios. The only encouraging aspect is that the ropelength approximation could provide
the underlying reason for older speculations on approximately fixed mass ratios between
up-type quarks and fixed mass ratios between down-type quarks.
In fact, the strand model predicts that quark masses result from a combination of
the effects of ropelength, tangle core shape and belt trick, leather trick and the energy
dependence. Leaving aside the effects of the core shape and the energy dependence, a
better approximation for the quark mass includes the other tangle family members:
mq pq eaL + pq+6 eaL+6 + ...

where pq is the probability of the tangle with q crossings due to the leather trick. So far
however, the values of these probabilities are unknown. In the approximation that the
first probability is 1 and all the others 0, we get the previous approximation, which does
not fit experimental data well. Evidently, neglecting the other tangle family members
or the other effects on quark mass is not possible for quarks.
We note that the strand model predicts a very small mass, i.e., Planck energy bare
mass for the down quark. However, in nature, the down mass is observed to be larger
than the up mass. (We note that despite this issue, meson mass sequences are predicted
correctly.) In fact, the leather trick has the potential to explain the exceptionally large
mass of the down quark; the added ropelength of six additional crossings is about 42
radii or 21 diameters; the resulting factor ea21 is in the range between a million and a
few thousand millions. This large factor could compensate a small probability for the
tangle with 6 additional crossings, thus leading to a down quark mass that is higher than

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 237

(200)

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 238

Length

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 338

Ta n g l e

the masses of the elementary particles

339

suggested by the simplicity of its most basic tangle. It could well be that the mirror symmetry of the down quark is the reason that the mixing from the family members with
additional crossings is higher than that for the up quark.
If quark masses were due to ropelength alone, an approximate exponential increase
of quark mass with quark generation would follow, as explained above. It is still unclear
whether the deviations from such an exponential increase are due (1) to the probabilities
pq in the quark mass formula (200), or (2) to the effects of the shape of the tangle core
on the belt trick, or (3) to different energy dependences of the quark masses for different
generations. These issues are subject of research.
Even though an analytic calculation for quark masses seems difficult, better approximations are possible. With sufficient computer power, it is possible to calculate the effects
of the core shape on the belt trick and of the energy dependence of the quark masses. The
most difficult point remains the calculation of the probabilities for the leather trick. Also
these issues are subject of research.

free pdf le available at [Link]

where b is a number of order 1 that takes into account the shape of the tangle core. Such
a relation is in general agreement with the observed ratios between lepton masses. Re-

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Challenge 187 ny

Mass calculations for leptons are involved. Each lepton has a large family of associated
tangles: there is a simplest tangle, there are the tangles that appear through repeated
application of the leather trick, and there are the tangles that appear through higherorder propagators due to the weak interaction. Despite these large tangle families, some
results can be deduced from the simplest lepton tangles alone, disregarding the higherorder family members.
First of all, the simplest lepton tangles are considerably less knotted than the simplest
broken W and Z boson tangles. (The ropelength of the lepton tangles has still to be estimated.) The strand model thus predicts that the masses of the leptons are much smaller
than those of the W and Z boson. This matches observation.
But we can say more. For the electron neutrino, the fundamental tangle is almost
unknotted. The strand model thus suggest an almost vanishing mass for the electron
neutrino. The belt trick plays a negligible role; only the leather trick and the weak interaction effects prevent the neutrino mass from being exactly zero. On the other hand, the
electron is predicted to be more massive than its neutrino, essentially due to the added
knot complexity especially in the higher-order family members that is due to its electric charge.
Both for neutrinos and for charged leptons, the progression in ropelength of the tight
versions of the basic tangles predicts a progression in their masses. This is indeed observed.
For each lepton generation, the lepton mass will be an average over tangles with crossing numbers l, l + 6, l + 12, etc. For each lepton tangle with l crossings, knot theory
predicts a ropelength L that increases roughly proportionally to l. Its mass will again be
given by the frequency of the belt trick and of tail overcrossing. We thus expect a general
relation of the type
m l p l ebL + p l+6 ebL+6 + ...
(201)

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Lepton mass ratios

340

12 particle properties deduced from strands

Lepton tangles, all with spin S = 1/2 , parity P = +1 , lepton number L = 1 and baryon number B = 0 :

0.5 MeV

105 MeV

all three with

Q = 1

1.77 GeV

all three with

Q=0

11 eV

11 eV

Seen from a larger distance, the tails follow (on average) the x, y and z axes of a coordinate system.
F I G U R E 107 The simplest tangles of the leptons. Antileptons are mirror tangles.

Ref. 239

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 310

search on these issues is ongoing.

Future calculations of ropelengths and other geometric properties of knots will allow
a more detailed analysis. The most important challenge is to deduce the correct mass
sequence among the muon neutrino and the electron. Estimating the mass effect due to
electric charge is still a subject of research.
We note again that the mass generation mechanism of the strand model differs from
other proposals in the research literature. It agrees with the Higgs mechanism but goes
beyond it. For neutrinos, the mechanism contradicts the see-saw mechanism. From a
distance, mass mechanism of the strand model somewhat resembles conformal symmetry breaking.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

11 eV

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

the masses of the elementary particles

341

Mass ratios across particle families

free pdf le available at [Link]

As we saw, the strand model predicts mass sequences and mass ratios that corroborate
or at least do not contradict observations. The strand model also predicts that particle
masses are fixed and discrete, that they do not depend on the age of the universe, and
that they do not differ from antiparticle masses. All these properties are in agreement
with all experiments.
The next step is to determine absolute mass values. For this step we need to determine, for each particle, the probability of crossing switches around its tangle core. This
probability depends on the belt trick and on the probability for strand overcrossing at
the border of space or, in the case of fermions, for the leather trick. It is clear that these
probabilities are low, because, sloppily speaking, the corresponding fluctuations are rare.
This implies that all elementary particle masses are predicted to be much smaller than
the Planck mass, as is indeed observed.
The strand model thus reduces the calculation of absolute particle masses to the calculation of a single process: the frequency of shape changes of strands that lead to crossing
switches. Strand shape change leads to the belt trick and to the overcrossing of strands at
the border of space. We note that in the past, various researchers have reached the conclusion that all elementary particle masses should be due to a single process or energy scale.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Predictions about absolute mass values and the full mass

hierarchy

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Neutrinos are light, electrons have higher mass, the light quarks a still higher one, and
the W and Z bosons an even higher one. What is the origin of these mass differences?
In other words, what is the origin of this so-called mass hierarchy?
In the strand model, the main influence on mass is the size and shape of the tangle
core. The size and shape of the tangle core determines the disturbance of the vacuum,
through the frequency of fluctuations is add around itself. The size of the tangle core can
be estimated by the ropelength of the tight tangle.
The light quarks are observed to be less massive than the W and the Z. And indeed,
their ropelength is significantly lower than that of the W and Z. The ropelength of the
most massive quark tangle is larger than that of the W and Z, and indeed, the top quark
is more massive than the W and the Z bosons. (For the bottom quark, additional effects
play a role.)
The neutrinos are observed to be significantly less massive than even the least massive
quark. And indeed, their ropelength is lower than that of the light quarks.
Qualitatively, the strand model thus reproduces the observed mass hierarchy. The next
step is to make quantitative statements, or at least, more precise qualitative statements.
What is the influence of strand number on mass? Weak boson tangles are made of
one strand, quark tangles of two, the tangles of the Higgs and the leptons of three strands,
and vacuum of many strands. Generally speaking, the larger the number of strands, the
less knotted is the lightest elementary particle. The braided tangles of the lightest quark
and the lightest lepton thus tangles which are less knotted somehow produce fewer
crossing switches around the core than the strongly knotted tangles of the W and Z
boson. The mass hierarchy seems to be due to the easiness to unknot the particle tangle.
This conjecture is subject of research.

342

Ref. 239, Ref. 240

Page 310

12 particle properties deduced from strands

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 333

More precisely, the crossing switch rate of a particle at rest is its gravitational mass, and
the crossing switch rate induced by linear motion is its inertial mass. Let us explore this
idea and its consequences.
Given that mass is determined by the crossing switch rate, we deduce that particle
mass values are determined by particle topology, are fixed, are discrete, are positive, increase with tangle core complexity, are identical for particle and antiparticles, and are
constant over time. Because these properties match observations, the crossing switch
rate indeed realizes all qualitative requirements for absolute particle mass values. Thus
we can proceed. In order to calculate particle masses, we need to determine the number
of crossing switches per time that every particle tangle induces.
The first way to perform a particle mass calculation is to use a large computer, insert a
strand model of the vacuum plus the strand model of the particle, and count the number
of crossing switches per time. An example for such an approach, using the analogy of

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Mass is crossing switch rate.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

For example, the breaking of conformal symmetry has always been a candidate for the
associated process. In contrast, the Higgs mechanism now confirmed by experiment
is a common influence on mass values, but not the fundamental explanation of these
values.
In the strand model, absolute mass values are not purely geometric quantities that can
be deduced from the shapes of tangle knots. Particle masses are to a large extent due to
dynamical processes. Absolute mass values are due to strand fluctuations; the belt trick
and overcrossing are the most important among these fluctuations. Equivalently, we can
say that mass is determined by the belt trick and influenced by the relative probability of
the various tangles in the family of tangles that represent a particle.
To determine absolute particle mass values, we need to determine the ratio between
the particle mass and the Planck mass. One approach could be to determine the ratio
between the crossing switch probability for a given particle and the crossing switch probability for a Planck mass. But what is a Planck mass?
In the strand model, a Planck mass corresponds to a structure that produces one crossing switch for every Planck time, constantly, without interruption. But the strand model
predicts that such structures do not appear as localized particles, because every localized
particle i.e., every tangle has, by construction, a much smaller number of induced
crossing switches per time. Following the strand model, elementary particles with Planck
mass do not exist. This conclusion agrees with observation. But the strand model also
implies that black holes with a Planck mass do not exist. Indeed, such Planck-scale black
holes, apart from being extremely short-lived, have no simple strand structure. Given
these results, we cannot use a model of a localized Planck mass as a practical benchmark
to determine particle masses.
We note that the issue is the same that is encountered in everyday life. Even though
the Planck mass defines the mass unit in nature, no mass measurement in any laboratory
is performed by using this unit directly.
The impossibility to model a Planck mass means that we need to proceed differently.
Thus we try another approach. We know that the absolute mass of a particle is given by
the average number of crossing switches it induces over time:

the masses of the elementary particles

343

three polymer strands

monomers
with
Planck length
diameter
tangled
core
region

F I G U R E 108 Determining lepton

liquid solution

e30

(202)

or less. This would also be the mass estimate in Planck units of the particle. Such an
* This is tricky but feasible. We first need to find the parameter space and the fluctuation spectrum for which
the polymer tangle follows the Schrdinger equation. Calculations with different tangles should then yield
the different mass values. The result will be near the measured value as long as the leather trick and other
types of overcrossing can be neglected.

free pdf le available at [Link]

the evolution of a polymer in liquid solution, is shown in Figure 108. By determining,

for a given core topology, the average frequency with which crossing switches appear
for a tethered core, we can determine the masses of the leptons.* In such a calculation,
the mass scale is set indirectly, through the time scale of the fluctuation spectrum. The
computer approach to particle masses is still a topic of research.
The second way to determine particle masses is to search for analytical approximations. This is not an easy challenge. If we assume that the inertial mass for a moving
particle is mainly determined by the frequency of the belt trick (and thus only negligibly
by overcrossing), we directly get the result that the belt trick is very improbable. If the
core has a diameter of, say, three Planck lengths, the probability of the belt trick for a
particle with six tails will easily be in the range

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

mass values with the help of a

polymer analogy of strands. The
probability of the belt trick for the
tangle core yields an estimate for
the mass of the elementary
particle with the same topology.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

tails

344

Page 183

Challenge 188 r

12 particle properties deduced from strands

estimate is only very rough, and the exponent can be quite different. Thus we get, as
already mentioned earlier on, a clear explanation for the large difference between the
Planck mass and the typical particle mass. A more precise analytical approximation not
an impossible feat would therefore solve the so-called mass hierarchy problem. However,
the exponent in the probability value is not easy to estimate analytically. So far, several
experts on polymer evolution have failed to provide even the crudest estimate for the
probability of the belt trick in a polymer-tethered ball. Can you do it?
In short, finding an analytical approximation for absolute particle masses is still an
open issue and a subject of research.
Fine-tuning and naturalness

Because the strand model predicts a lack of new physics beyond the standard model of
particle physics, the calculation of neutrino masses, and their mass ratios, is one of the
few possible predictions that are left over in the strand model. The strand model suggests

free pdf le available at [Link]

Challenge 189 ny

Calculating absolute particle masses from tangle fluctuations, either numerically or with
an analytical approximation, will allow the final check of the statements in this section.
The strand model predicts that the resulting values will match experiments.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Open issues about mass calculations

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

It has become fashionable, since about a decade, to state that the standard model is finetuned. The term expresses that the extremely low value of the vacuum energy is not
obvious when all the zero-point field contributions from the various elementary particles
of the standard model are included. A low vacuum energy seems only possible if the
masses and the particle types of the standard model are somehow interrelated. In other
words, the term fine tuning first of all expresses the lack of understanding of the origin
of the masses, mixings and coupling constants of elementary particles. In particular,
the term expresses that masses are not parameters. In common usage, parameters are
variable constants; but the low value of the vacuum energy shows that the masses of
elementary particles cannot be varied without destroying the validity of the standard
model of particle physics.
Some people suggest that fine-tuning implies that the standard model of particle
physics is unnatural. The strand model shows that this suggestion is false. The strand
model naturally has a low vacuum energy, because the unknotted strands of flat space
naturally have a zero energy density.
In fact, fine-tuning shows that the constants in the standard model are not a random
choice, butt hat there is an explanation for these constants that is waiting to be discovered.
And indeed, the strand model naturally explains that the values for the masses, mixings
and coupling constants are not variable, but fixed.
If the standard model would not be fine-tuned, it would not describe nature. Any
correct description of the world is fine-tuned in some sense. We can say that the term
fine-tuning highlights the complete lack of alternatives to the world as we observe it;
this is one of the wonders of nature. And indeed, the strand model makes this wonder
apparent in the microscopic domain.

the masses of the elementary particles

345

a conjecture about neutrino masses: assuming that the neutrino tangles of Figure 107
are correct, then the mass of the electron neutrino is influenced more strongly by tail
overcrossing than by the belt trick.

Challenge 190 s
Ref. 241

If mass is given by crossing switch rate, how does this connection fit with the above estimates that were based on ropelength? Will the recently discovered, almost linear relation
between ropelength and crossing number help in deducing analytical approximations for
masses?

Challenge 191 s

Is the mass of a tangle related to the vacuum density of strands?

Do particle masses depend on the cosmological constant?

The mass of elementary particles does not depend on the spin direction. In particular,
the W and Z bosons have equal longitudinal and transversal mass. The strand model
does not allow a difference.

Challenge 193 s

Can the concept of total curvature help to calculate particle masses?

Challenge 194 d

Does the effect of tail overcrossing confirm the conjecture that every experiment is described by a small energy scale, determining the resolution or precision, and a large energy scale, less obvious, that determines the accuracy?
Summary on elementary particle masses and millennium issues

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 343

The strand model implies that masses are dynamic quantities fixed by geometric and
topological properties of specific tangle families. As a result, strands explain why the
masses of elementary particles are not free parameters, but fixed constants, and why they
are much smaller than the Planck mass. Strands also reproduce all known qualitative
properties of particle masses. The results are encouraging, because no other model that
agrees with experiment explains these qualitative properties.
Analytical mass estimates promise to explain the hierarchy problem: first estimates
for the probability of the belt trick are so low that they promise to explain why particle
masses are so much smaller than the Planck mass.
Strands provide estimates for a number of elementary particle mass ratios, such as
W/Z and Higgs/W. Most quark and lepton mass sequences and first rough estimates of
mass ratios agree with the experimental data. All hadron mass sequences are predicted
correctly. The strand model also promises to calculate absolute mass values and their
running with energy. Future calculations will allow either improving the match with
observations or refuting the strand model.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 192 s

346

Page 154

12 particle properties deduced from strands

In the millennium list of open issues, we have thus seen how to settle several further items though we have not settled them completely yet. Because more interesting
challenges are awaiting us, we continue nevertheless. In the next leg, we investigate the
mixing of elementary particle states.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014
free pdf le available at [Link]

mixing angles

347

A quark mass eigenstate :

A quark weak eigenstate :

s
two tails
above, one tail
below paper plane

all three tails

in paper plane
magnified core

F I G U R E 109 Tail shifting leads to quark mixing: mass eigenstates and weak eigenstates differ.

mixing angles

Quark mixing the data

Vol. V, page 241

d
d

s = (Vi j ) s .
b
b

Ref. 224

(203)

where, by convention, the states of the +2/3 quarks u, c and t are unmixed. Unprimed
quarks names represent strong (and electromagnetic) eigenstates, primed quark names
represent weak eigenstates. In its standard parametrization, the mixing matrix reads
s13 ei13
s23 c13
c23 c13

(204)

where ci j = cos i j , si j = sin i j and i and j label the generation (1 i, j 3). The mixing matrix thus contains three mixing angles, 12 , 23 and 13 , and one phase, 13 . In the
limit 23 = 13 = 0, i.e., when only two generations mix, the only remaining parameter
is the angle 12 , called the Cabibbo angle. The angle is Cabibbos original discovery. The
phase 13 lies between 0 and 2, is different from zero, and expresses the fact that CP

free pdf le available at [Link]

c12 c13
s12 c13
i13
V = s12 c23 c12 s23 s13 e
c12 c23 s12 s23 s13 ei13
s12 s23 c12 c23 s13 ei13 c12 s23 s12 c23 s13 ei13

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 224

In nature, the quark mass eigenstates and their weak eigenstates differ. This difference
was discovered in 1963 by Nicola Cabibbo and is called quark mixing. The values of the
elements of the quark mixing matrix have been measured in many experiments, and
more experiments aiming to increase the measurement precision are under way.
The quark mixing matrix is defined by

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

In nature, the mass eigenstates for fermions differ from their weak eigenstates: quarks
mix among themselves, and so do neutrinos. Quarks also show CP violation. These
effects are described by the so-called mixing matrices. The two mixing matrices thus
contain fundamental constants of nature. For the strand model to be correct, it must
allow calculating the measured values of all components of both mixing matrices.

348

Ref. 224

12 particle properties deduced from strands

invariance is violated in the case of the weak interactions. It appears in the third column
of the matrix and shows that CP violation is related to the existence of three (or more)
generations.
The present 90 % confidence values for the measured magnitude of the complex quark
mixing matrix elements are
0.97419(22) 0.2257(10) 0.00359(16)
|V | = 0.2256(10) 0.97334(23) 0.0415(11) .
0.00874(37) 0.0407(10) 0.999133(44)

(205)

Quark mixing explanations

Page 310

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 235

free pdf le available at [Link]

In the standard model of particle physics, the quark mixing matrix is usually seen as
due to the coupling between the vacuum expectation value of the Higgs field and the
left-handed quark doublets or the right handed quark singlets. However, this description does not lead to a numerical prediction. A similar description is given in the strand
model. In the strand model, the Higgs field and its role as mass generator and unitarity
maintainer is a special case of the process of strand overcrossing at the border of space.
And overcrossing is related to the weak interaction. Because the various quarks are differently tangled rational tangles, overcrossing can reduce or increase the crossings in a
quark tangle, and thus change quark flavours. We thus deduce from the strand model
that quark mixing is an automatic result of the strand model and related to the weak interaction. We also deduce that quark mixing is due to the same process that generates
quark masses, as expected. But we can say more.
In the strand model, the mass eigenstate and colour eigenstate is the tangle shape
in which colour symmetry is manifest and in which particle position is defined. The
mass eigenstates of quarks correspond to tangles whose three colour-tails point in three
directions that are equally distributed in space. The shape in which the tails point in
three, equally spaced directions is the shape that makes the SU(3) representation under
core slides manifest.
In contrast, the weak eigenstates are those shapes that makes the SU(2) behaviour of
core pokes manifest. For a quark, the weak eigenstate seems to be that shape of a tangle
for which all tails lie in a plane; for such plane configuration, the tails and the core mimic
a belt and its buckle, the structure that generates SU(2) behaviour. The two types of
eigenstates are illustrated in Figure 109.
In the strand model, masses are dynamical effects related to tangle shape. In the case
of quarks, the two configurations just mentioned will thus behave differently. We call
the transformation from a mass eigenstate to a weak eigenstate or back tail shifting. Tail
shifting is a deformation: the tails as a whole are rotated and shifted. On the other hand,

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

The numbers are unexplained constants of nature, as are particle masses. Within experimental errors, the matrix V is unitary.
A huge amount of experimental work lies behind this short summary. The data have
been collected over many years, in numerous scattering and decay experiments, by thousands of people. Nevertheless, this short summary represents all the data that any unified
description has to reproduce about quark mixing.

mixing angles

349

tail shifting can also lead to untangling of a quark tangle; in other words, tail shifting
can lead to strand overcrossing and thus can transform quark flavours. The process of
tail shifting can thus explain quark mixing. (Tail shifting also explains the existence of
neutrino mixing, and the lack of mixing for the weak bosons.)
Tail shifting can also be seen as a partial overcrossing; as such, it is due to the weak
interaction. This connection yields the following predictions:
Page 195
Ref. 224

A challenge
Ref. 242

Can you deduce the approximate expression

tan u mix =

Challenge 195 r

mu
mc

(206)

for the mixing of the up quark from the strand model?

Ref. 224
Page 317
Page 315

The CP violating phase 13 for quarks is usually expressed with the Jarlskog invariant, de2
fined as J = sin 12 sin 13 sin 23
cos 12 cos 13 cos 23 sin 13 . This involved expression
is independent of the definition of the phase angles and was discovered by Cecilia Jarlskog, an important Swedish particle physicist. Its measured value is J = 3.05(20) 105 .
Because the strand model predicts exactly three quark generations, the quark model
implies the possibility of CP violation. In the section on mesons we have seen that the
strand model actually predicts the existence CP violation. In particular, Figure 95 shows
that with the help of tail shifting, K 0 and K 0 mesons mix, and that the same happens with

free pdf le available at [Link]

CP-violation in quarks

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Performing a precise calculation of mixing angles and their running with energy is still
a subject of research.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Tail shifting, both with or without strand overcrossing at the border of space, is a
generalized deformation. Therefore, it is described by a unitary operator. The first
result from the strand model is thus that the quark mixing matrix is unitary. This is
indeed observed.
For quarks, overcrossing is a process with small probability. As a consequence, the
quark mixing matrix will have its highest elements on the diagonal. This is indeed
observed.
Tail shifting also naturally predicts that quark mixing will be higher between neighbouring generations, such as 1 and 2, than between distant generations, such as 1 and
3. This is also observed.
The connection between mixing and mass also implies that the 12 mixing is stronger
than the 23 mixing, as is observed.
Finally, tail shifting predicts that the numerical values in the quark mixing matrix
can be deduced from the difference between the shapes of the two kinds of tangles
shown in Figure 109. In particular, tail shifting also predicts that the quark mixing
angles change, or run, with energy. In addition, the effect is predicted to be small. So
far, there is no reliable data on the topic, though.

350

12 particle properties deduced from strands

A neutrino mass eigenstate :

e

each set of three tails

follows three mutually
perpendicular directions

A neutrino weak eigenstate :

e

all tails lie in one plane

F I G U R E 110 Tail shifting leads to neutrino mixing: mass eigenstates and weak eigenstates differ.

Neutrino mixing

Ref. 224

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 243

free pdf le available at [Link]

The observation, in 1998, of neutrino mixing is comparably recent in the history of particle physics, even though the important physicist Bruno Pontecorvo predicted the effect
already in 1957. Again, the observation of neutrino mixing implies that the mass eigenstates and the weak eigenstates differ. The values of the mixing matrix elements are only
known with limited accuracy so far, because the extremely small neutrino mass makes
experiments very difficult. Neutrino masses are known to be positive. So far, measurements only yield values of the order of 1 1 eV. In any case, it is definitely known that the
mixing among the three neutrino states is strong, in contrast to the situation for quarks.
In the strand model, the lepton mass eigenstates correspond to tangles whose tails
point along the three coordinate axes. In contrast, the weak eigenstates again correspond to tangles whose tails lie in a plane. The two kinds of eigenstates are illustrated
in Figure 110. Again, the transition between the two eigenstates is due to tail shifting, a
special kind of strand deformation.
We thus deduce that neutrino mixing, like quark mixing, is an automatic result of the
strand model and is related to the weak interaction. Given that the neutrino masses are
small and similar, and that neutrinos do not form composites, the strand model predicts
that the mixing values are large. This is a direct consequence of the leather trick, which in
the case of similar masses, mixes neutrino tangles with 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 etc. crossings and
thus leads to large mixings between all generations, and not only between neighbouring
generations. In the strand model, the large degree of neutrino mixing is thus seen as a
consequence of their low and similar masses, and of their existence as free particles.
Again, the strand model predicts a unitary mixing matrix for neutrinos. The strand
model also predicts that the geometry of the neutrino tangles and their fluctuations will

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

certain other neutral mesons. Figure 96 shows a further example. As just mentioned, the
tail shifting predicts that CP violation is small, but non-negligible, as is observed.
The strand model thus predicts that the quark mixing matrix has a non-vanishing CPviolating phase. The value of this phase is predicted to follow from the geometry of the
quark tangles, as soon as their shape fluctuations are properly accounted for. This topic
is still a subject of research.

mixing angles

351

allow us to calculate the mixing angles. More precise predictions are still subject of research.
CP-violation in neutrinos

Ref. 245

Open challenge: Calculate mixing angles and phases ab initio

Challenge 196 ny

Summary on mixing angles and the millennium list

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 154

The strand model implies that mixing angles are properties of specific tangle families that
follow automatically from the shape of tangles and their fluctuations. As a result, strands
explain why mixing angles are not free parameters, but discrete constants of nature. The
strand model also predicts that mixing angles are constant during the evolution of the
universe.
We have shown that tangles of strands predict non-zero mixing angles for quarks and
neutrinos, as well as CP-violation in both cases. The strand model also predicts that
the mixing angles of quarks and neutrinos can be calculated from strand fluctuations.
Strands predict that mixing matrices are unitary and that they run with energy. Strands
also predict a specific sequence of magnitudes among matrix elements; the few predictions so far agree with the experimental data. Finally, the strand model rules out leptogenesis.
We have thus partly settled four further items from the millennium list of open issues.
All qualitative aspects and some sequences are reproduced correctly, but no hard quantities. The result is somewhat disappointing, but it is also encouraging. No other ex-

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Calculating the mixing angles and phases ab initio, using the statistical distribution of
strand fluctuations, is possible in various ways. In particular, it is interesting to find the
relation between the probability for a tail shift and for an overcrossing. This will allow
checking the statements of this section.
Because the strand model predicts a lack of new physics beyond the standard model
of particle physics, the calculation of neutrino mixing angles is one of the few possible
predictions that are left over in fundamental physics. Since the lepton tangles are still
tentative, a careful investigation is necessary.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 244

The strand model predicts that the three neutrinos are massive Dirac particles. This has
not yet been verified by experiment. The strand model thus predicts that the neutrino
mixing matrix has only one CP-violating phase. (It would have three such phases if neutrinos were Majorana particles.) The value of this phase is predicted to follow from the
neutrino tangles and a proper accounting of their fluctuations. Also this calculation is
still a subject of research. On the other hand, it is unclear when the value of the CPviolating phase will be measured. This seems the hardest open challenge of experimental
particle physics.
The mechanism of CP violation has important consequences in cosmology, in particular for the matterantimatter asymmetry. Since the strand model predicts the absence of
the see-saw mechanism, the strand model rules out leptogenesis, an idea invented to explain the lack of antimatter in the universe. The strand model is more on the line with
electroweak baryogenesis.

352

12 particle properties deduced from strands

planation for quark and neutrino mixing is known at present. Future calculations will
allow either improving the checks or refuting the strand model. We now turn to the most
interesting topic left: understanding the coupling constants.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014
free pdf le available at [Link]

coupling constants and unification

353

1/ i
weaker

60
50

Data

Prediction
by the standard
model

1/1

40

electromagnetism

1/2
30
20
stronger

1/3

3 1/5 weak
hypercharge

2 weak
interaction

10

10

10

10

15

10

19

10

Q / GeV
F I G U R E 111 Left: How the three coupling constants (squared) change with energy, as predicted by the

standard model of particle physics; the graph shows the constants 1 = 53 / cos2 W for the
electromagnetic interaction (more precisely, the weak hypercharge the factor 5/3 is useful in grand
unication), 2 = / sin2 W for the weak interaction, and 3 = s for the strong coupling constant. The
three points are the data points for the highest energies measured so far; at lower energies, data and
calculation match within experimental errors (courtesy Wim de Boer). Right: The relation between the
coupling constants for the electromagnetic U(1)EM , 2 for the weak SU(2), 1 for the weak
hypercharge U(1)Y gauge group and the weak mixing angle W .

Small changes of core shape do not produce any crossing switch. Small shape changes
thus have no physical significance: for a given observer, they leave all observables
unchanged.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 5

In nature, the strength of a gauge interaction is described by its coupling constant. The
coupling constant gives the probability with which a charge emits a virtual gauge boson,
or, equivalently, the average phase change produced by the absorption of a gauge boson.
There are three coupling constants, one for the electromagnetic, one for the weak and one
for the strong interaction. The three coupling constants depend on energy. The known
data and the change with energy predicted by the standard model of particle physics
are shown in Figure 111. At the lowest possible energy, 0.511 MeV, the fine structure constant , i.e., the electromagnetic coupling constant, has the well-known measured value
1/137.035 999 074(44). Explaining this number, which determines all colours and all
material properties in nature, is the most famous millennium issue. If the strand model
cannot reproduce all observations about coupling constants, it is wrong.
In the strand model, all three gauge interactions are due to shape changes of tangle
cores. We first classify the possible shape changes. Given a tangle core, the following
shape changes can occur:

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

coupling constants and unification

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

0
0
10

354

12 particle properties deduced from strands

Twist shape changes of a strand segment in the core produce an electric field, if the
particle is charged. More precisely, the electric field around a particle is the difference
between the average number ptr of right twists and the average number ptl of inverse,
left twists that a particle tangle produces per unit time.
Poke shape changes of a strand segment in the core produce a weak interaction field.
More precisely, the weak field is the asymmetry among the probabilities ppx , ppy and
ppz for the three fundamental poke types and their inverses.
Slide shape changes of a strand segment in the core produce a colour field, if the particle has colour. More precisely, the colour field is the asymmetry among the probabilities ps1 to ps8 for the eight fundamental slide types and their inverses.
In the strand model, the fluctuation probabilities for each Reidemeister move twist,
poke or slide determine the coupling constants. We thus need to determine these probability values. A number of conclusions can be deduced directly, without any detailed
calculation.

8
=1

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 246

The strand model thus predicts that the sum of the three coupling constants must be
strictly smaller than 1 for every energy value. This is easily checked, both with the
data and with the prediction of quantum field theory. In quantum field theory, the
(modified) square of the three coupling constants is given, as a function of energy,
in the popular graph shown in Figure 111. In this popular graph, the electromagnetic
coupling is traditionally multiplied by 5/(3 cos2 W ), in order to test grand unification.
The graph allows us to confirm that the sum of the three unmodified couplings is
indeed smaller than 1 for all energy values, as predicted by the strand model.
The strand model also predicts that the three coupling constants are related by small
numbers, as the corresponding fluctuations differ only in the number of involved
strands. This is also observed, as Figure 111 shows especially if we remember that
the couplings are, apart from the mentioned factors, the square roots of the values
shown in the graph.
The strand model further predicts that the coupling constants are independent of
time and space, and that in particular, they do not depend on the age of the universe.
This is also observed, despite occasional claims to the contrary.
Finally, strand model predicts that the coupling constants are the same for particles
and antiparticles, as is observed.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

1 = psmall + ptr + ptl + ppx + ppy + ppz + ppx + ppy + ppz + (psg + psg ) . (207)

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

The coupling constants are not free parameters, but are specified by the geometric,
three-dimensional shape of the particle tangles.
By relating coupling constants to shape fluctuation probabilities, the strand model
predicts that coupling constants are positive numbers and smaller than 1 for all energies. This is indeed observed.
A still stricter bound for coupling constants can also be deduced. The sum of all
possible fluctuations for a particular tangle has unit probability. We thus have

coupling constants and unification

355

In summary, the strand model implies, like quantum field theory, that coupling constants
are probabilities. The obvious consequences that the coupling constants must be smaller
than one and sum to a number smaller than one are valid both in quantum field theory
and in the strand model. Despite the encouraging agreement with experiment, we have
not deduced any new result yet except one.
Strands imply unification

Page 259

* The strand model thus predicts that at extremely high energy, meaning near the Planck energy, for each
gauge interaction, also particles with zero charge can interact. At Planck energy, the time averaging is not
perfect, and interactions become possible even with zero charge.

free pdf le available at [Link]

The strand model predicts that the calculation of the three coupling constants is a problem of tangle geometry and fluctuation statistics. Thus it can be approached, at each
energy scale, either analytically or with computer calculations. The calculations need to
determine the probabilities of the corresponding Reidemeister moves. If the results do
not agree with the experimental values, the strand model is false. We note that there is
no freedom to tweak the calculations towards the known experimental results.
In order to match observations, all tangles with unit electric charge must have the
same coupling, and thus the same probability for preferred fluctuations of twists, i.e., of
Reidemeister I moves. For example, the preferred probabilities must be identical for the
positron and the proton. The twist probabilities thus must be quantized and must classify
tangles into equivalence classes defined by their electric charge.
So far, there do not seem to exist any analytical tool that permits the calculation of
shape deformation probabilities. Thus, at present, computer calculations seem to be the

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

General expectations about coupling constants

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

In fact, one new point is made by the strand model. Each gauge interaction is due to a
different Reidemeister move. However, given a specific tangle core deformation, different
observers will classify the deformation as a different Reidemeister move. Indeed, each
Reidemeister move can be realized by the same deformation of one single strand: it is
sufficient to add a curved section to a straight strand segment. Such a deformation will
look like a type I move for one observer, like a type II move for another, and like a type
III move for a third one.
Because all interactions follow from the same kind of strand deformation, the strand
model thus provides unification of the interactions. This result is new. In fact, this unification of the interactions differs completely from any other approach ever proposed. In
particular, strand unification does not seem to imply that the three coupling constants
have the same value at high energy.
In fact, a specific shape deformation thus has four probabilities associated to it: the
probabilities describe what percentage of observers sees this deformation as a type I
move, as a type II move, as a type III move or as no move at all, i.e., as a small move
without crossing switch. On the other hand, at energies measurable in the laboratory, the
moves can always be distinguished, as three of the four probabilities practically vanish,
due to the time averaging involved.* In short, at energies measurable in the laboratory,
the three interactions always clearly differ.

356

Challenge 197 r

12 particle properties deduced from strands

only possible choice. Of all existing software programs, the most adapted to calculating
fluctuation probabilities are the programs that simulate the dynamics of knotted polymers; but also the programs that simulate the dynamics of cosmic strings or the dynamics of helium vortices are candidates. The main issue, apart from a large computer time, is
the correct and self-consistent specification of the shape fluctuation distribution at each
energy scale.
In short, using the strand model we expect to be able to calculate the electromagnetic
coupling constant and to understand its validity across all elementary particles. The same
expectation obviously also holds for the two nuclear interactions. If any of the expectations on tangle interactions are found to be incorrect, the strand model is false. The
strand model must yield quantized tangle equivalence classes for the weak charge and for
the colour charge. Even though the calculation issues are still subject of research, there
are several hints that these expectations will be validated.

Ref. 5

free pdf le available at [Link]

The topological writhe of the open trefoil is +3 or 3, depending on which mirror

image we look at; the topological writhe of the open figure-eight knot vanishes. The
topological withe of any unknotted strand also vanishes. In this way, if we define the
electric charge quantum number as one third of the topological writhe, we recover

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

In nature, electric, weak and strong charge are quantized. No experiment has ever found
even the smallest deviation from charge quantization. All charges in nature are integer
multiples of a smallest charge unit. Specifically, the electric charge of every free particle
is observed to be an integer multiple of the positron electric charge. We call the integer the electric charge quantum number. The electromagnetic coupling of the positron
is best described by the number 1/11.706 237 6139(19) at low energy, i.e., at 0.511 MeV.
This value the electric charge unit at low energy is the square root of the famous fine
structure constant = 1/137.035 999 074(44). Quantum electrodynamics also predicts
the precise change with energy of this charge unit; the experiments performed so far, up
to over 100 GeV, agree with this prediction. Extrapolating this change, quantum electrodynamics predicts that the charge unit, when extrapolated right up to the Planck energy,
would have a value of 1/10.2(1), as shown in Figure 111. If the strand model does not
reproduce these observations, it is wrong.
We thus need to understand, using the strand model, the quantization of electric
charge on the one hand, and the mysterious value of the charge unit either at low energy
or at Planck energy on the other hand.
In the strand model, electric charge is related to the chirality of a tangle. Only chiral
tangles are electrically charged. The strand model thus implies that a topological quantity for tangles defined for each tangle in the tangle family corresponding to a specific
elementary particle must represent electric charge. Which quantity could this be?
The usual topological quantity to determine chirality of knots and tangles is the topological writhe. To determine it, we draw a minimal projection, i.e., a two-dimensional
knot or tangle diagram with the smallest number of crossings possible. We then count
the right-handed crossings and subtract the number of left-handed crossings. This difference, an integer, is the topological writhe. About it, we note:

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

First hint: charge quantization and topological writhe

coupling constants and unification

Page 300

Page 306

Challenge 199 ny

the correct electric charge quantum number of the weak and all other gauge bosons.
The tangles of the quarks show that if we define the electric charge quantum number
as one third of the topological writhe, we recover the correct electric charge quantum
number of all quarks. We note that the leather trick does not change this result.
The tangles of the leptons show that if we define the electric charge quantum number as the topological writhe of the centre region only, we recover the correct electric
charge quantum number of all leptons. Again, the leather trick does not change this
result.

Second hint: the energy dependence of physical quantities

Page 353

* In the standard model of particle physics, the running of the electromagnetic and weak coupling constants
the slope in Figure 111 depends on the number of existing Higgs boson types. The (corrected) strand
model predicts that this number is one, and that measuring the running of the constants can check the
number of Higgs bosons. Unfortunately, the difference is small; for the electromagnetic coupling, the slope
changes by around 2 % if the Higgs number changes by one. But in future, such a measurement accuracy
might be possible.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 220
Page 310

In nature, all effective charges, i.e., the coupling constants, change with energy. One also
says that they run with energy. Figure 111 shows the details. Running also occurs for
masses and mixing angles. All other intrinsic particle properties, such as spin, parities
and all other quantum numbers, are found not to change with energy. For the coupling
constants, the measured changes between everyday energy and about 100 GeV agree with
the prediction from quantum field theory.*
The strand model predicts that coupling constants, like masses and mixing angles,
change with energy, because they are quantities that depend on the average geometry,
i.e., the average shape, of the underlying particle tangles. More precisely, the quantities
depend on the fluctuations of the geometric shapes, and these fluctuations depend somewhat on the energy scale under consideration. We note that the strand model predicts

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

In other terms, the electric charge quantum number can be reproduced with the help of
topological writhe.
Let us sum up. In nature, electric charge is quantized. The strand model describes
charged particles with the help of fluctuating alternating tangles, and charge quantization
is a topological effect that results because all particles are made of strands. In particular,
the electric charge quantum number behaves like topological writhe: it is quantized, has
two possible signs, vanishes for achiral tangles, and is a topological invariant and thus
is conserved.
In short, a topological quantity, namely topological writhe, reproduces the eletcric
charge quantum number in the strand model. Three issues remain: Given that every
particle is described by a tangle family with an infinite number of members, how is the
electric charge, i.e., the topological writhe of the other tangle family members accounted
for? It is not hard to see that family members do not change topological writhe. The
second issue is more thorny: why is the charge definition different for leptons? We skip
this problem for the time being and continue with the third issue: What is the origin of
the peculiar value of the charge unit, whose square has the value 1/137.035 999 074(44)
at low energy? We start by revisiting the change of charge with energy.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 198 e

357

358

12 particle properties deduced from strands

running only for these three types of observables; all the other observables spin, parities or other quantum numbers are predicted to depend on the topology of the particle
tangles, and thus to be independent of energy. This agrees with observation. Therefore,
we now explore the details of the running.
Third hint: the running of the coupling constants at low energy

Page 353

free pdf le available at [Link]

As we saw, the complete explanation of the running of the couplings depends on the
explicit boson and fermion content of nature and on the fact that the strand model re-

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Fourth hint: predictions at low energy, independent of particle

content

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 312

The strand model proposes a new view on the screening and antiscreening effects that
are part of quantum field theory. Screening effects are consequences of the statistics of
shape deformations for loose tangle cores that are embedded into the strands that form
the vacuum. Since these statistical effects can in principle be calculated, it is expected that
such calculations can be compared with the predictions of quantum field theory shown
in Figure 111. This check is in progress. A few results, however, can be deduced without
any calculations at all.
In the strand model, the electromagnetic interaction is due to the first Reidemeister
move, the twist. For a charged particle thus one with a chiral tangle core the average
difference in the occurrence of right and left twists determines the effective charge. It is
expected that this difference decreases when the strand core is loose, because the loose
strands are similar to those of the surrounding vacuum, so that the differences due to
the chirality of the tangle will be washed out. In the language of quantum field theory,
the virtual particle-antiparticle pairs created by the fluctuations of the vacuum strands
screen the central, naked charge. The screening changes is reduced when the energy is
increased, and thus the dimensions, including those of the fluctuations, are reduced. In
other words, the strand model predicts that the electromagnetic coupling increases with
energy, as is observed.
Also for the two nuclear interactions, the washing out effect for loose tangle cores
by the vacuum does occur as predicted by quantum field theory. In the weak interaction, the antiscreening of the weak charge appears in this way. In the strong interaction,
both virtual quarkantiquark pairs and virtual gluon pairs can appear from the strands
that make up the vacuum. Virtual quarkantiquark pairs lead to screening, as virtual
electronantielectron pairs do for the electromagnetic interaction. In addition, however,
the strand model of mesons implies that virtual gluon pairs lead to antiscreening. (In
contrast, virtual photon pairs do not lead to such an effect.) Because the strand model
fixes the number of quark and gluons, the strand model is consistent with the result that
the screening of the colour charge by quark pairs is overcompensated by the antiscreening of the virtual gluon pairs.
In other words, the strand model reproduces the observed signs for the slopes of the
coupling constants in Figure 111, for the same reason that it reproduces the quantum field
theoretic description of the three gauge interactions. The predicted running could also
be checked quantitatively, by taking statistical averages of tangle fluctuations of varying
dimension. This is a challenge for future research.

coupling constants and unification

The running of the coupling constants near Planck energy

free pdf le available at [Link]

At energies near the Planck energy, quantum field theory is modified: effects due to the
strand diameter start to play a role. Near Planck energy, tangles get tighter and tighter
and fluctuations get weaker, because there is less room for them. Near Planck energy,
tangles also tend to approach the structure of horizons. Therefore, near the Planck energy, the strand model predicts deviations from the energy dependence of the coupling
constants that is predicted by quantum field theory.
Calculating the coupling constants should be possible also at Planck energy. This
would allow us to estimate the Planck scale deviations between the strand model and
quantum field theory. Such a calculation might also allow us to estimate the low-energy
coupling constants from their Planck energy values. However, so far, this approach has
not led to success, despite a number of attempts. In fact, this approach to calculate the
low-energy coupling constants must be considered unsatisfactory in principle, due to the
approximations and extrapolations involved.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

produces quantum field theory. Interestingly, the strand model also proposes a simpler,
though less precise explanation of the running.
At energies much smaller than the Planck energy, such as everyday energies, the
strand model implies that the average size of the tangle core is of the order of the position
uncertainty of a particle. In other words, any thickness of the strands real or effective
can be neglected at low energies. Therefore, at low energies, the average strand length
within a particle tangle core is also of the order of the de Broglie wavelength. Low, everyday energy thus implies large, loose and spherical/ellipsoidal tangle cores.
At low energies, shape fluctuations can lead to any of the three Reidemeister moves.
The probabilities of such shape deformations will scale with some power of the average
strand length within the tangle core. In other words, coupling constants depend on energy. But how exactly?
We note directly that higher Reidemeister moves, which involve larger numbers of
strand segments, will scale with larger power values. In particular, the longer the strand
in the core i.e., the lower the energy the more the relative probability for the higher
Reidemeister moves will increase.
In summary, the strand model predicts that when a tangle is loose and long, i.e., when
energies are low, the strong nuclear interaction, due to the third Reidemeister move, is
the strongest gauge interaction, followed by the weak nuclear interaction, due to the second Reidemeister move, in turn followed by the electromagnetic interaction. The prediction matches observations. However, this argument is not really reliable. If the strand
number were the only cause of the running, the argument would imply that the three
slopes for the running of the three coupling constants should behave like [Link]. However,
the graph of Figure 111 shows otherwise, even if the difference between the electromagnetic coupling and the weak hypercharge coupling is taken into account. Indeed, the
running of the coupling constants is not due to strand number only, but also to the explicit boson and fermion content of nature, as we just saw.

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359

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12 particle properties deduced from strands

On estimating the fine structure constant from knot shapes

Given the uncertainty of Planck energy behaviour, coupling constants are best estimated
at low energy. For example, in the strand model, the (square root of the) fine structure
constant is the probability for the emission of twists by a fluctuating chiral tangle.
The strand model predicts that the fine structure constant can be calculated
by determining the probability of twists in the random tangle shapes of a
given particle.

Fifth hint: 3d-writhe

Page 334

Ref. 247

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 247

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 390

A first, simple exploration of the fine structure constant is based on the conjecture that
the twist emission probability is proportional, approximately, to the 3d writhe of a tangle.
The 3d writhe is the three-dimensional average of the topological writhe. To determine 3d writhe, we imagine to observe a knot or tangle from a random direction and
draw the projection, i.e., the two-dimensional tangle diagram. We then count the righthanded crossings and subtract the number of left-handed crossings. If we average this
difference over all possible observation directions, we get the 3d writhe of that knot or
tangle. In short, the 3d writhe is a three-dimensional measure of chirality. The important point is that the value of 3d writhe, in contrast to topological writhe, depends on the
shape of the tangle. To get a physically useful observable from the strand model, we must
then also average, for a given wave function, over all possible tangle shapes.
3d writhe is a natural candidate to describe full electric charge, i.e., the product of the
fine structure constant and the electric charge quantum number. 3d writhe is a generalization of topological writhe, and topological writhe behaves, as we just saw, like the
electric charge quantum number. But there are additional arguments for the conjecture.
Recent research on knot and tangle shape averaging has produced some important
results about 3d writhe and related tangle properties. First, researchers discovered that
several average properties of random knots and tangles correlate with properties of tight
knots and tangles. Two examples of tight tangles were shown in Figure 105. To clarify
the correlation, we take a set of fluctuating or random tangles, all with the same topology; these tangles show fluctuating or random values of the 3d writhe. Nevertheless,
the average 3d writhe for all tangle shapes is found numerically to be indistinguishable
from the 3d writhe of the tight tangle. This has been confirmed in various studies to a

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

In other words, the strand model must show that the probability of the first Reidemeister
move in chiral particle tangles is quantized. This probability must be an integer multiple
of a unit that is common to all tangles; and this coupling unit must be the fine structure
constant.
A check for the existence of a coupling unit requires the calculation of twist emission probabilities for each chiral particle tangle. The strand model is only correct if all
particles with the same electric charge yield the same twist emission probability. Simple
estimates show that numerical simulations of random shapes require a large amount of
computer time, due to the large number of configurations that must be explored. Could
the twist emission probability be estimated with a simpler calculation? Can we check
whether the probability is indeed quantized? There are a number of possibilities.

coupling constants and unification

Ref. 248

361

* Why is the writhe of alternating tight knots quasi-quantized? No simple argument is known yet.
** We note that the issue of quasi-quantization instead of an exact quantization could be circumvented
in the following way. In the strand model, at low energy, the strands effectively have negligible thickness.
As a result, the average writhe of randomly shaped tangles could deviate somewhat from the writhe of
tight tangles. This could imply that the average writhe of loose, randomly shaped tangles might be exactly
quantized, whereas the writhe of tight tangles remains only approximately quantized.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Vol. I, page 71

We mentioned that each coupling constant gives the average probability of virtual boson
emission. In the case of electromagnetism, it might be that the total torsion of a tight tangle is a more accurate measure for the probability of twist emission. Also this conjecture
fulfils many expectations about the fine structure constant.
Exploring torsion is a subject of research. In any case, estimating the twist emission
probability without computer calculations is not a problem that is easy to solve without
deeper insight into tangle shapes. Unfortunately, the exact shape is unknown for all tight
open or closed knots even for the trefoil knot. (As mentioned already, this is one of
the simplest and, at the same time, most difficult open problems of geometry.) The exact
shape is also unknown for all particle tangles.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Sixth hint: torsion

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

numerical precision of a few per cent. For example, both the average 3d writhe of any
random achiral knot and the 3d writhe of the corresponding tight achiral knot vanishes.
This numerical equality has been checked numerically for knots with minimal crossing
numbers below 10. (However, there is no mathematical proof that the equality is exact.)
A second result of modern knot research is even more interesting. In the years between 1996 and 1998 it was discovered that the 3d writhe for closed alternating tight knots
is quasi-quantized. More specifically, many different closed knots share almost the same
3d writhe value; in particular, to within 1 %, the 3d writhe of all (small) closed alternating
knots is the multiple of a writhe quantum, with the value 4/7.*
Let us combine these two results of modern research. If the full electric charge, i.e., the
twist emission probability of chiral, i.e., charged particles, would be given by 3d writhe,
then the charge unit would be related to the quasi-quantum of the 3d writhe.** If the
conjectured relation between charge and 3d-writhe were correct, (quasi-) quantization of
charge would follow. Of course, we would need to check first that all mentioned results
about knots also hold for tangles, and not only for knots. This does not seem too hard.
In short, if electric charge and the fine structure constant would be described by 3d
writhe of particle tangles, charge would be almost quantized. Alas, the known value of
the writhe quasi-quantum, 4/7, does not help us to deduce the value of the fine structure constant, because in this conjecture on the origin of the fine structure constant, the
writhe quasi-quantum could be multiplied by any numerical factor to yield the particle
coupling. Nevertheless, we are left with a fascinating conjecture that suggests a natural
way in which electric charge could be quantized in nature. The conjecture that some
quantity close to 3d writhe is quantized in integer multiples of a smallest value would
explain why the fine structure constant exists.
We note that this conjecture also predicts that the 3d writhe of quark tangles must be
either one third or two thirds times the writhe the W boson tangle. Such a calculation
still needs to be preformed.

362

12 particle properties deduced from strands

Seventh hint: linking number

One of the best tentative explanations for charge quantization relates electric charge and
the linking number of ribbons. The conjecture consists of the following argument chain.

If the relation between linking number and electric charge is correct, it might even lead
to a partly analytical calculation of the fine structure constant, once the tangle shape is
included in the proper way. This approach still is a topic of research.

Page 334

Ref. 249

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 249

Another approach for the calculation of coupling constants is the following. We assume
that at low energy, particles are accurately described, on average, by loose tangles that
have the shape of scaled-up tight tangles. We also assume that the simplest tangles are a
good approximation for the whole tangle family that corresponds to a specific elementary particle. With these assumptions, we can take the shape of the tight open trefoil and
of the tight open figure-eight knot of Figure 105, though with strands of negligible diameter, as the average representatives for the W boson and Z boson. Using these boson
representatives, we can try to estimate the U(1) and SU(2) couplings at Planck energy
by calculating the probability in which a random rotation of the open tight trefoil knot
yields a Reidemeister I or a Reidemeister II move.
Random knot orientations do lead to a value for the electromagnetic coupling constant. But it turns out that the assumption that all knot orientations are equally probable
does not yield values for the coupling constants that agree with the known data: the discrepancy from data is around 50 %.
Where does the approximation break down? We might argue that random rotations
of tight open knots are not possible in general, but that only rotation around the axis
defined by the tails are allowed. Taking this point into account improves the situation
for the U(1) coupling, but leads to a vanishing SU(2) coupling.
A slightly different view of the coupling constants is more promising. The fine struc-

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Eighth hint: estimating coupling constants using random

rotations

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

In knot theory, a framing is the ribbon associated to a tangle or knot when the strands
are displaced in some predefined way. In nature, every particle tangle has an effective
framing, because, due to time uncertainty, strands are effectively ribbons. The framing fluctuates.
In particle tangles, only curved ribbons should lead to (net) photon emission. Electric charge should therefore depend on the sum of writhe and twist of the (averaged)
framing ribbon, because both these properties lead to virtual photon emission.
The sum of writhe and twist of a ribbon is determined, through Calugareanus theorem, by the linking number, which is a purely topological quantity and an integer. In
more detail, the linking number of a ribbon is the number of times that the two edges
of a ribbon wind around each other.
The connection between photon emission and linking number, an integer, suggests
charge quantization. This seems an appealing conjecture to explain the exact quantization of electric charge.
Averaging the linking number over all possible tangle ribbons might explain the value
of the fine structure constant.

coupling constants and unification

Page 224

363

p
3
=
= 0.063 .
2
2

(208)

free pdf le available at [Link]

The result is somewhat closer to the experimental value 0.085424(1), but the accuracy is
still not satisfying; the inverse square, about 192(10), misses the fine structure constant,
137.036(1), by 40 %.
These approximations assumed that (1) the tangle of the W is correct, that (2) absorbed photons only rotate the tangle core, and that (3) all possible rotation angles are
equally probable. However, we know that the first assumption is not fully confirmed and
that even if it is, the last two approximations cannot yield an accurate result, because
photon absorption includes and implies the deformation of tangle cores.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

On the other hand, the measured value for is 0.085424(1). As expected, the approximation is not satisfying.
A better appoximation of rotation effects arises if we chose a random starting orientation of the W tangle and then determine the average angle needed to change both its
(2d) writhe and its crossing number by +1. Then we again average this average over all
possible starting orientations. For the simplest Z tangle, the figure eight knot, the average
vanishes within the numerical precision of the knot shape data. This is as expected for
a neutral particle. For the open overhand or trefoil knot, thus for the simplest W tangle,
we get
0.072(2) .
(209)

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

ture constant can be viewed as the average angle value by which the phase of a wave
function changes when a photon is absorbed (or emitted). The strand version of this
view offers an interesting approach for calculations. We know that this view of the fine
structure constant is correct, because we used it above to deduce Schwingers expression
for the anomalous magnetic moment from the strand model.
The simplest case to explore is the open trefoil that describes the essential aspects of
the weak W boson. Any absorption of a photon by a W boson is expected to lead, at
low energy, to a rotation of the trefoil. We can thus average, over all orientations of the
open trefoil, the rotation angle required to add an effective loop (or twist), i.e., to change
the (2d) writhe by +1 and, at the same time, the crossing number by +1. Because such a
specific process describes the absorption of a photon without subsequent reemission, the
resulting average angle should be close to the square root of the fine structure constant.
The approach directly yields a very rough, but simple approximation. We imagine
that the simplest effect of a photon is only to change the orientation of the W tangle in
space, so that its crossing number and its (2d) writhe both change by 1. This probability
p is encoded in the 3d writhe of the open trefoil. Of course, the 3d writhe also contains
other changes, but we neglect them in this rough approximation. Thus we approximate
the probability as p = 3, where is the 3d writhe of the open trefoil. The value has
been determined by Jason Cantarella to be 3.394. In a further, very rough approximation,
we estimate the average angle, i.e., the square root of the fine structure constant, as

364

12 particle properties deduced from strands

Ninth hint: estimating the fine structure constant from

deformation statistics

Open challenge: Calculate coupling constants ab initio

Challenge 200 r

Ref. 250

Electric dipole moments

free pdf le available at [Link]

The issue of the electric dipole moment merits a closer look. Does the strand model lead
to electric dipole moments for elementary particles? One one hand, the charge quantum
number is a topological quantity. On the other hand, the concept of dipole moment is
based on a distribution of the electric charge in space.
In the strand model, the electric charge, being a topological quantity, is by definition
a slightly non-local quantity. It is non-local on a scale of the order of a Planck length. At
the same time, the strand model does not allow to define spatial distributions at Planckscale dimensions.
In summary, we expect that up to a region close to a Planck length, the strand model
should not yield dipole moments that differ from those predicted by the standard model
of particle physics.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 330

Calculating all three coupling constants ab initio, by determining the statistics of strand
fluctuations, will allow checking the statements of this section in an independent manner. The calculations should be performed at various energies, to confirm the energy
dependence of the couplings.
In order to reach high precision, the effects of the various tangle family members
have to be taken into account, because in the strand model, each particle is described by
a family of tangles. It seems, though, that family members have similar effects on charge
q and on effective coupling q , so that the family issue might be neglected in first order
calculations. For the nuclear coupling constants, Arnolds results on plane curves may
help in the calculations.
The calculations described in the previous sections are under way. We are eager to
check the outcome with the measured valus.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Fluctuations of tangles are random. A precise calculation of the fine structure constant
must include shape fluctuations, as well as their actual spectrum covered by their randomness.
A simple approach is to add a random twist i.e., a random photon to a particle
tangle. Such a random twist will influence both the phase and the 3d writhe of the tangle.
If we look at the 3d writhe, we can look at the average 3d writhe for left-handed twists
and compare it to the average for right-handed twists. The calculation is under way.
If we explore the phase, we need to calculate the following: for a random twist added
to the particle tangle, we determine the induced phase change. We average this phase
change over all random tangles. The average phase change is the square root of the fine
structure constant. The calculation is under way.
These types of calculations can be improved by including a more detailed fluctuation
spectrum, especially by taking into account how random virtual photons deform particle
tangles. This is a subject of reserach.

coupling constants and unification

365

Summary on coupling constants and millennium issues

The strand model implies that coupling constants are geometric properties of specific
tangle families. As a result, strands explain why the coupling constants are not free parameters in nature, but fixed constants. Strands predict that coupling constants run with
energy and are constant during the macroscopic evolution of the universe, as is observed.
Strands also predict the correct sequence of the coupling constants at low energy and the
correct sign of their running with energy. Strands thus reproduce all qualitative properties of coupling constants. No other unified model achieves this.
Strand propose several ways to calculate coupling constants using knot shapes. First
estimates of the fine structure constant deviate from experiment by 40 %. The accuracy
is not satisfying; however, the approximation can be improved. This is the first ever estimate of the fine structure constant from first principles. Improved calculations are ongoing and will allow to confirm or to refute the strand model.
Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics
copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014
free pdf le available at [Link]

366

12 particle properties deduced from strands

The fundamental principle of the strand model :

t1

Some
deformation,
but no
passing
through

W = h/2
l = lPl
t = tPl
S = k/2

t2

F I G U R E 112 The fundamental principle of the strand model: Planck units are dened by a crossing

switch in three spatial dimensions. The fundamental principle implies general relativity and the standard
model of particle physics.

In our adventure, we have argued that Plancks natural units should be modelled with the
fundamental principle for strands, which is shown again in Figure 112. The fundamental
principle explains the following measured properties of nature:

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

Strands explain the principle of least action and the invariance of c, , G and k.
Strands explain the three dimensions of space, the existence of gravitation and curvature, the equations of general relativity, the value of black hole entropy and the
observations of modern cosmology.
Strands explain all the concepts used in the Lagrangian of the standard model of
particle physics, including wave functions, the Dirac equation and the finite, discrete
and small mass of elementary particles.
Strands explain the existence of electromagnetism and of the two nuclear interactions,
with their gauge groups and all their other observed properties.
Strands explain the observed gauge bosons, their charges, their quantum numbers
and, within 2 %, their mass ratio. Strands reproduce the Higgs boson and its mass
range.
Strands explain the three generations of quarks and leptons, their charges and quantum numbers, their mixing, their mass sequences, as well as their confinement properties.
Strands explain the quark model of hadrons, including CP violation, mass sequences,
signs of quadrupole moments, the lack of unobserved hadrons, common Regge
slopes and the existence of tetraquarks.
Strands do not allow arbitrary values for masses, coupling constants, mixing angles
and CP violating phases.
Strands enable calculations of particle masses, their coupling constants, their mixing
angles and the CP violating phases. First rough estimates of these values agree with
the (much more precise) experimental data. Computer calculations will allow us to

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

final summary abou t the millennium issues

experimental predictions of the strand model

367

improve these checks in the near future.

Finally, strands predict that nature does not hide any unknown fundamental interaction, fundamental symmetry, elementary particle or additional dimension. In particular, strands predict that no additional mathematical or physical concepts are required for a final theory.
All these results translate to specific statements on experimental observations. So far,
there is no contradiction between the strand model and experiments. These results allow
us to sum up our adventure in three statements:

Page 18

experimental predictions of the strand model

Es gibt viele Theorien,

die sich jedem Test entziehen.
Diese aber kann man checken,
elend wird sie dann verrecken.*

Many experiments around the world are searching for effects that are unexplained by the
standard model of particle physics. At the same time, all these experiments are testing the
strand model presented here. In fact, most people working on these experiments have
not heard about the strand model, so that there is not even the danger of unconscious
bias.
The most important predictions of the strand model that we deduced in our adventure are listed in Table 15. Only one prediction is unique to the strand model and un* No adequate translation possible.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Anonymous

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

We have not yet literally reached the top of Motion Mountain because certain numerical predictions of the fundamental constants are not yet precise enough but if no cloud
has played a trick on us, we have seen the top from nearby. We finally know the origin
of colours.
The last leg, the accurate calculation of the constants of the standard model of particle
physics, is still under way. The drive for simplicity and the spirit of playfulness that we
invoked at the start have been good guides.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 20

1. Strands solve all open issues. With one simple fundamental principle, the strand
model solves or at least proposes a way to solve all issues from the millennium list
of open issues in fundamental physics. All fundamental constants can be calculated
with strands.
2. Strands agree with all observations. In particular, the strand model implies that general relativity, quantum theory and the standard model of elementary particles are a
precise description of motion for all practical purposes.
3. Nothing new will be discovered in fundamental physics. Unexpectedly but convincingly, strands predict that general relativity, quantum theory and the standard model
of elementary particles are a complete description of motion for all practical purposes.

368

12 particle properties deduced from strands

confirmed: the possibility to calculate the constants in the standard model of particle
physics.
TA B L E 15 The main predictions of the strand model that follow from the fundamental principle. The

typeface distinguishes predictions that are unsurprising, unconrmed or unique to the strand model,
and both unconrmed and unique.

Page 34

Page 307
Page 310
Page 357

S tat u s ( 2 0 1 3 )

Planck units (c, , k, c 4 /4G)

are limit values.

Higgs boson
Higgs boson
Running of the coupling constants

2008/9: does not exist.

2012: does exist.
2008/9: implies no Higgs.
2012: implies one Higgs.
2008/9: show non-local
effects at the Large Hadron
Collider.
2012: show no non-local
effects at the Large Hadron
Collider.
is unitary at the LHC.
do not exist.

None has been

exceeded, but more
checks are possible.
Falsified.
Verified.
No data yet.
No data yet.
No data yet.

Obvious.
None found yet.

do not exist.

None found yet.

do not exist.

None found yet.

Page 357
Page 307

Longitudinal W and Z boson scattering

Page 310
Page 307
Page 330

Page 294
Page 260, page 297

Page 292

Page 347
Page 350
Page 319
Page 307
Page 260, page 307

Particle masses, mixing angles and

coupling constants
Mixing matrix for quarks
Mixing matrix for neutrinos
Neutrinos
Neutrino-less double beta decay
Electric dipole moments of elementary
particles, magnetic dipole moment of
neutrinos

are calculable by modifying Most not yet

existing software packages. calculated; most value
sequences correct,
W/Z mass ratio
correct, Higgs/Z ratio
correct.
Is observed.
are constant in time.
is unitary.
is unitary.
are Dirac particles.
does not exist.
have extremely small,
standard model values.

Is observed.
No data yet.
No data yet.
Not yet found.
Agrees with
experiment.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 292

Longitudinal W and Z boson scattering

Unknown fermions (supersymmetric
particles, magnetic monopoles, dyons,
heavy neutrinos etc.)
Unknown bosons (other gauge bosons,
supersymmetric particles, axions etc.)
Unknown interactions, energy scales and
symmetries (grand unification,
supersymmetry, quantum groups,
technicolour etc.)
Particle masses, mixing angles and
coupling constants

None found yet.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Prediction (from
2008/2009)

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Experiment

experimental predictions of the strand model

369

TA B L E 15 (Continued) The main predictions of the strand model that follow from the fundamental

principle. The typeface distinguishes predictions that are unsurprising, unconrmed or unique to the
strand model, and both unconrmed and unique.

Page 322
Page 303, page 319

Experiment

Prediction (from
2008/2009)

S tat u s ( 2 0 1 3 )

Tetraquarks
Glueballs

exist.
probably do not exist; if they
do, the spectrum can be
compared to the strand
model.
occur at extremely small,
standard model rates.
follows the standard model.
vanishes.
can be calculated ab initio.

Likely.
Not yet observed.

Page 331

Dark matter

Page 320
Page 320

Page 294

Page 140
Page 274
Page 274
Page 273

Page 278, page 260

Page 286
Page 288
Page 286, page 351
Page 289
Page 331

Not yet falsified, but

deviations not yet
observed.
Not yet falsified.
Not observed.
Not observed.
No deviation found.
No deviation found.
None observed.

None observed yet.

Nothing observed.
Is observed.
Data are inconclusive.
Data are inconclusive.
Data are inconclusive.
As observed.
As observed.
Not yet falsified.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 284
Page 286

No deviations found.
None observed.
Not yet calculated;
value sequences and
signs correct.
Data are inconclusive.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 140

is conventional matter plus

black holes.
Standard model of particle physics
2008/9: is essentially correct,
with deviations for the
scattering of longitudinal
vector bosons at LHC energy.
2012: is correct for all
measurable energies.
Additional dimensions
do not exist.
Non-commutative space-time
does not exist.
General relativity
is correct at all accessible
energies.
Short-distance deviations from universal do not exist.
gravitation and modified gravity
Space-time singularities, cosmic strings, do not exist.
wormholes, time-like loops, negative
energy regions, domain walls
Quantum gravity effects
will not be found.
Behind a horizon
nothing exists.
Cosmological constant (dark energy)
is small and positive.
Cosmological constant (dark energy)
decreases with time squared.
Cosmic matter density
decreases with time squared.
Cosmic inflation and leptogenesis
did not occur.
Cosmic topology
is trivial.
Vacuum
is stable.
In summary: all motion
results from strands.

Not yet observed.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 314

Proton decay and other rare decays,

neutron-antineutron oscillations
Neutron decay
Neutron charge
Hadron masses and form factors

Page 260, page 307

370

12 particle properties deduced from strands

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

The most interesting predictions of the strand model are the numerical predictions on
the decay of the cosmological constant, the spectrum of possible elementary particles
including the existence of three generations the various mass ratios and mass sequences
including the Z/W and Higgs/W mass ratios the relative strength of the three interactions and, above all, the possibility to calculate all these numbers in the foreseeable
future.
The strand model reproduces the quark model, gauge theory, wave functions and general relativity and, at the same time, predicts the lack of measurable deviations. The
strand model solves conceptual problems such as the dark matter problem, confinement,
the strong CP problem and the anomaly issue; by doing so, the strand model predicts
the lack of unknown effects in these domains.
The strand model deduces all its experimental predictions from a single and simple
fundamental principle: events and Planck units are due to crossing switches of strands.
Provided there are no errors of reasoning, there is no way to change the predictions
summarized here. The strand model is both simple and unmodifiable.
Errors of reasoning in the preceding chapters are well possible. The exploration was
performed ar high speed possibly too high.
If any experiment ever contradicts a prediction of the strand model, the model is
doomed. When the above experimental predictions were deduced in 2008 and 2009,
they were quite unpopular. Practically all other attempts at unification predicted the
existence of yet undiscovered particles and effects. However, so far, experiment does not
confirm these speculations; in fact, no prediction of the strand model has been falsified
yet.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

C h a p t e r 13

THE TOP OF MOTION MOUNTAI N

The labour we delight in physics pain.

William Shakespeare, Macbeth.

Thales*

our path to the top

* Thales of Miletus (c. 624 c. 546 bce) was the first known philosopher, mathematician and scientist.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Our walk had a simple aim: to talk accurately about all motion. This 2500 year old quest
drove us to the top of this mountain. We can summarize our path in three legs: everyday
life, general relativity plus quantum theory, and unification.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

ho am I? Where do I come from? What shall I do? Where does the

orld come from? Can the whole world really come to an end? What
ill happen in future? What is beauty? All these questions have a common
aspect: they are questions about motion. But what is motion? Our search for an answer
led us to study motion in all its details. In this quest, every increase in the precision of
our description of motion was a step towards the peak of Motion Mountain. Now that
we arrived there, we can savour what we have achieved and recall the emotions that we
have experienced.
In our ascent, we have learned how we move, how we experience our environment,
how we grow, what parts we are made of, and how our actions and our convictions about
them can be understood. We have learned a lot about the history and a bit about the
future of matter, of radiation and of space. We have experienced and understood the
many ways in which beauty appears in nature: as colours, as shapes, as rhythms and
most of all: as simplicity.
Savouring our achievement means that first of all, we now can look back to where we
came from. Then we enjoy the view we are offered and look out for what we could not
see before. After that, we search for what is still hidden from our sight. And finally, we
take a different path back down to where we live.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

All things are full of gods.

372

13 the top of motion mountain

Everyday life: the rule of infinity

Ref. 1, Ref. 3

Vorhin haben wir gesehen, da in der

Wirklichkeit das Unendliche nirgends zu finden
ist, was fr Erfahrungen und Beobachtungen
und welcherlei Wissenschaft wir auch
heranziehen.*
David Hilbert

Ref. 251

* Above we have seen that in reality, the infinite is nowehere to be found, whatever experiences and observations and whatever knowledge we appeal to.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Ref. 2, Ref. 4

The idea that nature offers an infinite range of possibilities is often voiced with deep
personal conviction. However, the results of relativity and quantum theory show the
opposite. In nature, speeds, forces, sizes, ages and actions are limited. No quantity in
nature is infinitely large or infinitely small. No quantity in nature is defined with infinite
precision. There never are infinitely many examples of a situation; the number of possibilities is always finite. The world around us is not infinite; neither its size, nor its age,
nor its content. Nature is not infinite. This is general relativity and quantum theory in
one statement.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Relativity and quantum theory: the absence of infinity

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Galilean physics is the description of everyday life. We learned Galilean physics between
our birth and secondary school. Galilean physics is the exploration and description of
the motion of stones, water, trees, heat, the weather, electricity and light. To achieve this
description of our environment, our first and main act in life is to partition experience
into experienceS. In other words, our first intellectual act is the invention of parts; we
invented the plural.
The act of partitioning allows us to define sequences among our experiences, and thus
to define the concept of time. The concept of space arises similarly by our possibility to
distinguish observations that occur at the same time. By comparing parts with other
parts, we define measurement. Using all of this, we become able to define velocity, mass
and electric charge, among others. These allow us to introduce action, the quantity that
quantifies change.
For a simple description of observations, we assume that division is possible without
end: thus we introduce the infinitely small. We also assume that widening our scope
of observation is possible without end. Thus we introduce the infinitely large. Defining
parts thus leads us to introduce infinity.
Using parts and, with them, the infinitely small and the infinitely large, we found, in
volumes I and III, that everyday motion has six main properties: it is continuous, conserved, relative, reversible, mirror-invariant and lazy. Motion is lazy because it produces
as little change as possible.
Nature minimizes change. This is Galilean physics, the description of everyday motion,
in one statement. It allows us to describe all our everyday experiences with stones, fluids,
stars, electric current, heat and light. The idea of change-minimizing motion is based
on a concept of motion that is continuous and predictable, and a concept of nature that
contains the infinitely small and the infinitely large.

our path to the top

Ref. 4

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

Relativity and quantum theory show that the idea of infinity appears only in approximate descriptions of nature; it disappears when talking with precision. Nothing in nature
is infinite. For example, we found in volume II that the sky is dark at night (also) because
space is not infinite. And we found, in volumes IV and V, that quantum theory contains
probabilities because there is a smallest action value in nature. In fact, the statement that
a quantity is infinitely large or infinitely small cannot be confirmed or reproduced by
any experiment. Worse, such a statement is falsified by every measurement. In short, we
found that infinity is a fantasy of the human mind. In nature, it does not appear. Infinity
about nature is always a lie.
The number of particles, their possible positions, the states they can have, our brain,
our creativity, our possible thoughts: all this is not infinite. Nevertheless, quantum theory
and relativity changed the world: they allowed building ultrasound imaging, magnetic
resonance imaging, satellite navigation systems, music players and the internet.
Despite the vast progress due to modern physics and the related technologies, one
result remains: nothing in our environment is infinite neither our life, nor our experiences, nor our memories, not even our dreams or our fantasies. Neither the information
necessary to describe the universe, nor the paper to write down the formulae, nor the
necessary ink, nor the time necessary to understand the formulae is infinite. Nature is
not infinite. On the other hand, we also know that the illusion of the existence of infinity
in nature is one the most persistent prejudices and myths ever conceived. Why did we
use it in the first place?
The habit to use infinity to describe the world has many emotional reasons. For some,
it reflects the deep-rooted experience of smallness that we carry within us as a remnant
our personal history, when the world seemed so large and powerful. For others, the idea
of our smallness allows us to deny somehow the responsibility for our actions or the
existence of death. For others again, the idea of a finite universe often, at a first glance,
produces deception, disbelief and discouragement. The absence of infinity means that
we cannot achieve everything we want, and that our dreams and our possibilities are
limited. Clinging to the idea of infinity is a way to avoid confronting this reality.
However, once we face and accept the absence of infinity, we make a powerful experience. We gain in strength. We are freed from the power of those who use this myth to put
themselves above others. It is an illuminating experience to reread all those sentences on
nature, on the world and on the universe containing the term infinite, knowing that they
are incorrect, and then clearly experience the manipulations behind them. The desire to
make others bow to what is called the infinite is a common type of human violence.
At first, the demise of infinity might also bring panic fear, because it can appear as a
lack of guidance. But at closer inspection, the absence of infinity brings strength. Indeed,
the elimination of infinity takes from people one of the deepest fears: the fear of being
weak and insignificant.
Moreover, once we face the limits of nature, we react like in all those situations in
which we encounter a boundary: the limit becomes a challenge. For example, the experience that all bodies unavoidably fall makes parachuting so thrilling. The recognition
that our life is finite produces the fire to live it to the full. The knowledge of death gives
meaning to our actions. In an infinite life, every act could be postponed without any consequence. The disappearance of infinity generates creativity. A world without limits is
discouraging and depressing. Infinity is empty; limits are a source of strength and pour

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Challenge 201 e

373

374

13 the top of motion mountain

passion into our life. Only the limits of the world ensure that every additional step in
life brings us forward. Only in a limited universe is progress possible and sensible. Who
is wiser, the one who denies limits, or the one who accepts them? And who lives more
intensely?
Unification: the absence of finitude

Pray be always in motion. Early in the morning

go and see things; and the rest of the day go and
see people. If you stay but a week at a place, and
that an insignificant one, see, however, all that is
to be seen there; know as many people, and get
into as many houses as ever you can.
Philip Stanhope,* Letters to his Son on the Fine
Art of Becoming a Man of the World and a
Gentleman.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

* Philip D. Stanhope (b. 1694 London, d. 1773 London) was a statesman and writer.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 123

The last part of our adventure, described in this volume, produced an unexpected result.
Not only is nature not infinite; nature is not finite either. None of the quantities which
were supposed to be finite turn out to be so. Finitude turns out to be an approximation,
or better, an illusion, though a subtle one. Nature is not finite. This is the unification of
physics in one statement.
Precise observation shows that nothing in nature can be counted. If nature were finite
it would have to be (described by) a set. However, the exploration of Planck scales shows
that such a description is intrinsically incomplete and inaccurate. Indeed, a description
of nature by a set can never explain the number of its elements, and thus cannot explain
finitude itself. In other words, any approach that tries to describe nature as finite is a
belief, and is never correct. Finitude is a lie.
We thus lost our security of thought a second time. Nature is neither infinite nor finite.
We explored the possibilities left over and found that only one option is left: Nature is
indivisible. In other words, all parts that we experience are approximations. Both finitude
and infinity are approximation of nature. All distinctions are approximate. This central
conclusion solved the remaining open issues about motion. Nature has no parts.
The impossibility to count and the lack of parts imply that nature is not a computer,
not an automaton, nor a physical system. Nature is not discrete.
Recognizing all distinctions as being approximate abolishes the distinction between
the permanent aspects of nature (objects, described by mass, charge, spin, etc.) and
the changing aspects (states, described by position, momentum, energy). Taking all distinctions as approximate introduces extended constituents: fluctuating strands. Looking
even closer, these extended constituents are all the same one. Space, formally only used
to describe states, also acquires changing aspects: it is made from fluctuating strands.
Also properties like mass or charge, which formally were seen as static, become aspects
of the ever changing interplay between these fundamental constituents. Describing nature as one fluctuating strand allows us to avoid finitude and to answer all questions left
open by quantum theory and general relativity.
In a sense, the merging of objects and states is a resolution of the contrasting views on

new sights

375

motion of the Greek thinkers Parmenides there is no motion, i.e., in physical language,
there are no states, there is only permanence and Heraclitus everything moves, i.e.,
in physical language there is no permanence, there are only states. Both turn out to be
right.
We can thus sum up the progress during our adventure of physics in the following
table:
TA B L E 16 The progress of physics.

Step 1
Step 2

Galilean Physics
Relativity

Step 3

Quantum field theory

Step 4

Unification

We live in Galilean space.

We live in Riemannian
space.
We live in a Hilbert/Fock
space.
We do not live in any space;
we are space.

In summary, we are made of space. More precisely, we are made of the same constituents as space. In fact, the fascination of this result goes further than that.

new sights

sustanze e accidenti e lor costume

quasi conflati insieme, per tal modo
che ci chi dico un semplice lume.
La forma universal di questo nodo
credo chi vidi, perch pi di largo,
dicendo questo, mi sento chi godo.*
Dante, La (Divina) Commedia, Paradiso,
XXXIII, 85-93.

* In its depth I saw gathered, bound with love into one volume, that which unfolds throughout the universe:
substances and accidents and their relations almost joined together, in such a manner that what I say is only
a simple image. The universal form of that knot, I think I saw, because, while I am telling about it, I feel deep
joy. This is, in nine lines, Dantes poetic description of his deepest mystical experience: the vision of god.
For Dante, god, at the depth of the light it emanates, is a knot. That knot spreads throughout the universe,
and substances and accidents physicists would say: particles and states are aspects of that knot. Dante
Alighieri (b. 1265 Florence, d. 1321 Ravenna) was one of the founders and the most important poet of the
Italian language. Most of the Divine Comedy, his magnum opus, was written in exile, after 1302, the year
when he had been condemned to death in Florence.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Modelling nature as a complicated web of fluctuating strands allowed us to describe at

the same time empty space, matter, radiation, horizons, kefir, stars, children and all our

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Nel suo profondo vidi che sinterna,

legato con amore in un volume,
ci che per luniverso si squaderna:

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Nature is continuous.
Nature has no infinitely
large.
Nature has no infinitely
small.
Nature is not finite.
Nature has no parts.

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13 the top of motion mountain

other observations. All everyday experiences are consequence of everything in nature

being made of one connected strand. This result literally widens our horizon.
The beauty of strands

Someday, surely, we will see the principle

underlying existence itself as so simple, so
beautiful, so obvious, that we will all say to each
other, Oh, how could we all have been so blind,
so long.
John Wheeler, A Journey Into Gravity And
Spacetime.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014
free pdf le available at [Link]

Describing everything as connected does not come natural to us humans. After all, in
our life, we perform only one act: to partition. We define pluralities. There is no way we
can avoid doing this. To observe, to think, to talk, to take a decision, to move, to suffer,
to love or to enjoy life is impossible without partitioning.
Our walk showed us that there are limits to the ability to distinguish. Any kind of
partitioning is always approximate. In fact, most people can summarize their personal
experience by saying that they learned to make finer and finer distinctions. However,
talking with highest precision about a part of the world inevitably leads to talk about the
whole universe. The situation resembles a person who gets a piece of rope in his hand,
and by following it, discovers a large net. He continues to pull and finally discovers that
everything, including himself, is part of the net.
For the strand model, the term theory of everything is therefore not acceptable. Nature cannot be divided into things. In nature, things are never separable. There is no
way to speak of every thing; there are no sets, no elements and no parts in nature. A
theory describing all of nature cannot be one of everything, as things are only approximate entities: properly speaking, they do not exist. The strand model is not a theory of
everything; it is the final theory.
The strand model shows that nature is not made of related parts. Nature is made of
relations only. Parts only exist approximately. The strand model also shows: being in
motion is intrinsic to being a part. Parts, being approximate, are always in motion. As
soon as we divide, we observe motion. The act of dividing, of partitioning, of defining
parts is the very one which produces order out of chaos. Strands force us to rethink this
habit.
Despite being so tough to grasp, strands yield a precise description of motion that
unifies quantum field theory and general relativity. The strand model for the unification
of motion is both simple and powerful. There are no free parameters. There are no
questions left. Our view from the top of the mountain is thus complete. No uncertainty,
no darkness, no fear and no insecurity are left over. Only wonder remains.

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377

Can the strand model be generalized?

Page 156

Ref. 154

Nature is what is whole in each of its parts.

Hermes Trismegistos, Book of Twenty-four
Philosophers.

Ref. 252

* Nature knows physics better than the best physicist. Carl Ramsauer (b. 1879 Oldenburg, d. 1955 Berlin),
influential physicist, discovered that electrons behave as waves.

free pdf le available at [Link]

What is nature?

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Challenge 202 r

As mentioned above, mathematical physicists are fond of generalizing models. Despite

this fondness, we required that any final, unified description must be unique: any final,
unified description must be impossible to reduce, to modify or to generalize. In particular, a final theory must neither be a generalization of particle physics nor of general
relativity. Let us check this.
The strand model is not a generalization of general relativity: the definitions of curvature, of gravitons and of horizons differ radically from general relativitys approach. The
strand model is also not a generalization of particle physics: the definitions of particle
and of interactions differ radically from the concepts of quantum field theory. Indeed,
we have shown that quantum field theory and general relativity are approximations to
the strand model; they are neither special cases nor reductions of the strand model.
But what about the other requirements for a unified theory? Can the strand model
be modified or generalized? We have seen that the model does not work in more spatial dimensions, does not work with more families of quarks, does not work with more
interactions, and does not work with other evolution equations in general relativity or
particle physics. The strand model does not work with other fundamental constituents,
such as bifurcating entities, membranes, bands, or networks. (Though it does work with
funnels, as explained earlier on, but that description is equivalent to the one with strands.)
The strand model does not work with any modified fundamental principle. Obviously,
exploring all possible variations and modifications remains a challenge for the years to
come. If an actual modification of the strand model can be found, the strand model instantly loses its value: in that case, it would need to be shelved as a failure. Only a unique
unified model can be correct.
In summary, one of the beautiful aspects of the strand model is its radical departure
from twentieth-century physics in its basic concepts, combined with its almost incredible uniqueness. No generalization, no specialization and no modification of the strand
model seems possible. In short, the strand model qualifies as a unified, final theory.
What is a requirement to one person, is a criticism to another. A number of researchers deeply dislike the strand model precisely because it doesnt generalize previous
theories and because it cannot be generalized. This attitude deserves respect, as it is born
from the admiration for several ancient masters of physics. However, the strand model
points into a different direction.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 161

Die Natur kann besser Physik als der beste

Physiker.*
Carl Ramsauer

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13 the top of motion mountain

At the end of our long adventure, we discovered that nature is not a set: everything is
connected. Nature is only approximately a set. The universe has no topology, because
space-time is not a manifold. Nevertheless, the approximate topology of the universe is
that of an open Riemannian space. The universe has no definite particle number, because
the universe is not a container; the universe is made of the same stuff of which particles
are made. Nevertheless, the approximate particle density in the universe can be deduced.
In nature, everything is connected. This observation is reflected in the conjecture that
all of nature is described by a single strand.
We thus arrive at the (slightly edited) summary given around the year 1200 by the
author who wrote under the pen name Hermes Trismegistos: Nature is what is whole in
each of its parts. But in contrast to that author, we now also know how to draw testable
conclusions from the statement.
Quantum theory and the nature of matter

Cosmology

free pdf le available at [Link]

The strand model also showed us how to deduce general relativity. The strand model
clarified the fabric of horizons and explained the three dimensions of space. Most fascinating is the idea of a universe as the product of a single strand. A single strand implies
that there was nothing before the big bang, and that there is nothing outside the night
sky. For example, the strand model implies that there is no multiverse and that there
are no hidden worlds of any kind. And the fluctuating strand explains all observations
of our universe.
The big bang is the name for what we observe if we try to make observations approaching the limits of nature. The big bang appears automatically from the strand
model whenever we observe nature at the most distant times, the largest distances or at

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

The strand model shows that as soon as we separate the universe into space-time and
the rest, i.e., as soon as we introduce the coordinates x and t, quantum mechanics appears automatically. More precisely, quantum effects are effects of extension. Quantum
theory appears when we realize that observations are composed of smallest events due
to crossing switches, each with a change given by the quantum of action. All events and
observations appear through the fluctuations of the strand that composes nature.
We found that matter is made of tangled strands. In fact, the correct way would be to
say: matter is made of tangled strand segments. This connection leads to Schrdingers
equation and to Diracs equation.
Insofar as matter is of the same fabric as the vacuum, we can rightly say: matter is
made of nothing. But the most appropriate answer arises when we realize that matter
is not made from something, but that matter is a certain aspect of the whole of nature.
Unification showed that every single elementary particle results from an arrangement
which involves the whole of nature, or, if we prefer, the entire universe. In other words,
we can equally say: matter is made of everything.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

In everything there is something of everything.

Anaxagoras of Clazimenes (500
428 bce Lampsacus)

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379

the largest energies: big bang is the name for Planck scale physics.
The universe consists of a single strand. There are many particles in nature, because
the strand is tangled up in complicated ways. What we call the horizon of the universe
is the place where new tangles appear.
The belief that the big bang or the horizon are examples of creation is incorrect. What
happened at the big bang still happens at the horizon today. Both the black sky at night
and the big bang are natures way to tell us: Galilean physics is approximate! Quantum
theory is approximate! General relativity is approximate!
Musings about unification and strands

Continuing motion masters coldness.

Continuing rest masters heat.
Motion based on rest:
Measure of the all-happening for the single one.
Lao Tse,* Tao Te King, XXXXV.

Any complete theory of motion, also the strand model, is built on a single statement
about nature: The many exists only approximately. Nature is approximately multiple.
The etymological meaning of the term multiple is it has many folds; in a very specific
sense, nature thus has many folds.

Any precise description of nature is free of arbitrary choices, because the divisions
that we have to make in order to think are all common to everybody, and logically inescapable. Because physics is a consequence of this division, it is also theory-free and
interpretation-free. This consequence of the final theory will drive most philosophers
up the wall.

For over a century, physics students have been bombarded with the statement: Symmetries are beautiful. Every expert on beauty, be it a painter, an architect, a sculptor, a
musician, a photographer or a designer, fully and completely disagrees, and rightly so.
Beauty has no relation to symmetry. Whoever says the contrary is blocking out his ex* Lao Tse (sixth century bce) was an influential philosopher and sage.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Any unified model of nature encompasses a lot of ideas, issues and knowledge. Due to
the sheer amount of material, publishing it in a journal will be hard.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 253

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

All is made from one sort of thing: all is one substance. This idea, monism, sounds a lot
like what the philosopher Baruch Spinoza (b. 1632 Amsterdam, d. 1677 The Hague) held
as conviction. Monism, though mixed up with the idea of god, is also the basis of the
philosophical ideas that Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (b. 1646 Leipzig, d. 1716 Hannover)
presents in his text La Monadologie.

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Ref. 254

13 the top of motion mountain

periences of a beautiful landscape, of a beautiful human figure or of a beautiful work of

art.
The correct statement is: Symmetries simplify descriptions. Symmetries simplify
physical theories. That is the background for the statement of Werner Heisenberg: In
the beginning there was symmetry. On the other hand, the strand model shows that
even this statement is incorrect. In fact, neither the search for beauty nor the search for
symmetry were the right paths to advance towards unification. Such statements have always been empty marketing phrases. In reality, the progress of fundamental theoretical
physics was always driven by the search for simplicity.

Vol. III, page 258

Page 21

Almost all discoveries in physics were made at least 30 years too late. The same is true for
the strand model. If we compare the strand model with what many physicists believed
in the twentieth century, we can see why: researchers had too many wrong ideas about
unification. All these wrong ideas can be summarized in the following statement:
Unification requires generalization of existing theories.

Unification requires simplification.

Hopefully this guiding idea will not become a dogma itself: in many domains of life,
simplification means not to pay attention to the details. This attitude does a lot of harm.

The strand model shows that achieving unification is not a feat requiring difficult abstraction. Unification was not hidden in some almost inaccessible place that can reached only

free pdf le available at [Link]

This statement is subtle: it was rarely expressed explicitly but widely believed. But the
statement is wrong, and it led many astray. On the other hand, the development of the
strand model also followed a specific guiding idea, namely:

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

The description of nature with strands is surprisingly simple, mainly because it uses so
few basic concepts. Is this result astonishing? In our daily life, we describe our experiences with the help of a few thousand words, e.g. taking them from the roughly 350 000
words which make up the English language, or from a similar number from another
language. This set is sufficient to talk about everything, from love to suffering, from
beauty to happiness. And these terms are constructed from no more than about 35 basic
concepts, as we have seen already. We should not be too surprised that we can in fact
talk about the whole universe using only a few basic concepts: the act and the results of
(approximate) distinction, or more specifically, a basic event the crossing switch and
its observation.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Strands unify physics. In particular, strands extend our views on quantum theory and
mathematical physics, on particle physics and field theory, on axiomatic physics and algebraic physics, on polymer physics and gauge theory, on general relativity and cosmology.
It will take several years before all these extensions will have been explored.

new sights

381

Myriam70)

Page 81

The strand model settles all questions about determinism. Quantum theory and general
relativity are deterministic. Nevertheless, when both descriptions are combined, time
turns out to be an approximate, low-energy concept. The same applies to determinism.
Even though nature is deterministic for all practical purposes and shows no surprises,

free pdf le available at [Link]

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

by a few select, well-trained research scientists. No, unification is accessible to everyone

who has a basic knowledge of nature and of physics. No Ph.D. in theoretical physics is
needed to understand or to enjoy it. The knowledge presented in the previous volumes
of this series is sufficient.
When Andrew Wiles first proved Fermats last theorem after three centuries of attempts by the brightest and the best mathematicians, he explained that his search for a
proof was like the exploration of a dark mansion. And seen the conceptual difficulties
he had to overcome, the analogy was fitting. Recalling how many more people have already searched for unification without success, the first reaction is to compare the search
for unification to the exploration of something even bigger, such as a complex dark cave
system. But that analogy was not helpful. In contrast to the proof of Fermats theorem,
the goal of the quest for unification turned out to be simple and lying out in the open.
Researchers had simply overlooked it, because they were convinced that the goal was
complex, hidden in the dark and hard to reach. It was not.
The adventure of climbing Motion Mountain is thus not comparable to climbing
Cerro Torre, which might be the toughest and most spectacular challenge that nature
offers to mountain climbers. Figure 113 gives an impression of the peak. Motion Mountain does not resemble this peak at all. Neither does Motion Mountain resemble the
Langtang Lirung peak in the Nepalese Himalayas shown on the cover of this volume.
Climbing Motion Mountain is more like walking up a gentle green hill, alone, with a
serene mind, on a sunny day, while enjoying the surrounding beauty of nature.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

F I G U R E 113 Motion Mountain does not resemble Cerro Torre, but a gentle hill ( Davide Brighenti,

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13 the top of motion mountain

determinism shares the fate of all its conceivable opposites, such as fundamental randomness, indeterminism of all kinds, existence of wonders, creation out of nothing, or
divine intervention: determinism is an incorrect description of nature at the Planck scale
like all its alternatives.

Ref. 255

The strand model is so simple that it fits on a T-shirt and on a tombstone.

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Many researchers believed during all their life that the final theory is something useful,
important and valuable. This common belief about the importance and seriousness of
the quest has led, over the past decades, to an increasingly aggressive atmosphere among
these researchers. This unprofessional atmosphere, combined with the dependence of
researchers on funding, has delayed the discovery of the final theory by several decades.
In fact, the final theory is not useful: it adds nothing of practical relevance to the
combination of the standard model and general relativity. The final theory is also not
important: it has no application in everyday life or in industry and does not substantially
change our view of the world; it just influences teaching somewhat. Finally, the final
theory is not valuable: it does not help people in their life or make them happier. In
short, the final theory is what all fundamental theoretical research is: entertaining ideas.
Even if the strand model were to be replaced by another model, the conclusion remains: the final theory is not useful, not important and not valuable. But it is enjoyable.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 310

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Page 8

Historically, the strand model evolved from an exploration, started in the 1990s, of the
maximum force in nature, the belt trick and the entropy of black holes. After the first six
chapters of the present volume were completed in 2002, meditating on their implications
led to the strand model and its fundamental principle.
Above all, it was the description of general relativity with the help of the maximum
force that triggered the search for a unified description that was purely based on Planck
units. Another essential point was the drive to search for a final theory directly, from
its requirements (top down in Figure 1), and not from the unification of quantum theory and general relativity (bottom up). In the years from 2002 to 2007, most of the
ideas of the strand model took shape, mainly in Munichs underground trains, while commuting between home and work. In those years, it appeared that strands could explain
the Dirac equation, the entropy of black holes, general relativity and the particle spectrum with the three particle generations. While walking in the woods and fields around
Munich during 2008 and 2009, it appeared that strands explain the three gauge interactions, predict (with almost complete certainty) the lack of a Higgs boson a big mistake
due to faulty reasoning, as turned out in 2012 and of any new physical effects beyond
the standard model, and allow calculating the unexplained constants of particle physics.
The model thus yielded all its main predictions before the accelerator experiments at the
Large Hadron Collider at CERN in Geneva were switched on in autumn 2010. So much
of the work was done in a haste future will show what is of lasting value.

new sights

The strand model will take a long time to get accepted. The first reason is obvious: The
strand model contradicts thinking habits in many research fields. Researchers working on
the foundations of quantum theory, on general relativity, on cosmic strings, on mathematical physics, on classical and quantum field theory, on polymer physics, on shape
deformations, on quantum gravity, on strings, on the visualization of quantum mechanics, on knot theory, on higher dimensions, on supersymmetry, on the axiomatization of
physics, on group theory, on the foundation of physics, on quantum optics and on particle physics have to give up many life-long thinking habits. So do all other physicists.
Strands supersede particles and points.
There is also a second reason for the slow acceptance: The strand model, in its simplicity, is only a small step away from present research. Many researchers are finding out
how close they have been to the ideas of the strand model, and for how long they were
overlooking or ignoring such a simple option. The simplicity of the fundamental principle contrasts with the expectation of most researchers, namely that the final theory is
complicated, difficult and hard to discover. In fact, the opposite is true. Strands are based
on Planck units and provide a simple, almost algebraic description of nature.
In summary, for many researchers and for many physicists, there is a mixture of confusion, anger and disappointment. It will take time before these feelings subside and are
replaced by the fascination provided by the strand model.

The elimination of induction

Anonymous

Cum iam profeceris tantum, ut sit tibi etiam tui

reverentia, licebit dimittas pedagogum.*
Seneca

* When you have profited so much that you respect yourself you may let go your tutor. Seneca, the influential Roman poet and philosopher, writes this in his Epistulae morales ad Lucilium, XXV, 6.

free pdf le available at [Link]

The final theory of motion has a consequence worth mentioning in detail: its lack of
infinity and its lack of finitude eliminate the necessity of induction. This conclusion is of
importance for general discussions on mans grasp of nature.
In physics, as in the other natural sciences, there is a tradition to state that a certain
description of nature once confusingly called law is valid in all cases. In these statements, all means for all values of the quantities appearing. As a concrete example, the
law of universal gravitation is always claimed to be the same here and today, as well as
at all other places and times, such as on the other end of the universe and in a few thousand years. The full list of such all-claims is part of the millennium list of open issues
in twentieth-century physics. For many decades, the habit of claiming general validity
from a limited and finite number of experiences, also called induction, has been seen,
and rightly so, as a logically dubious manoeuvre, tolerated only because it works. But
the developments described in this text show that this method is indeed justified.
First of all, a claim of generality is not that enormous as it may seem, because the
number of events that can be distinguished in nature is finite, not infinite. The preceding
sections showed that the maximal number N of events that can be distinguished in the

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Page 154

Only boring people get bored.

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Page 82

383

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13 the top of motion mountain

What is still hidden?

free pdf le available at [Link]

Vol. I, page 16

Where do we come from? Where does the world come from? What will future bring?
What is death? All these questions are questions about motion and its meaning. And
like all mountain climbers, we also have to ask: why are we climbing? Like all mountain
climbers, we have to admit that climbing, like every other passion, is also a symbolic
activity. Climbing can be a search for meaning, for our mother or father, or for ourselves.
To all such questions, the strand model does not provide answers. We are a collection
of tangled strands. We are everything and nothing. The strand(s) we are made of will
continue to fluctuate. Birth, life and death are aspects of tangled strands. The universe is
a folded strand that grows in complexity.
Obviously, such abstract statements do not help in any human quest. Indeed, in order
to achieve a precise description of motion, we only explored the details of moving particles and of bending space. Studying them was a sequence of riddles; but solving these
riddles does not provide meaning, not even at the top of Motion Mountain. From the top
we cannot see the evolution of complicated systems; in particular, we cannot see or describe the evolution of life, the biological evolution of species, or the growth of a human
beings. From the top we cannot see the details down in the valleys of human relations
or experiences. In short, strands do not provide advice or meaning. Remaining too long
on the top of Motion Mountain is not useful. To find meaning, we have to descend back

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

That which eludes curiosity can be grasped in

action.
Traditional saying.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

universe is of the order of N = (T0 /tPl )4 = 102442 , T0 being the age of the universe and
tPl the Planck time. This is a big, but certainly finite number.
The unified description of nature has thus first reduced the various all-claims from
an apparently infinite to a finite number of cases, though still involving astronomically
large numbers. This reduction results from the recognition that infinities do not appear
in the description of nature. We now know that when talking about nature, all cases
never means an infinite number.
A second, important result is achieved by the description of nature with strands. In
any all-claim about fundamental motion, the checking of each of the large number of
possibilities is not necessary any more, because all events result from a single entity, in
which we introduce distinctions with our senses and our brain. And the distinctions we
introduce imply automatically that the symmetries of nature the all-claims or inductions that are used in the description of motion are correct. Nature does not contain
separate parts. Therefore, there is no way that separate parts can behave differently. Induction is a consequence of the unity of nature.
Ultimately, the possibility to verify statements of nature is due to the fact that all the
aspects of our experience are related. Complete separation is impossible in nature. The
verification of all-claims is possible because the strand model achieves the full description of how all parts of nature are related.
The strand model shows that we can talk and think about nature because we are a part
of it. The strand model also shows that induction works because everything in nature is
related to everything else: nature is one.

a return path: je rve, d onc je suis

385

down to real life.

a return path: je rve, d onc je suis

* Though a few mathematicians state that they can think in more than three spatial dimensions, all of them
dream in three dimensions.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Dreaming implies the use of distinctions, of memory and of sight. Dreams contain
parts and motion.
Independently on whether dreams are due to previous observations or to fantasies,
through memory we can define a sequence among them. The order relation is called
time. The dream aspects being ordered are called events. The set of all (dream) events
forms the (dream) world.
In a dream we can have several independent experiences at the same time, e.g. about
thirst and about hunger. Sequences thus do not provide a complete classification of
experiences. We call the necessary additional distinction space. Dream space has
three dimensions.* Dreaming thus means to use space and time.
We can distinguish between dream contents. Distinguishing means that we can
count items in dreams. Counting means that we have a way to define measurements.
Dreams are thus characterized by something which we can call observables. Dream
experiences at a given instant of time are characterized by a state.
Because we can describe dreams, the dream contents exist independently of dream
time. We can also imagine the same dream contents at different places and different

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Ref. 257

Enjoying life and giving it meaning requires to descend from the top of Motion Mountain. The return path can take various different directions. From a mountain, the most
beautiful and direct descent might be the use of a paraglider. After our adventure, we
take an equally beautiful way: we leave reality.
The usual trail to study motion, also the one of this text, starts from our ability to talk
about nature to somebody else. From this ability we deduced our description of nature,
starting from Galilean physics and ending with the strand model. The same results can
be found by requiring to be able to talk about nature to ourselves. Talking to oneself
is an example of thinking. We should therefore be able to derive all physics from Ren
Descartes sentence je pense, donc je suis which he translated into Latin as cogito ergo
sum. Descartes stressed that this is the only statement of which he is completely sure, in
opposition to his observations, of which he is not. He had collected numerous examples
in which the senses provide unreliable information.
However, when talking to ourselves, we can make more mistakes than when asking
for checks from others. Let us approach this issue in a radically different way. We directly
proceed to that situation in which the highest freedom is available and the largest number
of mistakes are possible: the world of dreams. If nature would only be a dream, could we
deduce from it the complete set of physical knowledge? Let us explore the issue.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Ref. 256

I hate reality. But it is the only place where one

can get a good steak.
Woody Allen

386

13 the top of motion mountain

times in the dream space. There is thus an invariance of dream concepts in space and
time. There are thus symmetries in dream space.
Dream contents can interact. Dreams appear to vary without end. Dreams seem to
be infinite.
In other words, a large part of the world of dreams is described by a modified form
of Galilean physics. We note that the biggest difference between dreams and nature is
the lack of conservation. In dreams, observations can appear, disappear, start and stop.
We also note that instead of dreams, we could equally explore cinema films. Films, like
dreams, are described by a modified form of Galilean physics. And films, like dreams,
do not follow conservation laws. But dreams teach us much more.
Challenge 203 s

Pondering these issues shows that there are limits to dreams. In summary, the world of
dreams has a maximum size, a maximum speed and three dimensions that can warp. The
world of dreams and of films is described by a simple form of general relativity.

In summary, the world of dreams has something similar to a minimum change. The
world of dreams and that of films is described by a simple form of quantum theory. The
difference with nature is that in dreams and films, space is discrete from the outset. But
there is still more to say about dreams.

Challenge 204 s

In summary, the world of dreams seems to behave as if it is described by extended constituents. We thus conclude this short exploration of the physics of dreams with a fascinating conjecture: even if nature would be a dream, an illusion or a fantasy, we might
still get most of the results that we discovered in our ascent of Motion Mountain. (What
differences with modern physics would be left?) Speaking with tongue in cheek, the fear
of our own faults of judgement, so rightly underlined by Descartes and many others after

free pdf le available at [Link]

There is no way to say that dream images are made of mathematical points, as there
is nothing smaller than pixels.
In dreams, we cannot clearly distinguish objects (matter) and environment (space);
they often mix.
In dreams, fluctuations appear both for images as well as for the background.
In dreams, sharp distinctions are impossible. Dream space-time cannot be a set.
Dream motion appears when approximate constancy (over time) is observed.
In dreams, dimensionality at small distances is not clear; two and three dimensions
are mixed up there.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Both the number of items we can dream of at the same time and the memory of
previous dreams is finite.
Dreams have colours.
There are pixels in dreams, though we do not experience them directly. But we can
do so indirectly: The existence of a highest number of things we can dream of at the
same time implies that dream space has a smallest scale.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Dreams show that space can warp.

Dream motion, as you may want to check, shows a maximum speed.
Dreams show a strange limit in distance. There is a boundary to our field of vision,
even though we do not manage to see it.

what is the origin of colours?

387

him, might not apply to fundamental physics.

what is the origin of colours?

Ref. 5

Page 362

All colours around us are determined by the fine structure constant the coupling
constant for the electromagnetic interaction at low energy with its measured value
1/137.035 999 074(44). The fine structure constant is also essential to understand all human thoughts and movements.
The strand model showed us that the fine structure constant is a property of tangles of
strands: the number describes the probability that a fluctuation adds a twist to the chiral
tangles of electrically charged particles. We have not yet deduced an accurate value for
the fine structure constant, but we seem to have found out how to do so.
In short, we seem to know the origin of all colours and of all beauty around us.

Deep rest is motion in itself. Its motion rests in

itself.
Lao Tse, Tao Te King, VI.

We can now answer the question that drove us through our adventure:

free pdf le available at [Link]

Natures strand forms particles, horizons and space-time: these are the parts of nature. Particles are tangles of strands; horizons and space-time are weaves of strands. Parts including matter, radiation and vacuum curvature move because their strands fluctuate.
Motion appears as soon as we divide the world into parts and then follow these parts.
Dividing nature into parts is not a conscious act; our human nature our senses and our
brain forces us to perform it. And whenever we experience or talk about parts of the
universe, we find motion. All parts of nature move.
We experience motion because we are limited: our senses and our brain are made and
need to distinguish. We cant do otherwise. We need to distinguish in order to survive,
to think and to enjoy life. In a sense, we can say that motion appears as a logical consequence of our limitations; the fundamental limitation is the one that makes us introduce
parts, including points and sets.
Motion also appears because all parts in nature are approximate. In more detail, the
observation of crossing switches and the description of strand segments fluctuating in
a background space result and are possible because we approximate from one strand to
many parts. The one strand (approximately) forms the many elementary particles inside us. Strand segments and particles (approximately) lead us to introduce background
space, matter and radiation. Introducing background space implies observing motion.
Motion thus appears automatically when approximate parts of nature, such as humans,

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Motion is the observation of crossing switches of the one, unobservable, tangled and fluctuating strand that describes nature.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

summary: what is motion?

388

Vol. I, page 15

Ref. 258

13 the top of motion mountain

animals or machines, describe other approximate parts of nature, such as other bodies.
The observation of motion is due to our introduction of the plural. Motion results from
of our forced use of approximate parts to describe the unity of nature. The observation of
motion results from approximations. All these approximate distinctions are unavoidable
and are due to the limitations of our human nature.
Motion is an artefact of locality. Because locality is an approximation and due to our
human nature, we can say, in a certain sense, that motion is an illusion. We seem to
confirm what Zeno of Elea stated 2500 years ago. But in contrast to Zenos pessimistic
view, we now have a fascinating spectrum of results and tools at our disposition. They
allow us to describe motion and nature with high precision. Most of all, these tools allow
us to change ourselves and our environment for the better.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

All the great things that have happened in the

world first took place in a persons imagination,
and how tomorrows world will look like will
largely depend on the power of imagination of
those who are just learning to read right now.
Astrid Lindgren*

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

* Astrid Lindgren (b. 1907 Ns, d. 2002 Stockholm) was a beloved writer of children books.

P O STFAC E

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

Platos Phaedrus, written around 380 bce, is available in many pocket editions. Do not waste
your time learning ancient Greek to read it; the translated versions are as beautiful as the original.
Half the text is about love and gave rise to the expression Platonic love, even though its original
meaning has been strongly distorted in the meantime, as you will find out.
Platos lifelong avoidance of the natural sciences had two reasons. First of all, he was jealous
of Democritus. Plato never even cites Democritus in his texts. Democritus was the most prolific,
daring, admired and successful philosopher of his time (and maybe of all times). Democritus
was a keen student of nature. His written works did not survive, because his studies were not
congenial to the followers of christianity, and thus they were not copied by the monks in the
Middle Ages. The loss of these texts is related to the second reason that kept Plato away from the
natural sciences: he wanted to save his life. Plato had learned one thing from men in the town:
talking about nature is dangerous. Starting around his lifetime, for over 2000 years people practising the natural sciences were regularly condemned to exile or to death for impiety. Fortunately,
this is only rarely the case today. But such violence still occurs, and we can honour the dangers
that those preceding us had to overcome in order to allow us enjoying this adventure.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Perhaps once you will read Platos Phaedrus, one of the beautiful philosophical Greek
texts. In it, Socrates is made to say that he almost never left the city walls because to him,
as a lover of learning, trees and the open country do not teach anything, whereas men
in the town do. This is a veiled critique of Democritus, the most important and famous
philosopher in Greece during Platos time. Democritus was the natural philosopher par
excellence, and arguably had learned from nature with its trees and open country
more than anybody else after him.
After this mountain ascent you can decide for yourself which of these two approaches
is more congenial to you. It might be useful to know that Aristotle refused to choose
and cultivated them both. There is no alternative in life to following ones own mind,
and to enjoy doing so. If you enjoyed this particular trip, show it to your friends. For
yourself, after this walk, sense intensively the pleasure of having accomplished something
important. Many before you did not have the occasion. Enjoy the beauty of the view
offered. Enjoy the vastness of horizon it provides. Enjoy the impressions that it creates
inside you. Collect them and rest. You will have a treasure that will be useful in many
occasions. Then, when you feel the desire of going further, get ready for another of the
adventures life has to offer.

Appendix A

KNOT GE OMETRY

The following table provides a terse summary of the mathematics of knot shapes.
TA B L E 17 Important properties of knot, links and tangles.

Concept

Defining propert y

Binormal vector

Torsion

natural local orthogonal frame of

reference defined by unit tangent, unit
normal/curvature and binormal
vector

measures departure from

flatness, i.e., local twisting or
local handedness of a curve;
essentially a third derivative of
the curve.
the Frenet frame differs at each
curve point, the Frenet frame is
not uniquely defined if the curve
is locally straight.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Frenet frame at a
curve point

local vector normal to the curve, in

direction of the centre of the
touching circle, with length given by
the curvature
local unit vector normal to the
tangent and to the normal/curvature
vector
local speed of rotation of the
binormal vector; positive (negative)
for right-handed (left-handed) helix

measures departure from

straightness, i.e., local bending of
a curve.
is given by the second and first
derivatives of the curve.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Normal vector or
curvature vector

ropelength is integral of
arclength; ropelength is
shape-dependent.
at present, all non-trivial ideal
shapes are only known
approximately; most ideal knots
(almost surely) have kinks.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Knot / link / tangle one closed / several closed / one or

several open curves, all in 3d without
intersections
Ideal knot, link,
tightest possible knot, link or tangle
tangle (shapes)
(shapes) assuming a rope of constant
diameter that is infinitely flexible and
infinitely slippery
Ribbon or framing short perpendicular (or non-tangent)
vector attached at each point of a
curve
Curvature of a
inverse curvature radius of touching
curve
circle

O ther properties

knot geometry

391

TA B L E 17 (Continued) Important properties of knot, links and tangles.

Concept

Defining propert y

O ther properties

Natural framing
or Frenet ribbon

defined by the local normal, i.e., local

curvature vector

for a closed curve, it is always

closed and two-sided, and thus
never a Moebius band.

Linking number
sloppily, number of times that two
between two closed curves wind around each other, or,
curves
equivalently, half the number of times
that the curves swap position

topological invariant, i.e.,

shape-independent;
Lk(K1, K2) =
1
r12 (drr31 dr2 ) .
4 K2 K1

Linking number
for a closed
two-sided ribbon
Self-linking number
or natural linking
number for a knot
Link integral for an
open curve

number of times that the edges wind

around each other

topological invariant, i.e.,

shape-independent; always an
integer.
not a topological invariant,
because of existence of inflection
points.
usually not an integer.

Twist of a ribbon,
open or closed

total angle (in units of 2) by which

the ribbon rotates around the central
axis of the ribbon; sloppily said,
measures the local helicity
total angle (in units of 2) by which
the Frenet frame rotates around the
tangent direction, or equivalently,
(total) twist of the Frenet ribbon, also
called the total torsion of the curve

12

always an integer; depends on

shape.

is shape-invariant; is always an
integer; differs from 0 for all
chiral knots; has the value 3 for
the trefoil, 0 for the figure-eight
knot, 5 for the 51 and 52 knots, 2
for the 61 knot, 7 for the 71 and
72 knots, 4 for the 81 knot, and 9
for the 92 knot.

free pdf le available at [Link]

sum of positive minus sum of

negative crossings in a given oriented
2d projection of a curve or knot
(sometimes called 2d-writhe)
2d-writhe of a knot, signed crossing number for a minimal
or topological
crossing number diagram/projection
writhe, or Tait
(sometimes the term 2d-writhe is
number
used for the signed crossing number
of any configuration)

not an integer even in case of

knots; depends on curve/knot
shape; is different from zero for
chiral curves/knots; is zero for
achiral curves/knots that have a
rigid reflective symmetry; twist
and torsion are only equal if the
twist is defined with the Frenet
ribbon with other framings
they differ; this type of twist has
no relation to the first
Reidemeister move.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Signed crossing
number

vanishes for ribbons that are

everywhere flat.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Twist of a curve or
knot

number of times that the edges of the

natural/Frenet ribbon wind around
each other
generalization of the linking number
for knots to open curves

392

a knot geometry

TA B L E 17 (Continued) Important properties of knot, links and tangles.

Concept

Defining propert y

Writhing number or average, over all projection directions,

3d-writhe of a knot of the signed crossing number;
sloppily said, measures how wrapped,
coiled and chiral a knot is, i.e.,
measures its global helicity

Writhe of a ribbon

the value is quasi-quantized for

alternating knots with small crossing
numbers (< 11) in values that differ
from m4/7 by only a few per cent
the value is quasi-quantized for
alternating links with small crossing
numbers (< 11) in values that differ
from 2/7 + m4/7 by only a few per
cent
sloppily said, measures how wrapped,
coiled and chiral a ribbon is, i.e.,
measures its global helicity

vanishes for plane curves.

for any knot K and any ribbon G
attached to it,
Lk(K , G) = Tw(K , G) + Wr(K)

for applying the theorem to open

curves, a (standardized) closing
of curves is required.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Writhe of an open
curve
Calugareanus
theorem

depends on knot shape; usually

is not an integer; is different
from zero for chiral knots; is
zero for achiral knots that have a
rigid reflective symmetry;
1
K K r12 (drr31 dr2 ) ;
Wr(K) = 4
12
uses no ribbon and thus is
independent of the ribbon shape
attached to the knot.
is additive under knot addition
for knots with small crossing
numbers (< 11) within less than
1 %.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Writhe of ideal,
alternating knots
and of
odd-component
links
Writhe of ideal,
alternating
even-component
links

O ther properties

free pdf le available at [Link]

CHALLENGE HINT S AND SOLUTIONS

Challenge 2, page 26: Take f t 1 and substitute l = c/ f and a = c/t.

Challenge 16, page 40: Yes. But we can also argue its opposite, namely that matter appears when

free pdf le available at [Link]

Page 262

43 MJ/kg. Thus the Planck energy corresponds to the energy of 47 kg of car fuel, about a tankful.
Challenge 39, page 79: Not really, as the mass error is equal to the mass only in the Planck case.
Challenge 40, page 79: It is improbable that such deviations can be found, as they are masked by
the appearance of quantum gravity effects. However, if you do think that you have a prediction
for a deviation, publish it, and send me an email.
Challenge 41, page 79: The minimum measurable distance is the same for single particles and
systems of particles.
Challenge 42, page 80: There is no gravitation at those energies and there are no particles. There
is thus no paradox.
Challenge 43, page 80: The issue is still being debated; a good candidate for a minimum momentum of a single particle is given by /R, where R is the radius of the universe. Is this answer
satisfying?

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Challenge 38, page 79: The Planck energy is EPl = c 5 /G = 2.0 GJ. Car fuel delivers about

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

space is compressed too much. Both viewpoints are correct.

Challenge 22, page 46: To my knowledge, no such limits have been published. Do it yourself!
Challenge 23, page 46: The system limits cannot be chosen in other ways; after the limits have
been corrected, the limits given here should still apply.
Challenge 26, page 47: Just insert numbers to check this.
Challenge 28, page 47: No.
Challenge 29, page 48: This is a trick question that contains two issues. First, is cosmological
constant the same for all observers in the universe that are, like ourselves, more or less at rest
with respect to the background radiation? Most researchers would agree that this is the case.
Secondly, is the cosmological constant the same for extremely rapid observers, observers that
move at extremely high energy with respect to the background radiation?
Challenge 33, page 62: Sloppily speaking, such a clock is not able to move its hands in a way that
guarantees precise time reading.
Challenge 37, page 79: The final energy E produced by a proton accelerator increases with its
radius R roughly as E R1.2 ; as an example, CERNs SPS achieves about 450 GeV for a radius of
740 m. Thus we would get a radius of more than 100 000 light years (larger than our galaxy) for
a Planck energy accelerator. Building an accelerator achieving Planck energy is impossible.
Nature has no accelerator of this power, but gets near it. The maximum measured value of
cosmic rays, 1022 eV, is about one millionth of the Planck energy. The mechanism of acceleration
is still obscure. Neither black holes nor the cosmic horizon seem to be sources, for some yet
unclear reasons. This issue is still a topic of research.

394

challenge hints and solu tions

Challenge 44, page 81: All mentioned options could be valid at the same time. The issue is not

Vol. I, page 241

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Vol. III, page 299

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Vol. II, page 249

free pdf le available at [Link]

closed and clear thinking about it is not easy.

Challenge 45, page 81: The precise energy scale is not clear. The scale is either the Planck energy or within a few orders of magnitude from it; the lowest possible energy is thus around a
thousandth of the Planck energy.
Challenge 47, page 83: If you can think of an experiment, publish the proposal, and send me an
email.
Challenge 48, page 86: The table of aggregates shows this clearly.
Challenge 49, page 87: The cosmic background radiation is a clock in the widest sense of the
term.
Challenge 50, page 88: The way to deduce cosmological limits is presented in detail in the section starting on page 42.
Challenge 61, page 96: Also measurement errors at Planck scales prevent the determination of
topology.
Challenge 63, page 98: The measurement error is as large as the measurement result.
Challenge 67, page 100: You will not find one.
Challenge 69, page 101: If you find one, publish it, and send me an email.
Challenge 71, page 102: For the description of nature this is a contradiction. Nevertheless, the
term universe, set of all sets and other mathematical terms, as well as many religious concepts
are of this type.
Challenge 72, page 103: No, for the reasons mentioned earlier on: fundamental measurement
errors for horizon measurements, as well as many other effects, prevent this. The speculation is
another example of misguided fantasy about extremal identity.
Challenge 73, page 104: The physical concepts most related to monad are strand and universe,
as shown in the second half of this text.
Challenge 74, page 104: The macroscopic content of the universe may be observer-dependent.
But to speak about many universes (many everythings?) or a multiverse (why only one? what
is more than everything?) is pure nonsense.
Challenge 77, page 104: True only if it were possible to do this. Because particles and space are
indistinguishable, removing particles means to remove everything. (The strand model visualizes
this connection most clearly.)
Challenge 79, page 104: True. Existence is the ability to interact. If the ability disappears, existence disappears. In other words, existence is a low-energy concept.
Challenge 80, page 106: If you find a sensible statement about the universe, publish it! And send
it to me as well. The next challenge shows one reason why this issue is interesting. In addition,
such a statement would contradict the conclusions on the combined effects of general relativity
and quantum theory.
Challenge 81, page 106: Plotinus in the Enneads has defined god in exactly this way. Later, Augustine in De Trinitate and in several other texts, and many subsequent theologians have taken
up this view. (See also Thomas Aquinas, Summa contra gentiles, 1, 30.) The idea they propose
is simple: it is possible to clearly say what god is not, but it is impossible to say what god is.
This statement is also part of the official Roman Catholic Catechism: see part one, section one,
chapter one, IV, 43, found at [Link]/archive/ENG0015/__PC.HTM. Similar statements
are found in Judaism, Hinduism and Buddhism.
In other terms, theologians admit that god cannot be defined, that the term has no properties
or content, and that therefore the term cannot be used in any positive sentence. The aspects

challenge hints and solu tions

395

Challenge 83, page 108: If you find one, publish it and send it also to me. The conjecture is that

no such effects exist.

Challenge 85, page 109: In fact, no length below the Planck length itself plays any role in nature.
Challenge 87, page 110: You need quantum humour, because the result obviously contradicts a

previous one given on page 89 that includes general relativity.

Challenge 89, page 118: The number of spatial dimensions must be given first, in order to talk

about spheres.
contradiction with the arguments given so far (publish it in this case), or it may yield an independent check of the results of the section.
Challenge 92, page 126: This issue is open and still a subject of research. The conjecture of the

author is that the answer is negative. If you find an alternative, publish it, and send me an email.
Challenge 94, page 131: The lid of a box must obey the indeterminacy relation. It cannot be at

perfect rest with respect to the rest of the box.

Challenge 96, page 131: No, because the cosmic background is not a Planck scale effect, but an

effect of much lower energy.

Challenge 97, page 131: Yes, at Planck scales all interactions are strand deformations; therefore

collisions and gravity are indistinguishable there.

ticles or general relativity and point masses are assumed. The argument shows that only the
combination of both theories with continuity is impossible.
Challenge 99, page 132: You should, because at Planck scales natures inherent measurement er-

rors cannot clearly distinguish between different measurement results.

Challenge 100, page 132: We still have the chance to find the best approximate concepts possible.
There is no reason to give up.
Challenge 101, page 132: Here are a few thoughts. A beginning of the big bang does not exist;

something similar is given by that piece of continuous entity which is encountered when going
backwards in time as much as possible. This has several implications.

free pdf le available at [Link]

Challenge 98, page 131: No. Time is continuous only if either quantum theory and point par-

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Challenge 90, page 122: This is a challenge to you to find out. It is fun, it may yield a result in

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

common to universe and to god suggest the conclusion that both are the same. Indeed, the
analogy between the two concepts can be expanded to a proof. (This exercise is left to the reader.)
In fact, this might be the most interesting of all proofs of the existence of god, as it lacks all the
problems that the more common proofs have. Despite its interest, this proof of equivalence
is not found in any book on the topic yet. The reason is twofold. First, the results of modern
physics showing that the concept of universe has all these strange properties are not common
knowledge yet. Secondly, the result of the proof, the identity of god and universe also called
pantheism is a heresy for most religions. It is an irony that the catholic catechism, together with
modern physics, can be used to show that pantheism is correct, because any catholic who defends
pantheism (or other heresies suggested by modern physics) incurs automatic excommunication,
latae sententiae, without any need for a formal procedure.
If one is ready to explore the identity of universe and god, one finds that a statement like
god created the universe translates as the universe implies the universe. The original statement
is thus not a lie any more, but is promoted to a tautology. Similar changes appear for many
other but not all statements using the term god. (The problems with the expression in the
beginning remain, though.) In fact, one can argue that statements about god are only sensible
and true if they remain sensible and true after the term has been exchanged with universe. Enjoy
the exploration of such statements.

396

challenge hints and solu tions

Going backwards in time as far as possible towards the beginning of time is the same as
zooming to smallest distances: we find a single strand of the amoeba.
In other words, we speculate that the whole world is one single piece, knotted, branched and
fluctuating.
Going far away into space to the border of the universe is like taking a snapshot with a
short shutter time: strands everywhere.
Whenever we sloppily say that extended entities are infinite in size, we only mean that they
reach the horizon of the universe.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014
free pdf le available at [Link]

In summary, no starting point of the big bang exists, because time does not exist there. For
the same reason, no initial conditions for particles or space-time exist. In addition, this shows
there was no creation involved, because without time and without possibility of choice, the term
creation makes no sense.
Challenge 102, page 132: The equivalence follows from the fact that all these processes require
Planck energy, Planck measurement precision, Planck curvature, and Planck shutter time.
Page 341 Challenge 103, page 132: No, as explained later on in the text.
Challenge 105, page 132: If not, force yourself. Brainstorming is important in life, as is the subsequent step: the checking of the speculations.
Challenge 109, page 144: Let me know if you succeed. And publish the results.
Challenge 114, page 153: Yes; the appearance of a crossing does not depend on distance or on
the number of strands in between.
Challenge 115, page 153: No; more than three dimensions do not allow us to define a crossing
switch.
Challenge 116, page 153: If so, let me know. If the generalization is genuine, the strand model
is not correct.
Challenge 127, page 177: The magnitude at a point should be related to the vectorial sum of all
inverse shortest crossing distances at that point.
Challenge 132, page 187: This algebraic transformation is shown in all textbooks that treat the
Pauli equation. It can also be checked by writing the two equations out component by component.
Challenge 135, page 206: Yes, as can easily be checked by rereading the definitions with the
spinor tangle description in mind.
Challenge 138, page 206: No contradiction is known.
Challenge 139, page 206: In the relativistic case, local space curvature is also taken into account.
Challenge 141, page 207: Find out, publish the result, and let me know.
Challenge 142, page 207: If the strand interpenetration is allowed generally, quantum theory is
impossible to derive, as the spinor behaviour would not be possible. If strand interpenetration
were allowed only under certain conditions (such as only for a strand with itself, but not among
two different strands), quantum theory might still possible. A similar process lies at the basis of
mass generation, as shown in the section on the weak interaction.
Challenge 144, page 207: The belt trick would imply that a wheel rolls over its own blood supply
at every second rotation.
Challenge 151, page 227: If you find one, publish it!
Challenge 158, page 256: No slide is possible, thus no crossing change appears; thus the situation has no observable effects. If one deforms one slide before the slide which is possible one
gets back the situation already discussed above.

challenge hints and solu tions

397

Challenge 163, page 257: For the Wightman axioms, this seems to be the case; however, a formal

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

proof is still missing. The same is expected for the HaagKastler axioms.
Challenge 173, page 288: The present consensus is no.
Challenge 181, page 324: Overcrossing leads to knottedness or tangledness, which in turn is the
basis for core rotation.
Challenge 183, page 325: The issue is topic of research; for symmetry reasons it seems that a
state in which each of the six quarks has the same bound to the other five quarks cannot exist.
Challenge 188, page 344: If you find such an estimate, publish it and send it to the author. A
question that any estimate for particle mass has to answer is the following: why does particle
mass increase with core complexity? A tangle with a complex core, i.e., with a core of large
ropelength, has a large mass value. Any correct estimate of the mass must yield this property.
Challenge 190, page 345: Generally speaking, there is a roughly linear relation between ropelength and crossing number, and thus a roughly linear relation between ropelength and crossing
switch rate is expected.
Challenge 191, page 345: Probably not.
Challenge 192, page 345: Probably not.
Challenge 193, page 345: Probably not.
Challenge 194, page 345: Find out and let me know.
Challenge 195, page 349: This would be an interesting result worth a publication.
Challenge 197, page 356: If you plan such a calculation, I would be delighted to help.
Challenge 200, page 364: Take up the challenge!
Challenge 202, page 377: There is a good chance, however, that such alternatives can be eliminated very quickly. If you cannot do so, do publish the argument, and let me know about it.
Challenge 203, page 386: Also in dreams, speeds can be compared; and also in dreams, a kind
of causality holds (though not a trivial one). Thus there is an invariant and therefore a maximum
speed.
Challenge 204, page 386: Probably none. The answer depends on whether the existence of
strands can be deduced from dreams. If strands can be deduced from dreams, all of physics
follows. The conjecture is that this deduction is possible. If you find an argument against or in
favour of this conjecture, let me know.

free pdf le available at [Link]

BI BLIO GR APHY

* This is a statement from the brilliant essay by the influential writer Samuel Johnson, Review of Soame
Jenyns "A Free Enquiry Into the Nature and Origin of Evil", 1757. See [Link].

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See the first volume of the Motion Mountain series, Fall, Flow and Heat, available as free
download at [Link]. Cited on pages 16 and 372.
See the second volume of the Motion Mountain series, Relativity, available as free download
at [Link]. Cited on pages 16, 17, 372, and 399.
See the third volume of the Motion Mountain series, Light, Charges and Brains, available
as free download at [Link], as well as the mentioned fourth and fifth
volumes. Cited on pages 16 and 372.
See the fourth and fifth volumes of the Motion Mountain series, The Quantum of Change
and Pleasure, Technology and the Stars, available as free download at [Link].
net. Cited on pages 17, 372, 373, and 399.
The most precise value of the fine structure constant is determined from a weighted world
average of high-precision measurements by a special international scientific committee
called CODATA. Its (ugly) website is [Link], but the actual value, called the
2010 CODATA value of the fine structure constant, is, as of early 2012, only published
at [Link]/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?alph. The forthcoming publication is P. J. Mohr,
B. N. Taylor & D. B. Newell, CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2010, preprint at [Link]/abs/1203.5425. See also [Link]/cuu/
Constants/[Link]. Cited on pages 17, 353, 356, and 387.
See for example, the book by Robert L aughlin, A Different Universe: Reinventing
Physics from the Botton Down Basic Books, 2005. Of the numerous books that discuss the
idea of a final theory, this is the only one worth reading, and the only one cited in this
bibliography. The opinions of Laughlin are worth pondering. Cited on page 20.
Many physicists, including Steven Weinberg, regularly and incorrectly claim in interviews that the measurement problem is not solved yet. Cited on page 20.
Undocumented sentences to this effect are regularly attributed to Albert Einstein. Because
Einstein was a pantheist, as he often explained, his statements on the mind of god are not
really to be taken seriously. They were all made if at all in a humorous tone. Cited on
page 20.
For an example for the inappropriate fear of unification, see the theatre play Die Physiker
by the Swiss author Friedrich D rrenmat t. Several other plays and novels took over
this type of disinformation. Cited on page 20.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

The only end of writing is to enable the readers

better to enjoy life, or better to endure it.
Samuel Johnson*

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15

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Exploring the spirit of play is the subject of research of the famous National Institute for
Play, founded by Stuart Brown, and found at [Link]. Cited on page 20.
See e.g. the 1922 lectures by Lorentz at Caltech, published as H. A. Lorentz, Problems of
Modern Physics, edited by H. Bateman, Ginn and Company, 1927, page 99. Cited on page
25.
Bohr explained the indivisibilty of the quantum of action in his famous Como lecture,
printed in N. B ohr, Atomtheorie und Naturbeschreibung, Springer, 1931. It was translated
into English language as N. B ohr, Atomic Theory and the Description of Nature, Cambridge University Press, 1934. More statements about the indivisibility of the quantum of
action can be found in N. B ohr, Atomic Physics and Human Knowledge, Science Editions,
New York, 1961. For summaries of Bohrs ideas by others see Max Jammer, The Philosophy of Quantum Mechanics, Wiley, first edition, 1974, pp. 9091, and John Honner, The
Description of Nature Niels Bohr and the Philosophy of Quantum Physics, Clarendon Press,
1987, p. 104. Cited on page 26.
For an overview of the quantum of action as a basis of quantum theory, see the first chapter
of the fourth volume of the Motion Mountain series, Ref. 4. Cited on page 27.
An overview of EBK quantization can be found in the volume on quantum theory. Cited
on page 27.
Minimal entropy is discussed by L. Szil ard, ber die Entropieverminderung in einem
thermodynamischen System bei Eingriffen intelligenter Wesen, Zeitschrift fr Physik 53,
pp. 840856, 1929. This classic paper can also be found in English translation in his collected works. Cited on page 28.
See for example A. E. Shalyt-Margolin & A. Ya. Tregubovich, Generalized
uncertainty relation in thermodynamics, preprint at [Link]/abs/gr-qc/0307018, or
J. Uffink & J. van L ith-van Dis, Thermodynamic uncertainty relations, Foundations
of Physics 29, pp. 655692, 1999. Cited on page 28.
See also the fundamental paper by A. DiSessa, Momentum flow as an alternative perspective in elementary mechanics, 48, p. 365, 1980, and A. DiSessa, Erratum: Momentum
flow as an alternative perspective in elementary mechanics [Am. J. Phys. 48, 365 (1980)], 48,
p. 784, 1980. Cited on page 28.
The observations of black holes at the centre of galaxies and elsewhere are summarised by
R. Bl andford & N. Gehrels, Revisiting the black hole, Physics Today 52, June 1999.
Their existence is now well established. Cited on page 29.
The first published statements of the principle of maximum force were in the volume on
relativity of the present textbook, Ref. 2, and by G. W. Gibbons, The maximum tension
principle in general relativity, Foundations of Physics 32, pp. 18911901, 2002, preprint at
[Link]/abs/hep-th/0210109. The maximum force, not stated as a principle, was discussed
by L. Kostro & B. L ange, Is c 4 /G the greatest possible force in nature?, Physics Essays
12, pp. 182189, 1999, and even before that, by C. Massa, Does the gravitational constant
increase?, Astrophysics and Space Science 232, pp. 143148, 1995. See also C. S chiller,
General relativity and cosmology derived from principle of maximum power or force, International Journal of Theoretical Physics 44, pp. 16291647, 2005, preprint at [Link]/
abs/physics/0607090, and R. Beig, G. W. Gibbons & R. M. S choen, Gravitating opposites attract, Classical and Quantum Gravity 26, p. 225013, 2009, preprint at [Link]/abs/
09071103. A detailed discussion of maximum force and power is given in the volume on
general relativity, Ref. 2. Cited on pages 30, 40, and 275.
Maximal luminosity is often mentioned in connection with gravitational wave detection;
nevertheless, the general power maximum has never been mentioned before. See for

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30

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example L. Ju, D. G. Bl air & C. Z hao, Detection of gravitational waves, Reports on

Progress in Physics 63, pp. 13171427, 2000. See also C. W. Misner, K. S. Thorne &
J. A. Wheeler, Gravitation, Freeman, 1973, page 980. Cited on page 30.
See for example Wolf gang R indler, Relativity Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 70 ss, or R ay dInverno, Introducing Einsteins Relativity,
Clarendon Press, 1992, p. 36 ss. Cited on page 31.
T. Jacobson, Thermodynamics of spacetime: the Einstein equation of state, Physical Review
Letters 75, pp. 12601263, 1995, preprint at [Link]/abs/gr-qc/9504004; this deep article
remains fascinating to this day. Even the author was scared to draw all the possible conclusions. The general concepts are explained, almost without formulae, in L. Smolin, On the
nature of quantum fluctuations and their relation to gravitation and the principle of inertia,
Classical and Quantum Gravity 3, pp. 347359, 1986. Cited on pages 31 and 274.
Indeterminacy relations in general relativity are discussed in C. A. Mead, Possible connection between gravitation and fundamental length, Physical Review B 135, pp. 849862, 1964.
The generalized indeterminacy relation is implicit on page 852, but the issue is explained
rather unclearly. Probably the author considered the result too simple to be mentioned explicitly. (That paper took 5 years to get published; comments on the story, written 37 years
later, are found at C. A. Mead, Walking the Planck length through history, Physics Today
54, p. 15 and p. 81, 2001, with a reply by Frank Wilczek.) See also P. K. Townsend, Smallscale structure of space-time as the origin of the gravitational constant, Physical Review D 15,
pp. 27952801, 1977, or the paper by M. -T. Jaekel & S. R enaud, Gravitational quantum
limit for length measurement, Physics Letters A 185, pp. 143148, 1994. Cited on pages 33,
63, 64, 65, 67, and 114.
M. Kramer & al., Tests of general relativity from timing the double pulsar, preprint at arxiv.
org/abs/astro-ph/060941. Cited on page 33.
Minimal length and minimal time intervals are discussed, for example, by G. AmelinoCamelia, Limits on the measurability of space-time distances in (the semiclassical approximation of) quantum gravity, Modern Physics Letters A 9, pp. 34153422, 1994, preprint at
[Link]/abs/gr-qc/9603014, and by Y. J. Ng & H. van Dam, Limit to space-time measurement, Modern Physics Letters A 9, pp. 335340, 1994. Many other authors have explored the
topic. Cited on pages 35 and 64.
Maximal curvature, as well as area and volume quantization, are discussed in
A. Ashtekar, Quantum geometry and gravity: recent advances, preprint at [Link]/
abs/gr-qc/0112038 and in A. Ashtekar, Quantum geometry in action: big bang and black
holes, preprint at [Link]/abs/math-ph/0202008. Cited on pages 35, 71, and 408.
Maximons, elementary particles of Planck mass, are discussed by A. D. Sakharov, Vacuum quantum fluctuations in curved space and the theory of gravitation, Soviet Physics
Doklady 12, pp. 10401041, 1968. Cited on pages 37, 74, and 117.
Wolf gang R indler, Relativity Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University
Press, 2001, p. 230. Cited on page 39.
This relation was pointed out by Achim Kempf. The story is told in A. D. Sakharov,
General Relativity and Gravitation 32, pp. 365367, 2000, a reprint of his paper Doklady
Akademii Nauk SSSR 177, pp. 7071, 1967. Cited on pages 32 and 40.
Several incorrect counterclaims to the entropy limit were made in R. B ousso, The holographic principle, Review of Modern Physics 74, pp. 825874, 2002, preprint at [Link]/
abs/hep-th/0203101. However, this otherwise good review has some errors in its arguments,
as explained on page 140 in volume V. Bousso has changed his position in the meantime;
he now accepts the entropy limit. Cited on pages 40, 45, 406, and 408.

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See for example the review in C.W.J. Beenakker & al., Quantum transport in semiconductor nanostructures, pp. 1228, in H. Ehrenreich & D. Turnbull editors, Solid State
Physics, volume 44, Academic Press, 1991. Cited on page 41.

33

A discussion of a different electrical indeterminacy relation, between current and charge,

can be found in Y-Q. L i & B. Chen, Quantum theory for mesoscopic electronic circuits
and its applications, preprint at [Link]/abs/cond-mat/9907171. Cited on page 42.

34

Hans C. Ohanian & R emo Ruffini, Gravitation and Spacetime, W.W. Norton & Co.,
1994. Cited on pages 43 and 413.

35

The entropy limit for black holes is discussed by J. D. Bekenstein, Entropy

bounds and black hole remnants, Physical Review D 49, pp. 19121921, 1994. See also
J. D. Bekenstein, Universal upper bound on the entropy-to-energy ratio for bounded
systems, Physical Review D 23, pp. 287298, 1981. Cited on pages 44 and 127.

36

P. Kovtun, D. T. S on & A. O. Starinets, A viscosity bound conjecture, preprint at

[Link]/abs/hep-th/0405231. Cited on page 45.

37

Brian Greene, The Elegant Universe Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest
for the Ultimate Theory, Jonathan Cape 1999. Cited on page 50.

38

S. Weinberg, The cosmological constant problem, Reviews of Modern Physics 61, pp. 1
23, 1989. Cited on page 54.

39

Steven Weinberg, The Quantum Theory of Fields, Cambridge University Press, volumes
I, 1995, and II, 1996. Cited on page 54.

40

See the excellent presentation on the cosmological constant in general relativity by

E. Bianchi & C. Rovelli, Why all these prejudices against a constant?, preprint at
[Link]/abs/1002.3966 Cited on page 54.

41

The difficulties are summarised by B. S. DeWit t, Quantum field theory in curved spacetime, Physics Reports 19, pp. 295357, 1975. Cited on page 54.

42

C. W. Misner, K. S. Thorne & J. A. Wheeler, Gravitation, Freeman, 1973. Cited on

pages 55, 56, and 64.

43

J. A. Wheeler, in Relativity, Groups and Topology, edited by C. DeWit t &

B. S. DeWit t, Gordon and Breach, 1994. See also J. A. Wheeler, Physics at the Planck
length, International Journal of Modern Physics A 8, pp. 40134018, 1993. However, his
claim that spin 1/2 requires topology change is refuted by the strand model of the vacuum.
Cited on page 55.

44

J. L. Friedman & R. D. S orkin, Spin 1/2 from gravity, Physical Review Letters 44,
pp. 11001103, 1980. Cited on page 55.

45

A. P. Bal achandran, G. Bimonte, G. Marmo & A. Simoni, Topology change and

quantum physics, Nuclear Physics B 446, pp. 299314, 1995, preprint at [Link]/abs/
hep-th/9503046. Cited on page 55.

46

J. Ehlers, Introduction Survey of Problems, pp. 110, in J. Ehlers, editor, Sistemi gravitazionali isolati in relativit generale, Rendiconti della scuola internazionale di fisica Enrico
Fermi, LXVIIo corso, Societ Italiana di Fisica/North Holland, 1979. Cited on page 55.

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Gamma-ray bursts are discussed by G. Preparata, R. Ruffini & S. -S. Xue, The dyadosphere of black holes and gamma-ray bursts, Astronomy and Astrophysics 338, pp. L87
L90, 1998, and C. L. Bianco, R. Ruffini & S. -S. Xue, The elementary spike produced
by a pure e+ e pair-electromagnetic pulse from a black hole: the PEM pulse, Astronomy and
Astrophysics 368, pp. 377390, 2001. Cited on page 41.

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402

47

48
49
50
51

53
54
55

57
58

59
60

62
63

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56

See C. S chiller, Le vide diffre-t-il de la matire? in E. Gunzig & S. Diner editors,

Le Vide Univers du tout et du rien Des physiciens et des philosophes sinterrogent, Les
ditions de lUniversit de Bruxelles, 1998. An older, English-language version is available
as C. S chiller, Does matter differ from vacuum? preprint at [Link]/abs/gr-qc/9610066.
Cited on pages 55, 114, 116, 117, 118, and 129.
See for example R ichard P. Feynman, Robert B. L eighton & Matthew Sands,
The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Addison Wesley, 1977. Cited on page 56.
Steven Weinberg, Gravitation and Cosmology, Wiley, 1972. Cited on pages 56, 62,
and 64.
The argument is given e.g. in E. P. Wigner, Relativistic invariance and quantum phenomena, Reviews of Modern Physics 29, pp. 255258, 1957. Cited on page 61.
The starting point for the following arguments is taken from M. S chn, Operative time
definition and principal indeterminacy, preprint at [Link]/abs/gr-qc/9304024, and from
T. Padmanabhan, Limitations on the operational definition of space-time events and quantum gravity, Classical and Quantum Gravity 4, pp. L107L113, 1987; see also Padmanabhans
earlier papers referenced there. Cited on page 61.
W. Heisenberg, ber den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und
Mechanik, Zeitschrift fr Physik 43, pp. 172198, 1927. Cited on page 61.
E. H. Kennard, Zur Quantenmechanik einfacher Bewegungstypen, Zeitschrift fr Physik
44, pp. 326352, 1927. Cited on page 61.
M. G. R aymer, Uncertainty principle for joint measurement of noncommuting variables,
American Journal of Physics 62, pp. 986993, 1994. Cited on page 61.
H. Salecker, & E. P. Wigner, Quantum limitations of the measurement of space-time
distances, Physical Review 109, pp. 571577, 1958. Cited on pages 62, 89, and 110.
E. J. Z immerman, The macroscopic nature of space-time, American Journal of Physics 30,
pp. 97105, 1962. Cited on pages 62, 89, and 110.
J. D. Bekenstein, Black holes and entropy, Physical Review D 7, pp. 23332346, 1973.
Cited on pages 62, 127, and 272.
S. W. Hawking, Particle creation by black holes, Communications in Mathematical
Physics 43, pp. 199220, 1975; see also S. W. Hawking, Black hole thermodynamics,
Physical Review D 13, pp. 191197, 1976. Cited on pages 62, 127, and 272.
P. Gibbs, The small scale structure of space-time: a bibliographical review, preprint at arxiv.
org/abs/hep-th/9506171. Cited on pages 62 and 80.
The impossibility of determining temporal ordering in quantum theory is discussed by
J. Oppenheimer, B. R eznik & W. G. Unruh, Temporal ordering in quantum mechanics, Journal of Physics A 35, pp. 76417652, 2001, preprint at [Link]/abs/quant-ph/
0003130. Cited on page 63.
M. -T. Jaekel & S. R enaud, Gravitational quantum limit for length measurement,
Physics Letters A 185, pp. 143148, 1994. Cited on page 64.
D. V. Ahluwalia, Quantum measurement, gravitation and locality, Physics Letters B 339,
pp. 301303, 1994, preprint at [Link]/abs/gr-qc/9308007. Cited on page 64.
L. Garay, Quantum gravity and minimum length, International Journal of Modern
Physics A 10, pp. 145165, 1995, preprint at [Link]/abs/gr-qc/9403008. This paper also
includes an extensive bibliography. See also R. J. Adler & D. I. Santiago, On gravity
and the uncertainty principle, Modern Physics Letters A 14, pp. 13711381, 1999, preprint at
[Link]/abs/gr-qc/9904026. Cited on page 64.

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67

69
70

72
73

75
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C. Rovelli & L. Smolin, Discreteness of area and volume in quantum gravity, Nuclear
Physics B 442, pp. 593619, 1995. R. Loll, The volume operator in discretized quantum
gravity, preprint at [Link]/abs/gr-qc/9506014. See also C. Rovelli, Notes for a brief
history of quantum gravity, preprint at [Link]/abs/gr-qc/0006061. Cited on page 65.
D. Amati, M. Ciafaloni & G. Veneziano, Superstring collisions at Planckian energies, Physics Letters B 197, pp. 8188, 1987. D. J. Gross & P. F. Mende, The high energy behavior of string scattering amplitudes, Physics Letters B 197, pp. 129134, 1987. K. Konishi,
G. Paffu ti & P. Provero, Minimum physical length and the generalized uncertainty
principle, Physics Letters B 234, pp. 276284, 1990. P. Aspinwall, Minimum distances
in non-trivial string target spaces, Nuclear Physics B 431, pp. 7896, 1994, preprint at arxiv.
org/abs/hep-th/9404060. Cited on page 65.
M. Maggiore, A generalised uncertainty principle in quantum mechanics, Physics Letters
B 304, pp. 6569, 1993. Cited on page 65.
A simple approach is S. D oplicher, K. Fredenhagen & J. E. Roberts, Space-time
quantization induced by classical gravity, Physics Letters B 331, pp. 3944, 1994. Cited on
pages 65 and 79.
A. Kempf, Uncertainty relation in quantum mechanics with quantum group symmetry,
Journal of Mathematical Physics 35, pp. 44834496, 1994. A. Kempf, Quantum groups
and quantum field theory with nonzero minimal uncertainties in positions and momenta,
Czechoslovak Journal of Physics 44, pp. 10411048, 1994. Cited on page 65.
E. J. Hellund & K. Tanaka, Quantized space-time, Physical Review 94, pp. 192195,
1954. Cited on page 65.
This intriguing extract from a letter by Einstein was made widely known by
John J. Stachel, in his paper The other Einstein: Einstein contra field theory, that is
best found in his book Einstein from B to Z, Birkhuser, 2002. The German original
of the letter is found in Robert S chulmann, A. J. Knox, Michel Janssen &
Jzsef Illy, The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 8A The Berlin Years: Correspondence, 19141917, letter 299, Princeton University Press, 1998. Barbara Wolff helped
in clarifying several details in the German original. The letter is now available online, at
[Link]/vol8a-doc/463. Cited on page 66.
A. Peres & N. Rosen, Quantum limitations on the measurement of gravitational fields,
Physical Review 118, pp. 335336, 1960. Cited on page 67.
It is the first definition in Euclids Elements, c. 300 bce. For an English translation see
T. Heath, The Thirteen Books of the Elements, Dover, 1969. Cited on page 68.
A beautiful description of the BanachTarski paradox is the one by Ian Stewart, Paradox of the spheres, New Scientist, 14 January 1995, pp. 2831. Cited on page 69.
H. S. Snyder, Quantized space-time, Physical Review 71, pp. 3841, 1947. H. S. Snyder,
The electromagnetic field in quantized space-time, Physical Review 72, pp. 6874, 1947.
A. S child, Discrete space-time and integral Lorentz transformations, Physical Review 73,
pp. 414415, 1948. E. L. Hill, Relativistic theory of discrete momentum space and discrete
space-time, Physical Review 100, pp. 17801783, 1950. H. T. Flint, The quantization of
space-time, Physical Review 74, pp. 209210, 1948. A. Das, Cellular space-time and quantum field theory, Il Nuovo Cimento 18, pp. 482504, 1960. Cited on page 70.
D. Finkelstein, Superconducting causal nets, International Journal of Theoretical
Physics 27, pp. 473519, 1985. Cited on page 70.
N. H. Christ, R. Friedberg & T. D. L ee, Random lattice field theory: general formulation, Nuclear Physics B 202, pp. 89125, 1982. G. t Ho oft, Quantum field theory for

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404

77
78

79

81

83
84

85

c 2 m
1+

c 2 m
EPl

and

p=

m
1+

c 2 m
EPl

(210)

Another, similar approach of recent years, with a different proposal, is called doubly special relativity. A recent summary is G. Amelino-Camelia, Doubly-special relativity:
first results and key open problems, International Journal of Modern Physics 11, pp. 1643
1669, 2002, preprint at [Link]/abs/gr-qc/0210063. The paper shows how conceptual problems hinder the advance of the field. Another such discussion R. Aloisio, A. Gal ante,
A. F. Grillo, E. Luzio & F. Mndez, Approaching space-time through velocity in doubly special relativity, preprint at [Link]/abs/gr-qc/0410020. The lesson from these attempts is simple: special relativity cannot be modified to include a limit energy without
also including general relativity and quantum theory. Cited on pages 79 and 262.

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elementary particles is quantum field theory a theory?, Physics Reports 104, pp. 129142,
1984. Cited on page 70.
For a discussion, see R. S orabji, Time, Creation and the Continuum: Theories in Antiquity
and the Early Middle Ages, Duckworth, 1983. Cited on page 70.
See, for example, L. B ombelli, J. L ee, D. Meyer & R. D. S orkin, Space-time
as a causal set, Physical Review Letters 59, pp. 521524, 1987. G. Bright well &
R. Gregory, Structure of random space-time, Physical Review Letters 66, pp. 260263,
1991. Cited on page 71.
The false belief that particles like quarks or electrons are composite is slow to die out. See
for example: S. Fredriksson, Preon prophecies by the standard model, preprint at arxiv.
org/abs/hep-ph/0309213. Preon models gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, in particular through the papers by J. C. Pati & A. Sal am, Lepton number as the fourth color,
Physical Review D 10, pp. 275289, 1974, H. Harari, A schematic model of quarks and leptons, Physics Letters B 86, pp. 8386, 1979, M. A. Shupe, A composite model of leptons and
quarks, Physics Letters B 86, pp. 8792, 1979, and H. Fritzsch & G. Mandelbaum,
Weak interactions as manifestations of the substructure of leptons and quarks, Physics Letters
B 102, pp. 319322, 1981. Cited on page 72.
N. F. R amsey & A. Weis, Suche nach permanenten elektrischen Dipolmomenten: ein
Test der Zeitumkehrinvarianz, Physikalische Bltter 52, pp. 859863, 1996. See also
W. Bernreu ther & M. Suzuki, The electric dipole moment of the electron, Reviews of
Modern Physics 63, pp. 313340, 1991, and the musings in Hans Dehmelt, Is the electron
a composite particle?, Hyperfine Interactions 81, pp. 13, 1993. Cited on page 73.
K. Akama, T. Hat tori & K. Katsuura, Naturalness bounds on dipole moments from
new physics, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-ph/0111238. Cited on page 73.
The paper by J. Baron & al., Order of magnitude smaller limit on the electric dipole moment
of the electron, preprint at [Link]/abs/1310.7534 gives an upper experimental limit to the
dipole moment of the electron of 8.7 1031 e m. Cited on page 73.
C. Wolf, Upper limit for the mass of an elementary particle due to discrete time quantum
mechanics, Il Nuovo Cimento B 109, pp. 213218, 1994. Cited on page 75.
W. G. Unruh, Notes on black hole evaporation, Physical Review D 14, pp. 870875, 1976.
W. G. Unruh & R. M. Wald, What happens when an accelerating observer detects a
Rindler particle, Physical Review D 29, pp. 10471056, 1984. Cited on page 77.
The first example was J. Magueijo & L. Smolin, Lorentz invariance with an invariant
energy scale, Physical Review Letters 88, p. 190403, 2002, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/
0112090. They propose a modification of the mass energy relation of the kind

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H. D. Z eh, On the interpretation of measurement in quantum theory, Foundations of

Physics 1, pp. 6976, 1970. Cited on page 80.

88

See Y. J. Ng, W. A. Christiansen & H. van Dam, Probing Planck-scale physics with
extragalactic sources?, Astrophysical Journal 591, pp. L87L90, 2003, preprint at [Link]/
abs/astro-ph/0302372; D. H. Coule, Planck scale still safe from stellar images, Classical
and Quantum Gravity 20, pp. 31073112, 2003, preprint at [Link]/abs/astro-ph/0302333.
Negative experimental results (and not always correct calculations) are found in R. L ieu
& L. Hillman, The phase coherence of light from extragalactic sources direct evidence
against first order Planck scale fluctuations in time and space, Astrophysical Journal 585,
pp. L77L80, 2003, and R. R agazzoni, M. Turat to & W. Gaessler, The lack of observational evidence for the quantum structure of spacetime at Planck scales, Astrophysical
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B. E. S chaefer, Severe limits on variations of the speed of light with frequency, Physical
Review Letters 82, pp. 49644966, 21 June 1999. Cited on page 83.

90

A.A. Abd o & al., (Fermi GBM/LAT collaborations) Testing Einsteins special relativity with
Fermis short hard gamma-ray burst GRB090510, preprint at [Link]/0908.1832. Cited on
page 83.

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G. Amelino-Camelia, J. Ellis, N. E. Mavromatos, D. V. Nanopoulos &

S. Sakar, Potential sensitivity of gamma-ray-burster observations to wave dispersion in
vacuo, Nature 393, pp. 763765, 1998, preprint at [Link]/abs/astro-ph/9712103. Cited on
page 83.

92

G. Amelino-Camelia, Phenomenological description of space-time foam, preprint at

[Link]/abs/gr-qc/0104005. The paper includes a clearly written overview of present experimental approaches to detecting quantum gravity effects. See also his update G. AmelinoCamelia, Quantum-gravity phenomenology: status and prospects, preprint at [Link]/
abs/gr-qc/0204051. Cited on pages 83 and 84.

93

G. Amelino-Camelia, An interferometric gravitational wave detector as a quantum

gravity apparatus, Nature 398, pp. 216218, 1999, preprint at [Link]/abs/gr-qc/9808029.
Cited on page 83.

94

F. Karolyhazy, Gravitation and quantum mechanics of macroscopic objects, Il Nuovo Cimento A42, pp. 390402, 1966. Y. J. Ng & H. van Dam, Limit to space-time measurement,
Modern Physics Letters A 9, pp. 335340, 1994. Y. J. Ng & H. van Dam, Modern Physics
Letters A Remarks on gravitational sources, 10, pp. 28012808, 1995. The discussion is neatly
summarised in Y. J. Ng & H. van Dam, Comment on Uncertainty in measurements of distance, preprint at [Link]/abs/gr-qc/0209021. See also Y. J. Ng, Spacetime foam, preprint
at [Link]/abs/gr-qc/0201022. Cited on pages 84 and 89.

95

L. J. Garay, Spacetime foam as a quantum thermal bath, Physics Review Letters 80,
pp. 25082511, 1998, preprint at [Link]/abs/gr-qc/9801024. Cited on page 84.

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G. Amelino-Camelia & T. Piran, Planck-scale deformation of Lorentz symmetry as

a solution to the UHECR and the TeV- paradoxes, preprint at [Link]/astro-ph/0008107,
2000. Cited on page 84.

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R. P. Wo odard, How far are we from the quantum theory of gravity?, preprint at [Link]/
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W. Jauch, Heisenbergs uncertainty relation and thermal vibrations in crystals, American

Journal of Physics 61, pp. 929932, 1993. Cited on page 79.

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98

A similar point of view, often called monism, was proposed by Baruch Spinoza, Ethics
Demonstrated in Geometrical Order, 1677, originally in Latin; an affordable French edition
is Baruch Spinoza, LEthique, Folio-Gallimard, 1954. For a discussion of his ideas, especially his monism, see D on Garret editor, The Cambridge Companion to Spinoza, Cambridge University Press, 1996, or any general text on the history of philosophy. Cited on
page 84.

99

See the lucid discussion by G. F. R. Ellis & T. Rothman, Lost horizons, American Journal of Physics 61, pp. 883893, 1993. Cited on pages 89, 93, and 94.

100 See, for example, the Hollywood film Contact, based on the book by Carl Sagan, Contact,

Simon & Schuster, 1985. Cited on page 94.

101 See, for example, the international bestseller by Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of

Time From the Big Bang to Black Holes, 1988. Cited on page 97.
102 L. Rosenfeld, Quantentheorie und Gravitation, in H. -J. Treder, editor, Entstehung,

103 Holography in high-energy physics is connected with the work of t Hooft and Susskind.

See for example G. t Ho oft, Dimensional reduction in quantum gravity, pp. 284296, in
A. Ali, J. Ellis & S. R andjbar-Daemi, Salaamfeest, 1993, or the much-cited paper
by L. Susskind, The world as a hologram, Journal of Mathematical Physics 36, pp. 6377
6396, 1995, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/9409089. A good modern overview is Ref. 30.
Cited on pages 101 and 109.
104 D. B ohm & B. J. Hiley, On the intuitive understanding of nonlocality as implied by quan-

tum theory, Foundations of Physics 5, pp. 93109, 1975. Cited on page 102.
105 S. L loyd, Computational capacity of the universe, Physical Review Letters 88, p. 237901,
106 G ot tfried Wilhelm L eibniz, La Monadologie, 1714. Written in French, it is avail-

able freely at [Link]/zone30/Classiques_des_sciences_sociales and in various other languages on other websites. Cited on page 104.
107 See, for example, H. Wussing & P. S. Alexandrov editors, Die Hilbertschen Probleme,

Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Geest & Portig, 1983, or Ben H. Yandell, The Honours
Class: Hilberts Problems and their Solvers, A.K. Peters, 2002. Cited on page 104.
108 A large part of the study of dualities in string and M theory can be seen as investiga-

109 See L. Susskind & J. Uglum, Black holes, interactions, and strings, preprint at arxiv.

org/abs/hep-th/9410074, or L. Susskind, String theory and the principle of black hole

complementarity, Physical Review Letters 71, pp. 23672368, 1993, and M. Karliner,
I. Klebanov & L. Susskind, Size and shape of strings, International Journal of Modern Physics A 3, pp. 19811996, 1988, as well as L. Susskind, Structure of hadrons implied
by duality, Physical Review D 1, pp. 11821186, 1970. Cited on pages 113 and 128.
110 M. Pl anck, ber irreversible Strahlungsvorgnge, Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen

Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin pp. 440480, 1899. Today it is commonplace to

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tions into the detailed consequences of extremal identity. For a review of dualities, see
P. C. Argyres, Dualities in supersymmetric field theories, Nuclear Physics Proceedings
Supplement 61, pp. 149157, 1998, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/9705076. A classical
version of duality is discussed by M. C. B. Abdall a, A. L. Gadelka & I. V. Vancea,
Duality between coordinates and the Dirac field, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/0002217.
Cited on page 109.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

2002. Cited on page 103.

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Entwicklung und Perspektiven der Einsteinschen Gravitationstheorie, Springer Verlag, 1966.

Cited on page 99.

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use Diracs = h/2 instead of Plancks h, which Planck originally called b. Cited on page
114.
111 P. Facchi & S. Pascazio, Quantum Zeno and inverse quantum Zeno effects, pp. 147217,

in E. Wolf editor, Progress in Optics, 42, 2001. Cited on page 117.

112 Aristotle, Of Generation and Corruption, book I, part 2. See Jean-Paul D umont,

Les coles prsocratiques, Folio Essais, Gallimard, p. 427, 1991. Cited on page 117.
113 See for example the speculative model of vacuum as composed of Planck-size spheres pro-

posed by F. Winterberg, Zeitschrift fr Naturforschung 52a, p. 183, 1997. Cited on page

118.
114 The Greek salt-and-water argument and the fish argument are given by Lucrece, in full Titus

Lucretius Carus, De natura rerum, c. 60 bce. Cited on pages 119 and 134.
115 J. H. S chwarz, The second superstring revolution, Colloquium-level lecture presented at

the Sakharov Conference in Moscow, May 1996, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/9607067.

Cited on pages 120 and 121.
Paul D umont, Les coles prsocratiques, Folio Essais, Gallimard, p. 379, 1991. Cited on
page 120.
117 D. Olive & C. Montonen, Magnetic monopoles as gauge particles, Physics Letters 72B,

pp. 117120, 1977. Cited on page 121.

118 A famous fragment from Dio genes L artius (IX 72) quotes Democritus as follows: By

convention hot, by convention cold, but in reality, atoms and void; and also in reality we
know nothing, since truth is at the bottom. Cited on page 123.
119 This famous statement is found at the beginning of chapter XI, The Physical Universe, in

120 Pl ato, Parmenides, c. 370 bce. It has been translated into most languages. Reading it

aloud, like a song, is a beautiful experience. A pale reflection of these ideas is Bohms concept of unbroken wholeness. Cited on page 124.
121 P. Gibbs, Event-symmetric physics, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/9505089; see also his

website [Link]/pg/[Link]. Cited on page 124.

122 J. B. Hartle, & S. W. Hawking, Path integral derivation of black hole radiance, Phys-

123 J. Madd ox, When entropy does not seem extensive, Nature 365, p. 103, 1993. The issue is

now explored in all textbooks discussing black holes. John Maddox (b. 1925 Penllergaer,
d. 1999 Abergavenny) was famous for being one of the few people who was knowledgeable
in most natural sciences. Cited on page 127.
124 L. B ombelli, R. K. Koul, J. L ee & R. D. S orkin, Quantum source of entropy of black

holes, Physical Review D 34, pp. 373383, 1986. Cited on page 127.
125 The analogy between polymers and black holes is due to G. Weber, Thermodynamics at

boundaries, Nature 365, p. 792, 1993. Cited on page 127.

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ical Review D 13, pp. 21882203, 1976. See also A. Strominger & C. Vafa, Microscopic origin of BekensteinHawking entropy, Physics Letters B 379, pp. 99104, 1996,
preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/9601029. For another derivation of black hole entropy, see
G. T. Horowitz & J. Polchinski, A correspondence principle for black holes and strings,
Physical Review D 55, pp. 61896197, 1997, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/9612146. Cited
on pages 127 and 136.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Arthur Eddington, The Philosophy of Physical Science, Cambridge, 1939. Cited on

page 123.

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116 Simplicius, Commentary on the Physics of Aristotle, 140, 34. This text is cited in Jean-

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126 See the classic text by Pierre-Gilles de Gennes, Scaling Concepts in Polymer Physics,
127

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130

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133

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136

137

138

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Cornell University Press, 1979. Cited on page 127.

See for example S. Majid, Introduction to braided geometry and q-Minkowski space,
preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/9410241, or S. Majid, Duality principle and braided geometry, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/9409057. Cited on page 129.
The relation between spin and statistics has been studied recently by M. V. Berry &
J. M. Robbins, Quantum indistinguishability: spinstatistics without relativity or field theory?, in R. C. Hilborn & G. M. Tino editors, SpinStatistics Connection and Commutation Relations, American Institute of Physics, 2000. Cited on page 130.
A. Gregori, Entropy, string theory, and our world, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/
0207195. Cited on page 132.
String cosmology is a pastime for many. Examples include N. E. Mavromatos, String cosmology, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/0111275, and N. G. Sanchez, New developments
in string gravity and string cosmology a summary report, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/
0209016. Cited on page 132.
On the present record, see [Link]/wiki/Ultra-high-energy_cosmic_ray and fr.
[Link]/wiki/Zetta-particule. Cited on page 133.
P. F. Mende, String theory at short distance and the principle of equivalence, preprint at
[Link]/abs/hep-th/9210001. Cited on page 133.
An example is given by A. A. Sl avnov, FermiBose duality via extra dimension, preprint
at [Link]/abs/hep-th/9512101. See also the standard work by Michael Stone editor,
Bosonization, World Scientific, 1994. Cited on page 134.
A weave model of space-time appears in certain approaches to quantum gravity, such as
Ref. 26. On a slightly different topic, see also S. A. Major, A spin network primer, preprint
at [Link]/abs/gr-qc/9905020. Cited on page 134.
L. Smolin & Y. Wan, Propagation and interaction of chiral states in quantum gravity,
preprint at [Link]/abs/0710.1548, and references therein. Cited on page 134.
A good introduction into his work is the paper D. Kreimer, New mathematical structures
in renormalisable quantum field theories, Annals of Physics 303, pp. 179202, 2003, erratum
ibid. 305, p. 79, 2003, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/0211136. Cited on page 134.
Introductions to holography include E. Alvarez, J. Conde & L. Hernandez, Rudiments of holography, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/0205075, and Ref. 30. The importance of holography in theoretical high-energy physics was underlined by the discovery
of J. Maldacena, The large N limit of superconformal field theories and supergravity,
preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/9711200. Cited on page 134.
X. -G. Wen, From new states of matter to a unification of light and electrons, preprint at
[Link]/abs/0508020. Cited on page 134.
J. S. Avrin, A visualizable representation of the elementary particles, Journal of Knot Theory and Its Ramifications 14, pp. 131176, 2005. Cited on pages 134 and 326.
The well-known ribbon model is presented in S. Bilson-Thompson, A topological
model of composite preons, preprint at [Link]/hep-ph/0503213; S. Bilson-Thompson,
F. Markopoulou & L. Smolin, Quantum gravity and the standard model, preprint
at [Link]/hep-th/0603022; S. Bilson-Thompson, J. Hacket t, L. Kauffman
& L. Smolin, Particle identifications from symmetries of braided ribbon network invariants, preprint at [Link]/abs/0804.0037; S. Bilson-Thompson, J. Hacket t &
L. Kauffman, Particle topology, braids, and braided belts, preprint at [Link]/abs/0903.
1376. Cited on pages 134, 158, and 326.

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141 R. J. Finkelstein, A field theory of knotted solitons, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/

142
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146

147

149
150

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153

154

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0701124. See also R. J. Finkelstein, Trefoil solitons, elementary fermions, and SUq (2),
preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/0602098, R. J. Finkelstein & A. C. Cadavid, Masses
and interactions of q-fermionic knots, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/0507022, and
R. J. Finkelstein, A knot model suggested by the standard electroweak theory, preprint
at [Link]/abs/hep-th/0408218. Cited on pages 134 and 326.
Louis H. Kauffman, Knots and Physics, World Scientific, 1991. This is a wonderful book.
Cited on pages 134 and 259.
S. K. Ng, On a knot model of the + meson, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/0210024, and
S. K. Ng, On a classification of mesons, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-ph/0212334. Cited on
pages 134 and 326.
For a good introduction to superstrings, see the lectures by B. Zwiebach, String theory for
pedestrians, [Link]/[Link]?ida=a063319. For an old introduction to superstrings, see the famous text by M. B. Green, J. H. S chwarz & E. Wit ten, Superstring
Theory, Cambridge University Press, volumes 1 and 2, 1987. Like all the other books on superstrings, they contain no statement that is applicable to or agrees with the strand model.
Cited on pages 135 and 327.
See A. Sen, An introduction to duality symmetries in string theory, in Les Houches Summer
School: Unity from Duality: Gravity, Gauge Theory and Strings (Les Houches, France, 2001),
Springer Verlag, 76, pp. 241322, 2002. Cited on page 135.
Brian Greene regularly uses the name string conjecture. For example, he did so in a podium
discussion at TED in 2009; the video of the podium discussion can be downloaded at www.
[Link]. Cited on page 135.
L. Susskind, Some speculations about black hole entropy in string theory, preprint at arxiv.
org/abs/hep-th/9309145. G. T. Horowitz & J. Polchinski, A correspondence principle
for black holes and strings, Physical Review D 55, pp. 61896197, 1997, preprint at [Link]/
abs/hep-th/9612146. Cited on pages 136 and 413.
F. Wilczek, Getting its from bits, Nature 397, pp. 303306, 1999. Cited on page 137.
M. R. D ougl as, Understanding the landscape, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/0602266;
his earlier papers also make the point. Cited on page 137.
The difficulties of the string conjecture are discussed in the well-known internet blog
by Peter Woit, Not even wrong, at [Link]/~woit/blog. Several Nobel Prize winners for particle physics dismiss the string conjecture: Martin Veltman, Sheldon Glashow, Burton Richter, Richard Feynman and since 2009 also Steven Weinberg are
among those who did so publicly. Cited on pages 138 and 158.
Searches for background-free approaches are described by E. Wit ten, Quantum background independence in string theory, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/9306122 and
E. Wit ten, On background-independent open string theory, preprint at [Link]/abs/
hep-th/9208027. Cited on page 138.
In fact, no other candidate model that fulfils all requirements for the final theory is available
in the literature so far. This might change in the future, though. Cited on page 143.
S. Carlip, The small scale structure of spacetime, preprint at [Link]/abs/1009.1136. This
paper deduces the existence of fluctuating lines in vacuum from a number of arguments
that are completely independent of the strand model. Cited on pages 153 and 281.
David Deutsch states that any good explanation must be hard to vary. This must also apply
a unified model, as it claims to explain everything that is observed. See D. Deu tsch, A
new way to explain explanation, video talk at [Link]. Cited on pages 157 and 377.

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155 L. B ombelli, J. L ee, D. Meyer & R. D. S orkin, Space-time as a causal set, Physical

Review Letters 59, pp. 521524, 1987. See also the review by J. Henson, The causal set
approach to quantum gravity, preprint at [Link]/abs/gr-qc/0601121. Cited on pages 158
and 280.
156 D. Finkelstein, Homotopy approach to quantum gravity, International Journal of Theo-

retical Physics 47, pp. 534552, 2008. Cited on pages 158 and 280.
157 L. H. Kauffman & S. J. Lomonaco, Quantum knots, preprint at [Link]/abs/

quant-ph/0403228. See also S. J. Lomonaco & L. H. Kauffman, Quantum knots

and mosaics, preprint at [Link]/abs/quant-ph/0805.0339. Cited on page 158.
158 Immanuel Kant, Critik der reinen Vernunft, 1781, is a famous but long book that every

philospher pretends to have read. In his book, Kant introduced the a priori existence of
space and time. Cited on page 160.
159 The literature on circularity is rare. For two interesting exceptions, see L. H. Kauffman,

160 Information on the belt trick is scattered across many books and few papers. The best source

of information on this topic are websites. For belt trick visualizations see [Link]/
hypercomplex/html/[Link], [Link]/hypercomplex/html/[Link], or
[Link]/APPLETS/21/[Link]. For an excellent literature summary and more
movies, see [Link]/~palais/[Link]. None of these sites or the cited references seem to mention that there are many ways to perform the belt trick; this seems to be
hidden knowledge. In September 2009, Greg Egan took up my suggestion and changed his
applet to show a second version of the belt trick. Cited on pages 167 and 168.
161 There is an interesting exploration behind this analogy. The first question is to discover why

162 D. B ohm, R. S chiller & J. Tiomno, A causal interpretation of the Pauli equation (A),

163 R ichard P. Feynman, QED The Strange Theory of Light and Matter, Princeton Uni-

versity Press 1988. This is one of the best summaries of quantum theory ever written. Every
physicist should read it. Cited on pages 187, 192, 203, 209, and 411.
164 A. Aspect, J. Dalibard & G. Ro ger, Experimental tests of Bells inequalities using time-

varying analyzers, Physical Review Letters 49, pp. 18041807, 1982, Cited on page 194.
165 L. Kauffman, New invariants of knot theory, American Mathematical Monthly 95,

pp. 195242, 1987. See also the image at the start of chapter 6 of Louis H. Kauffman,
On Knots, Princeton University Press, 1987. Cited on page 195.

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Supplementi al Nuovo Cimento 1, pp. 48 66, 1955, and D. B ohm & R. S chiller, A
causal interpretation of the Pauli equation (B), Supplementi al Nuovo Cimento 1, pp. 6791,
1955. The authors explore an unusual way to interpret the wavefunction, which is of little
interest here; but doing so, they give and explore the description of Pauli spinors in terms
of Euler angles. Cited on page 186.

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Challenge 205 e

this analogy between a non-dissipative system a free quantum particle moving in vacuum
and a dissipative system a macroscopic body drawn through a viscous liquid, say honey
is possible at all. (A careful distinction between the cases with spin 0, spin 1 and spin 1/2
are necessary.) The second question is the exploration of the motion of bodies of general
shape in viscous fluids at low Reynolds numbers and under constant force. For the best
overview of this question, see the beautiful article by O. G onzalez, A. B. A. Graf &
J. H. Madd o cks, Dynamics of a rigid body in a Stokes fluid, Journal of Fluid Mechanics
519, pp. 133160, 2004. Cited on pages 183 and 335.

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Knot logic downloadable from [Link]/~kauffman, and L. H. Kauffman, Reflexivity and eigenform, Constructivist Foundations 4, pp. 121137, 2009. Cited on page 161.

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166 S. Ko chen & E. P. Specker, The problem of hidden variables in quantum mechanics, 17,
167
168

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pp. 5987, 1967. Cited on page 190.

The details on the speed of photons are explained in any textbook on quantum electrodynamics. The issue is also explained by Feynman in Ref. 163 on page 89. Cited on page 199.
J. -M. L v y-L eblond, Nonrelativitic particles and wave equations, Communications in Mathematical Physics 6, pp. 286311, 1967. See also A. Galind o &
C. Snchez del R o, Intrinsic magnetic moment as a nonrelativistic phenomenon, American Journal of Physics 29, pp. 582584, 1961, and V. I. Fushchich, A. G. Nikitin &
V. A. Salo gub, On the non-relativistic motion equations in the Hamiltonian form, Reports
on Mathematical Physics 13, pp. 175185, 1978. Cited on page 200.
L. L erner, Derivation of the Dirac equation from a relativistic representation of spin, European Journal of Phyics 17, pp. 172175, 1996. Cited on pages 200 and 202.
E. P. Bat tey-Prat t & T. J. R acey, Geometric model for fundamental particles, International Journal of Theoretical Physics 19, pp. 437475, 1980. Without knowing this work, C.
Schiller had deduced the same results in 2008. Cited on pages 201, 202, and 421.
A. Abraham, Prinzipien der Dynamik des Elektrons, Annalen der Physik 10, pp. 105
179, 1903, J. Frenkel, Die Elektrodynamik des rotierenden Elektrons, Zeitschrift fr
Physik 37, pp. 243262, 1926, L. H. Thomas, The motion of a spinning electron, Nature April 10, p. 514, 1926, and L. H. Thomas, The kinematics of an electron with an
axis, Philosophical Magazine 3, pp. 122, 1927. See also W. E. Baylis, Surprising symmetries in relativistic charge dynamics, preprint at [Link]/abs/physics/0410197. See also
W. E. Baylis, Quantum/classical interface: a geometric approach from the classical side,
pp. 127154 and W. E. Baylis, Geometry of paravector space with applications to relativistic physics, pp. 363387 in Computational Noncommutative Algebra and Applications,
Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute, NATO Science Series II, vol. 136, ed.
J. Byrnes, Kluwer Academic 2004. W. E. Baylis, R. Cabrera & D. Keselica, Quantum/classical interface: fermion spin, preprint at [Link]/abs/0710.3144. D. Hestenes,
Zitterbewegung Modelling, Foundations of Physics 23, pp. 365386, 1993. D. Hestenes,
Zitterbewegung in quantum mechanics a research program, preprint at [Link]/abs/
0802.2728. See also D. Hestenes, Reading the electron clock, preprint at [Link]/abs/
0802.3227 and his webpage [Link]/html/[Link]. A. Loinger
& A. Sparzani, Dirac equation without Dirac matrices, Il Nuovo Cimento 39, pp. 1140
1145, 1965. D. B ohm, P. Hillion, T. Takabayasi & J. -P. Vigier, Relativistic rotators
and bilocal theory, Progress of Theoretical Physics 23, pp. 496511, 1960. A. Challinor,
A. L asenby, S. Gill & C. D oran, A relativistic, causal account of a spin measurement,
Physics Letters A 218, pp. 128138, 1996. E. Santamato, The role of Dirac equation in the
classical mechanics of the relativistic top, preprint at [Link]/abs/0808.3237. Cited on page
203.
The concept of Zitterbewegung was formulated in E. S chrdinger, ber die krftefreie
Bewegung in der relativistischen Quantenmechanik, Berliner Berichte pp. 418428, 1930, and
Zur Quantendynamik des Elektrons, Berliner Berichte pp. 6372, 1931. Numerous subsequent papers discuss these publications. Cited on page 203.
See for example the book by Martin R ivas, Kinematic Theory of Spinning Particles,
Springer, 2001. Cited on page 204.
The basic papers in the field of stochastic quantization are W. Weizel, Ableitung der Quantentheorie aus einem klassischen, kausal determinierten Modell, Zeitschrift fr Physik A
134, pp. 264285, 1953, W. Weizel, Ableitung der Quantentheorie aus einem klassischen
Modell II, Zeitschrift fr Physik A 135, pp. 270273, 1954, W. Weizel, Ableitung der

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quantenmechanischen Wellengleichung des Mehrteilchensystems aus einem klassischen Modell, Zeitschrift fr Physik A 136, pp. 582604, 1954. This work was taken up by E. Nelson,
Derivation of the Schrdinger equation from Newtonian mechanics, Physical Review 150,
pp. 10791085, 1969, and in Edward Nelson, Quantum Fluctuations, Princeton University Press 1985, also downloadable at [Link]/~nelson/[Link], and
the book Edward Nelson, Stochastic Quantization, Princeton University Press 1985. See
also L. Fritsche & M. Haugk, A new look at the derivation of the Schrdinger equation from Newtonian mechanics, Annalen der Physik 12, pp. 371402, 2003. A summary
of Nelsons approach is also given in F. Markopoulou & L. Smolin, Quantum theory from quantum gravity, Physical Review D 70, p. 124029, 2004, preprint at [Link]/
abs/gr-qc/0311059. See also the important criticism by T. C. Wallstrom, Inequivalence
between the Schrdinger equation and the Madelung hydrodynamic equation, Physical Review A 49, pp. 16131617, 1994, and T. C. Wallstrom, The stochastic mechanics of the
Pauli equation, Transactions of the American Mathematical Society 318, pp. 749762, 1990.
A proposed answer is L. Smolin, Could quantum mechanics be an approximation to another theory?, preprint at [Link]/quant-ph/abs/0609109. See also S. K. Srinivasan &
E. C. G. Sudarshan, A direct derivation of the Dirac equation via quaternion measures,
Journal of Physics A 29, pp. 51815186, 1996. Cited on page 204.
Julian S chwinger, Quantum Mechanics Symbolism of Atomic Measurements,
Springer, 2001. Cited on page 206.
H. Nikoli, How (not) to teach Lorentz covariance of the Dirac equation, preprint at arxiv.
org/abs/1309.7070. Cited on page 207.
For such an attempt, see the proposal by M. R ainer, Resolution of simple singularities
yielding particle symmetries in space-time, Journal of Mathematical Physics 35, pp. 646655,
1994. Cited on page 209.
C. S chiller, Deducing the three gauge interactions from the three Reidemeister moves,
preprint at [Link]/abs/0905.3905. Cited on pages 209 and 211.
G. T. Horowitz & J. Polchinski, Gauge/gravity duality, preprint at [Link]/
abs/gr-qc/0602037. Note also the statement in the introduction that a graviton might
be a composite of two spin-1 bosons, which is somewhat reproduced by the strand
model of the graviton. A more concrete approach to gaugegravity duality is made by
M. van R aamsd onk, Building up spacetime with quantum entanglement, preprint at
[Link]/1005.3035. This approach to gaugegravity duality is close to that of the strand
model. Cited on page 211.
K. R eidemeister, Elementare Begrndung der Knotentheorie, Abhandlungen aus dem
Mathematischen Seminar der Universitt Hamburg 5, pp. 2432, 1926. Cited on pages 212
and 259.
For some of the background on this topic, see F. Wilczek & A. Z ee Appearance of
gauge structures in simple dynamical systems, Physical Review Letters 52, pp. 21112114, 1984,
A. Shapere & F. Wilczek, Self-propulsion at low Reynolds number, Physical Review
Letters 58, pp. 20512054, 1987, and A. Shapere & F. Wilczek, Gauge kinematics of
deformable bodies, American Journal of Physics 57, pp. 514518, 1989. Cited on page 256.
R. Brit to, F. Cachazo, B. Feng & E. Wit ten, Direct proof of tree-level recursion relation in YangMills theory, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/0501052. Cited on page 257.
D. V. Ahluwalia-Khalilova, Operational indistinguishability of double special relativity from special relativity, Classical and Quantum Gravity 22, pp. 14331450, 2005, preprint
at [Link]/abs/gr-qc/0212128; see also N. Jafari & A. Shariati, Doubly special relativity: a new relativity or not?, preprint at [Link]/abs/gr-qc/0602075. Cited on page 263.

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184 E. Verlinde, On the origin of gravity and the laws of Newton, preprint at [Link]/abs/

1001.0785. Cited on page 264.

185 G. -L. L esage, Lucrce Newtonien, Nouveaux mmoires de lAcadmie Royale des

Sciences et Belles Lettres pp. 404431, 1747, or [Link]/bibliothek/digital/

struktur/03-nouv/1782/jpg-0600/[Link].
See
also
[Link]/wiki/
Le_Sages_theory_of_gravitation. In fact, the first to propose the idea of gravitation as
a result of small particles pushing masses was Nicolas Fatio de Duillier in 1688. Cited on
page 265.
186 G. t Ho oft, Dimensional reduction in quantum gravity, preprint at [Link]/abs/gr-qc/

9310026. Many of the ideas of this paper become easier to understand and to argue when
the strand model is used. Cited on page 270.
187 S. Carlip, Logarithmic corrections to black hole entropy from the Cardy formula, Classi-

cal and Quantum Gravity 17, pp. 41754186, 2000, preprint at [Link]/abs/gr-qc/0005017.
Cited on page 271.
189 F. Tamburini, C. Cuofano, M. Dell a Valle & R. Gilmozzi, No quantum gravity

signature from the farthest quasars, preprint at [Link]/abs/1108.6005. Cited on page 277.
190 On torsion, see the excellent review by R. T. Hammond, New fields in general relativity,

Contemporary Physics 36, pp. 103114, 1995. Cited on page 280.

191 H. Kleinert, & J. Z aanen, World nematic crystal model of gravity explaining the ab-

sence of torsion, Physics Letters A 324, pp. 361365, 2004. Cited on page 280.
192 The analogy between the situation around line defects and general relativity is ex-

193 Loop quantum gravity is a vast research field. The complete literature is available at arxiv.

org/archive/gr-qc. Cited on page 280.

194 G. t Ho oft, Crystalline Gravity, International Journal of Modern Physics A 24, pp. 3243

3255, 2009, and also G. t Ho oft, A locally finite model of gravity, preprint at [Link]/
abs/0804.0328. Cited on page 280.
195 L. Susskind, New concepts for old black holes, preprint at [Link]/abs/1311.3335, and also

reference Ref. 147. Cited on page 280.

196 M. B ot ta Cantcheff, Spacetime geometry as statistic ensemble of strings, preprint at

[Link]/abs/1105.3658. Cited on page 281.

org/abs/0907.2939. Cited on page 281.
198 W. H. Zurek & K. S. Thorne, Statistical mechanical origin of the entropy of a rotating,

charged black hole, Physical Review Letters 54, pp. 21712175, 1985. Cited on page 281.
199 M. Shaposhnikov & C. Wet terich, Asymptotic safety of gravity and the Higgs boson

mass, preprint at [Link]/abs/0912.0208. Cited on page 282.

200 M. M. Anber & J. F. D ono ghue, On the running of the gravitational constant, preprint

at [Link]/abs/1111.2875. Cited on page 282.

201 C. H. L ineweaver & T. M. Davis, Misconceptions about the big bang, Scientific Amer-

ican pp. 3645, March 2005. Cited on page 285.

free pdf le available at [Link]

197 M. van R aamsd onk, Comments on quantum gravity and entanglement, preprint at arxiv.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

plained in Ekkehart Krner, Kontinuumstheorie der Versetzungen und Eigenspannungen, Springer, 1958, These ideas have been taken up and pursued by J. D. Eshelby,
B. A. Bilby, and many others after them. Cited on page 280.

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188 On the limit for angular momentum of black holes, see Ref. 34. Cited on page 273.

414

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202 Supernova Search Team Coll aboration, A.G. R iess & al., Observational evi-

203
204

205
206

209
210
211

212

214

free pdf le available at [Link]

213

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dence from supernovae for an accelerating universe and a cosmological constant, Astronomical Journal 116, pp. 10091038, 1998, preprint at [Link]/abs/astro-ph/9805201. Cited on
page 285.
Stephen Hawking & Ro ger Penrose, The Nature of Space and Time, Princeton University Press, 1996. Cited on page 286.
C. Bal zs & I. Szapudi, Naturalness of the vacuum energy in holographic theories,
preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/0603133. See also C. Bambi & F. R. Urban, Natural extension of the generalised uncertainty principle, preprint at [Link]/abs/0709.1965. The
same point is made by D. A. E asson, P. H. Frampton & G. F. Smo ot, Entropic accelerating universe, preprint at [Link]/abs/1002.4278. Cited on page 287.
W. Fischler & L. Susskind, Holography and Cosmology, preprint at [Link]/abs/
hep-th/9806039. Cited on page 287.
For a review of recent cosmological data, see D. N. Spergel, R. Bean, O. D or,
M. R. Nolta, C. L. Bennet t, G. Hinshaw, N. Jarosik, E. Komatsu,
L. Page, H. V. Peiris, L. Verde, C. Barnes, M. Halpern, R. S. Hill,
A. Ko gu t, M. L imon, S. S. Meyer, N. Odegard, G. S. Tucker, J. L. Weil and,
E. Woll ack & E. L. Wright, Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) three
year results: implications for cosmology, preprint at [Link]/abs/astro-ph/0603449. Cited
on pages 287 and 288.
There is a large body of literature that has explored a time-varying cosmological constant,
especially in relation to holography. An example with many references is L. Xu, J. Lu &
W. L i, Time variable cosmological constants from the age of the universe, preprint at arxiv.
org/abs/0905.4773. Cited on page 287.
D. Wiltshire, Gravitational energy and cosmic acceleration, preprint at [Link]/abs/
0712.3982 and D. Wiltshire, Dark energy without dark energy, preprint at [Link]/abs/
0712.3984. Cited on page 288.
The attribution to Voltaire could not be confirmed. Cited on page 292.
V. Crede & C. A. Meyer, The experimental status of glueballs, Progress in Particle and
Nuclear Physics 63, pp. 74116, 2009. Cited on page 303.
E. Klempt & A. Z aitsev, Glueballs, hybrids, multiquarks. Experimental facts versus
QCD inspired concepts, Physics Reports 454, 2007, preprint at [Link]/abs/0708.4016.
Cited on pages 303 and 322.
R. V. Buniy & T. W. Kephart, A model of glueballs, preprint at [Link]/pdf/
hep-ph/0209339; R. V. Buniy & T. W. Kephart, Universal energy spectrum of tight
knots and links in physics, preprint at [Link]/pdf/hep-ph/0408025; R. V. Buniy &
T. W. Kephart, Glueballs and the universal energy spectrum of tight knots and links,
preprint at [Link]/pdf/hep-ph/0408027. See also J. P. R alston, The Bohr atom of
glueballs, preprint at [Link]/pdf/hep-ph/0301089. Cited on page 303.
See the one million dollar prize described at [Link]/millennium/
Yang-Mills_Theory. Cited on page 303.
A. J. Niemi, Are glueballs knotted closed strings?, pp. 127129, in H. Suganuma,
N. Ishii, M. Oka, H. Enyo, T. Hatsuda, T. Kunihiro & K. Yazaki editors, Color
confinement and hadrons in quantum chromodynamics, World Scientific, 2003, preprint
at [Link]/pdf/hep-th/0312133. See also Y. M. Cho, B. S. Park & P. M. Z hang, New
interpretation of Skyrme theory, preprint at [Link]/pdf/hep-th/0404181; K. Kond o,
A. Ono, A. Shibata, T. Shinohara & T. Murakami, Glueball mass from quantized

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216
217

218

221
222
223

225

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220

knot solitons and gauge-invariant gluon mass, Jornal of Physics A 39, pp. 1376713782, 2006,
preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/0604006. Cited on pages 303 and 322.
For a clear review on the topic and the planned experiments, see E. Fiorini, Measurement
of neutrino mass in double beta decay, Europhysics News 38, pp. 3034, 2007, downloadable
at [Link]. Cited on page 307.
For example, see the detailed discussion of neutrino properties at [Link] or, in
print, in Ref. 224. Cited on page 307.
For a possible third approach, see A. F. Nicholson & D. C. Kennedy, Electroweak theory without Higgs bosons, International Journal of Modern Physics A 15, pp. 14971519,
2000, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-ph/9706471. Cited on page 308.
M. Veltman, The Higgs system, lecture slides at [Link]/pub/theory/
academiclectures/[Link]. See also his CERN Yellow Report 97-05, Reflections on the
Higgs system, 1997, and the paper H. Veltman & M. Veltman, On the possibility of
resonances in longitudinally polarized vector boson scattering, Acta Physics Polonica B 22,
pp. 669695, 1991. Cited on page 309.
J. W. Moffat & V. T. Thot, A finite electroweak model without a Higgs particle, preprint
at [Link]/abs/0812.1991. The ideas go back to D. Evens, J. W. Moffat, G. Kleppe &
R. P. Wo odard, Nonlocal regularizations of gauge theories, Physical Review D 43, pp. 499
519, 1991. For more details on how to introduce non-locality while maintaining current conservation and unitarity, see G. Kleppe & R. P. Wo odard, Non-local Yang-Mills, Nuclear
Physics B 388, pp. 81112, 1992, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-th/9203016. For a different approach that postulates no specific origin for the W and Z masses, see J. W. Moffat, Ultraviolet complete electroweak model without a Higgs particle, preprint at [Link]/abs/1006.
1859. Cited on page 309.
H. B. Nielsen & P. Olesen, A vortex line model for dual strings, Nuclear Physics B, 61,
pp. 45-61 (1973). Cited on pages 312 and 357.
B. Andersson, G. Gustaf son, G. Ingelman & T. Sjstrand, Parton fragmentation and string dynamics, Physics Reports 97, pp. 31145, 1983. Cited on page 312.
C. B. Thorn, Subcritical string and large N QCD, preprint at [Link]/abs/0809.1085.
Cited on page 312.
A. J. Buchmann & E. M. Henley, Intrinsic quadrupole moment of the nucleon, Physical Review C 63, p. 015202, 2000. Alfons Buchmann also predicts that the quadrupole moment of the other, strange J = 1/2 octet baryons is positive, and predicts a prolate structure for all of them (private communication). For the decuplet baryons, with J = 3/2,
the quadrupole moment can often be measured spectroscopically, and is always negative. The four baryons are thus predicted to have a negative intrinsic quadrupole moment and thus an oblate shape. This explained in A. J. Buchmann & E. M. Henley,
Quadrupole moments of baryons, Physical Review D 65, p. 073017, 2002. For recent updates, see A. J. Buchmann, Charge form factors and nucleon shape, pp. 110125, in
C. N. Papanicol as & Aron Bernstein editors, Shape of Hadrons Workshop Conference, Athens, Greece, 27-29 April 2006, AIP Conference Proceedings 904. Cited on pages
314 and 320.
K. Nakamura & al., The Review of Particle Physics, Journal of Physics G 37, p. 075021,
2010, or [Link]. Cited on pages 317, 318, 335, 347, 348, 349, 350, 415, and 417.
A review on Regge trajectories and Chew-Frautschi plots is W. Drechsler, Das ReggePol-Modell, Naturwissenschaften 59, pp. 325336, 1972. See also the short lecture on courses.
[Link]/phys55x/Physics557_lec11.htm. Cited on page 317.

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415

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226 Kurt G ot tfried & Victor F. Weisskopf, Concepts of Particle Physics, Clarendon
227

228
229

230
231

233

235

236
237
238

240
241
242
243

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Press, Oxford, 1984. Cited on page 317.

G. t Ho oft, G. Isid ori, L. Maiani, A. D. Polosa & V. R iquer, A theory of scalar
mesons, Physics Letters B 662, pp. 424430, 2008, preprint at [Link]/abs/0801.2288. However, other researchers, such as [Link]/abs/1404.5673, argue against the tetraquark interpretation. The issue is not closed. Cited on page 322.
M. Karliner, Doubly heavy tetraquarks and baryons, preprint at [Link]/abs/1401.4058.
Cited on page 325.
J. Viro & O. Viro, Configurations of skew lines, Leningrad Mathematical Journal 1,
pp. 10271050, 1990, and updated preprint at [Link]/abs/[Link]/0611374. Cited on page
325.
W. Thomson, On vortex motion, Transactions of the Royal Society in Edinburgh pp. 217
260, 1868. This famous paper stimulated much work on knot theory. Cited on page 325.
H. Jehle, Flux quantization and particle physics, Physical Review D 6, pp. 441457, 1972,
and H. Jehle, Flux quantization and fractional charge of quarks, Physical Review D 6,
pp. 21472177, 1975. Cited on page 326.
T. R. Mongan, Preons from holography, preprint at [Link]/abs/0801.3670. Cited on
page 326.
Jacobs rings are shown, for example, in the animation on [Link]/index.
php?page=anneaux-de-jacob. They are already published in the book by Tom Tit, La science amusante, 1870, and the images were reprinted the popular science books by Edi Lammers, and, almost a century later on, even in the mathematics column and in one of the
books by Martin Gardner. See also [Link]/~dsimanek/scenario/[Link]. Cited
on page 329.
P. Pieranski, S. Przybyl & A. Stasiak, Tight open knots, European Physical Journal
E 6, pp. 123128, 2001, preprint at [Link]/abs/physics/0103016. Cited on pages 334, 335,
and 421.
R. B oughezal, J. B. Tausk & J. J. van der Bij, Three-loop electroweak corrections to
the W-boson mass and sin2 eff in the large Higgs mass limit, Nuclear Physics B 725, pp. 3
14, 2005, preprint at [Link]/abs/hep-ph/0504092. Cited on page 334.
The calculation has been performed by Eric Rawdon with help by Rob Sharein. Cited on
page 336.
The calculations have been performed by Eric Rawdon and Maria Fisher. Cited on pages
337 and 338.
See H. Fritzsch, A.D. zer, A scaling law for quark masses, preprint at [Link]/abs/
hep-ph/0407308. Cited on page 338.
K. A. Meissner & H. Nicol ai, Neutrinos, axions and conformal symmetry, preprint at
[Link]/abs/0803.2814. Cited on pages 340 and 342.
M. Shaposhnikov, Is there a new physics between electroweak and Planck scale?, preprint
at [Link]/abs/0708.3550. Cited on page 342.
Y. Diao, C. Ernst, A. Por & U. Z iegler, The roplength of knots are almost linear in
terms of their crossing numbers, preprint at [Link]/abs/0912.3282. Cited on page 345.
H. Fritzsch & Z. -Z. X ing, Lepton mass hierarchy and neutrino mixing, preprint at
[Link]/abs/hep-ph/0601104 Cited on page 349.
The effects of neutrino mixing, i.e., neutrino oscillations, were measured in numerous
experiments from the 1960s onwards; most important were the experiments at Super-

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417

Kamiokande in Japan and at the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory in Canada. See Ref. 224.
Cited on page 350.

244 M. Fukugita & T. Yanagida, Baryogenesis without grand unification, Physics Letters

B 174, pp. 4547, 1986. Cited on page 351.

245 J. M. Cline, Baryogenesis, preprint at [Link]/abs/0609145. Cited on page 351.

246 Several claims that the coupling constants changed with the age of the universe have

247 That tight tangles correlate with random tangles was first shown by V. Katritch,

248 The quasi-quantization of writhe was discovered by V. Katritch, J. Bednar,

249 The probabilities for random orientations have been calculated with the help of Tyler Spaeth

and Ronan Lamy, using ideal knot shapes provided by Jason Cantarella. The calculations
yield the following relative sizes of regions with different crossing numbers and writhes for
the open trefoil and the open figure-eight knot.

free pdf le available at [Link]

D. Michoud, R. G. Sharein, J. D ubo chet & A. Stasiak, Geometry and physics

of knots, Nature 384, pp. 142145, 1996. See also P. Pieranski, In search of ideal knots,
pp. 2041, and A. Stasiak, J. D ubo chet, V. Katritch & P. Pieranski, Ideal
knots and their relation to the physics of knots, pp. 119, both found in A. Stasiak,
V. Katritch & L. H. Kauffman, editors, Ideal Knots, World Scientific, 1998. Most
pedagogic is P. Pieranski & S. Przybyl, Quasi-quantization of writhe in ideal knots,
European Physical Journal E 6, pp. 117121, 2001, preprint at [Link]/abs/physics/0102067.
See also C. Cerf & A. Stasiak, Linear behavior of the writhe versus the number of
crossings in rational knots and links, pp. 111126, in M. I. Monast yrsky editor, Topology
in Molecular Biology, 2007. The quasi-quantization, and in particular the lack of precise
quantization, was confirmed in 2010 by T. Ashton, J. Cantarell a, M. Piatek &
E. R awd on, private communication. Cited on page 361.

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

J. Bednar, D. Michoud, R. G. Sharein, J. D ubo chet & A. Stasiak, Geometry and physics of knots, Nature 384, pp. 142145, 1996. It was confirmed by
E. J. Janse van R ensburg, E. Orl andini, D. W. Sumners, M. C. Tesi &
S. G. Whit tington, The writhe of knots in the cubic lattice, Journal of Knot Theory
and its Ramifications 6, pp. 3144, 1997. Cited on page 360.

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

appeared in the literature. The first claim was by J. K. Webb, V. V. Fl ambaum,

C. W. Churchill, M. J. Drinkwater & J. D. Barrow, A search for time variation
of the fine structure constant, Physical Review Letters 82, pp. 884887, 1999, preprint at
[Link]/abs/astro-ph/9803165. None of these claims has been confirmed by subsequent
measurements. Cited on page 354.

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Wr i t h e

Crossing number
3
0
0.485
4
0.00046 0
5
0
0.045
6
0
0
7
0
0.00022
8
0
0
9
0
0.000007
10
0
0
11
0
0
12
0
0
13
0
0

0
0.392
0
0.076
0
0.00011
0
0.000002
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.000004
0
0.000002

Wr i t h e

-1

0.561
0
0.296
0
0.083
0
0.043
0
0.013
0
0.00008
0
0.000005

0
0.00083
0
0.00065
0
0.00038
0
0.0001
0
0.00004
0
0
0

free pdf le available at [Link]

These are the probabilities of knot orientations with a given writhe and crossing number for
the tight open figure-eight knot 41 . The limits to the precision of the calculation are clearly
noticeable.
The lack of precision is due to the lack of precision of the available tight knot shapes. The
probabilities for random changes in orientation are then deduced from the values in these
tables. Because the knots are tight, it is a good approximation to assume that Reidemeister
I and Reidemeister II moves can be distinguished without ambiguity in contrast to the
loose knot case, where this is not possible from the writhe and crossing numbers of the
start and end orientation. Cited on page 362.
250 V. Arnold, Topological Invariants of Plane Curves and Caustics, American Mathematical
Society, 1994. Cited on page 364.
251 D. Hilbert, ber das Unendliche, Mathematische Annalen 95, pp. 161190, 1925. Cited

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Crossing number
4
0
5
0.001
6
0
7
0.0004
8
0
9
0.00038
10
0
11
0.000087
12
0
13
0
14
0
15
0
16
0

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

These are the probabilities of knot orientations with a given writhe and crossing number for
the tight open trefoil knot 31 . The smaller numbers are expected to be calculation artefacts.

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on page 372.
The Book of Twenty-four Philosophers, c. 1200, is attributed to the god Hermes Trismegistos,
but was actually written in the middle ages. The text can be found in F. Hudry, ed., Liber
viginti quattuor philosophorum, Turnholt, 1997, in the series Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio Mediaevalis, CXLIII a, tome III, part 1, of the Hermes Latinus edition project headed
by P. Lucentini. There is a Spinozian cheat in the quote: instead of nature, the original says
god. The reason why this substitution is applicable is given earlier on. Cited on page 377.
As a disappointing example, see Gilles Deleuze, Le Pli Leibniz et le baroque, Les Editions de Minuit, 1988. In this unintelligible, completely crazy book, the author pretends to
investigate the implications of the idea that the fold (in French le pli) is the basic entity of
matter and soul. Cited on page 379.
Werner Heisenberg, Der Teil und das Ganze, Piper, 1969. The text shows well how
boring the personal philosophy of an important physicist can be. Cited on page 380.
John Barrow wrote me saying that he might have been the first to have used the Tshirt image, in the 1988 Gifford Lectures at Glasgow that were a precursor to his book
John D. Barrow, Theories of Everything: The Quest for Ultimate Explanation, 1991. He
added that one can never be sure, though. Cited on page 382.
R en Descartes, Discours de la mthode, 1637. He used and discussed the sentence
again in his Mditations mtaphysiques 1641, and in his Les principes de la philosophie 1644.
These books influenced many thinkers in the subsequent centuries. Cited on page 385.
D. D. Kelly, Sleep and dreaming, in Principles of Neural Science, Elsevier, New York, 1991.
The paper summarises experiments made on numerous humans and shows that even during dreams, peoples estimate of time duration corresponds to that measured by clocks.
Cited on page 385.
Astrid Lindgren said this in 1977, in her speech at the fiftieth anniversary of Oetinger Verlag,
her German publisher. The German original is: Alles was an Groem in der Welt geschah,
vollzog sich zuerst in der Phantasie eines Menschen, und wie die Welt von morgen aussehen
wird, hngt in groem Ma von der Einbildungskraft jener ab, die gerade jetzt lesen lernen.
The statement is found in Astrid L ind gren, Deshalb brauchen Kinder Bcher, Oetinger
Almanach Nr. 15, p. 14, 1977. Cited on page 388.

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C R E DI T S

Acknowledgments

free pdf le available at [Link]

The animations of the belt trick on page 167 are copyright and courtesy of Greg Egan; they can be
found on his website [Link]/APPLETS/21/[Link]. I am also grateful to Greg Egan
for expanding his applet so as to show a second option of the many possible ones for the belt

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Film credits

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

So far, no other person helped developing or exploring the strand model. But a few people helped
to achieve progress on specific issues or provided encouragement.
In the first half of the text, stimulating discussions in the 1990s with Luca Bombelli helped
structuring the chapter on the contradictions between general relativity and quantum theory, as
well as the chapter on the difference between vacuum and matter. In the years up to 2005, stimulating discussions with Saverio Pascazio, Corrado Massa and especially Steven Carlip helped
shaping the chapter on limit values.
The second half of the text, on the strand model, owes much to Louis Kauffman. The ideas
found in his books and in his papers inspired the ideas of this text long before we met and exchanged mails. His papers available on [Link]/~kauffman and his books are all
worth reading; among them is the fascinating paper Knot Logic and the wonderful book Knots
and Physics, World Scientific, 1991. His ideas on knots, on quantum theory, on measurement, on
particle physics, on set theory and on foundational issues convinced me that strands are a promising direction in the search for a final theory. The breadth of Louiss knowledge and interests, the
depth of his passion and his warm humanity are exemplary.
I thank Eric Rawdon and Maria Fisher for their ropelength calculations. I also thank Claus
Ernst, Andrzej Stasiak, Ralf Metzler and Jason Cantarella for their input and the fruitful discussions we had.
Hans Aschauer, Roland Netz, Gerrit Bauer, Stephan Schiller, Richard Hoffmann, Axel Schenzle, Reinhard Winterhoff, Alden Mead, Franca Jones-Clerici, Damoon Saghian, Frank Sweetser
and a few people who want to remain anonymous provided valuable help. My parents, Isabella
and Peter Schiller, strongly supported the project. I thank my mathematics and physics teachers
in secondary school, Helmut Wunderling, for the fire he has nurtured inside me. I also thank the
lawmakers and the taxpayers in Germany, who, in contrast to most other countries in the world,
allow residents to use the local university libraries.
The typesetting owes much to the help of Ulrich Dirr, Johannes Kuester and Michael Zedler.
The numerous other experts who helped with the intricacies of LaTeX are listed in the acknowledgements of the previous volumes.
The edition, the distribution and part of the research of this sixth volume were generously
supported by the Klaus Tschira Foundation.
But above all, it was the continuous support of my wife Britta that made this volume possible.
Thank you for everything you did.

credits

421

trick.
The beautiful animation of the belt trick on page 168 and the wonderful and so-far unique
animation of the fermion exchange on page 171 are copyright and courtesy of Antonio Martos.
They can be found at [Link]/62228139 and [Link]/62143283.
The film of the chain ring trick on page 328 is copyright and courtesy of Franz Aichinger.
Greg Egans animations and the film of the falling chain ring trick were included into the
pdf file with the help of a copy of the iShowU software sponsored by Neil Clayton at www.
[Link].

Image credits

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

The photograph of the east side of the Langtang Lirung peak in the Nepalese Himalayas, shown
on the front cover, is courtesy and copyright by Kevin Hite and found on his blog thegettingthere.
com. The photograph of the Ultra Deep Field project on page 15 is courtesy of NASA. The
drawing by Maurits Escher on page 59 is copyright by the M.C. Escher Heirs, c/o Cordon Art,
Baarn, The Netherlands, who kindly gave permission for its use. The passport photograph of
Andrei Sakharov on page 74 is copyright by himself. The photograph of an apheresis machine on
page 169 is courtesy of Wikimedia. The drawing by Peter Battey-Pratt and Thomas Racey of the
belt trick on page 201, taken from Ref. 170, is courtesy and copyright by Springer Verlag. The images of the tight open knots on page 334 are courtesy and copyright by Piotr Pieranski, and found
in Ref. 234. The graph of the running coupling constants on page 353 is courtesy and copyright
by Wim de Boer and taken from his home page at [Link]/~deboer.
On page 381, the photograph of Cerro Torre is copyright and courtesy of Davide Brighenti, and
found on Wikimedia; the photograph of the green hill on the same page is copyright and courtesy of Myriam70, and found on her site [Link]/photos/myriam70. The photograph
on the back cover, of a basilisk running over water, is courtesy and copyright by the Belgian
group TERRA vzw and found on their website [Link]. All drawings are copyright by
Christoph Schiller.

free pdf le available at [Link]

NAME I NDEX

A
Abdalla

411
on entanglement 192
on wholeness 102
Bohr, Niels 399
on minimum action 26
on thermodynamic
indeterminacy 28
Bombelli, Luca 280, 404, 407,
410, 420
Bonner, Yelena 74
Botta Cantcheff, Marcelo 413
on fluctuating strings 281
Boughezal, R. 416
Bousso, R. 400
Brighenti, Davide 381, 421
Brightwell, G. 404
Britto, R. 412
Brown, Stuart 399
Buchmann, A.J. 415
Buniy, R.V. 414
Byrnes, J. 411

free pdf le available at [Link]

C
Cabibbo, Nicola 347
Cabrera, R. 411
Cachazo, F. 412
Cadavid, A.C. 409
Cantarella, Jason 363, 417, 420
Carlip, Steven 409, 413, 420
on fluctuating lines 153, 281
Cerf, C. 417
Challinor, A. 411
Chen, B. 401
Cho, Y.M. 414
Christ, N.H. 403
Christiansen, W.A. 405
Churchill, C.W. 417

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

B
Balachandran, A.P. 401
Balzs, C. 414
Bambi, C. 414
Barnes, C. 414
Baron, J. 404
Barrow, J.D. 417
Barrow, John D. 419
Bateman, H. 399
Battey-Pratt, Peter 411, 421
Bauer, Gerrit 420
Baylis, W.E. 411
Bean, R. 414
Bednar, J. 417
Beenakker, C.W.J. 401
Beig, R. 399
Bekenstein, Jacob 401, 402
on the entropy bound 127
Bennett, C.L. 414
Berlin, Isaiah 134
Bernreuther, W. 404
Bernstein, Aron 415
Berry, M.V. 408
Besso, Michele 65
Bianchi, E. 401
Bianco, C.L. 401
Bij, J.J. van der 416
Bilby, B.A. 413
Bilson-Thompson, Sundance
408
on particles as triple
ribbons 326
Bimonte, G. 401
Blair, D.G. 400
Blandford, R. 399
Boer, Wim de 353, 421
Bohm, David 406, 407, 410,

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

A
Abdalla, M.C.B. 406
Abdo, A.A. 405
Abraham, A. 411
Adams, Douglas 102
Adler, R.J. 402
Ahluwalia, D.V. 402, 412
Aichinger, Franz 328, 421
Akama, K. 404
Alexandrov, P.S. 406
Ali, A. 406
Allen, Woody 385
Aloisio, R. 404
Alvarez, E. 408
Amati, D. 403
Amelino-Camelia, G. 400,
404, 405
Anaxagoras of Clazimenes
on unification 378
Anber, M.M. 413
Andersson, B. 415
Antonio Martos 171
Argyres, P.C. 406
Aristotle 159, 160, 407
on learning 389
on points 117
on vacuum 79
Arnold, V. 418
Aschauer, Hans 420
Ashtekar, A. 400
Ashton, T. 417
Aspect, A. 410
Aspinwall, P. 403
Augustine of Hippo 394
Avrin, Jack 408
on particles as Moebius
bands 326

name index

C
Ciafaloni

Ciafaloni, M. 403
Cicero, Marcus Tullius
life 101
Clay Mathematics Institute
303
Clayton, Neil 421
Cline, J.M. 417
CODATA 398
Conde, J. 408
Cordon Art 421
Coule, D.H. 405
Crede, V. 414
Cuofano, C. 413

G
Gadelka, A.L. 406
Gaessler, W. 405
Galante, A. 404
Galindo, A. 411
Garay, L. 402, 405
Gardner, Martin 416
Garret, Don 406
Gehrels, N. 399
Gell-Mann, Murray
on strings 138
Gennes, Pierre-Gilles de 408
Gibbons, G.W. 399
Gibbs, Phil 402, 407
on event symmetry 80, 124
Gill, S. 411
Gilmozzi, R. 413
Glashow, Sheldon 239, 409
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von
on searching 106
Gonzalez, O. 410
Gottfried, Kurt 416
Graf, A.B.A. 410
Green, M.B. 409
Greene, Brian 401, 409
on popularization 50
on superstrings 135
Gregori, Andrea 408
one particle mass 132
Gregory, R. 404
Grillo, A.F. 404
Gross, D.J. 403
Gunzig, E. 402
Gustafson, G. 415

free pdf le available at [Link]

F
Facchi, P. 407
Fatio de Duillier, Nicolas 413
Faust 106
Feng, B. 412
Feynman, Richard 402, 409,
410
on many-particle
wavefunctions 192
Finkelstein, David 70, 280,
403, 410
Finkelstein, Robert 409
on fermions as knots 326
Fiorini, E. 415

Fischler, W. 414
Fisher, Maria 337, 416, 420
Flambaum, V.V. 417
Flint, H.T. 403
Frampton, P.H. 414
Fredenhagen, K. 403
Fredriksson, S. 404
Frenkel, J. 411
Friedberg, R. 403
Friedman, J.L. 401
Fritsche, L. 412
Fritzsch, H. 404, 416
Fukugita, M. 417
Fushchich, V.I. 411

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

E
Easson, D.A. 414
Eddington, Arthur 407
on particle number 123
Egan, Greg 167, 410, 420
Ehlers, Jrgen 401
on point particles 55
Ehrenfest, Paul
on spinors 186
Ehrenreich, H. 401
Einstein, Albert
last published words 82
on continuity 82
on dropping the
continuum 65, 66, 82
on gods 398
on his deathbed 36
on mathematics 103
on modifying general
relativity 156
on thinking 53
on ultimate entities 66
on unification 21
Ellis, G.F.R. 406
Ellis, J. 405, 406
Enyo, H. 414
Ernst, Claus 216, 416, 420
Escher, Maurits 421
Heirs 59
illustrating circularity 58
Eshelby, J.D. 413
Euclid
on points 68
Evens, D. 415

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

D
Dalibard, J. 410
Dam, H. van 89, 400, 405
Dante Alighieri
on a knot 375
Das, A. 403
Davis, T.M. 413
Dehmelt, Hans 404
Deleuze, Gilles 419
Democritus
on learning 389
on particles and vacuum
123
Descartes, Ren 385, 419
Deutsch, David 153, 409
on explanations 157
DeWitt, B.S. 401
DeWitt, C. 401
Diao, Y. 416
Diner, S. 402
Dirac, Paul
on unification 21
Dirr, Ulrich 420
DiSessa, A. 399
Donoghue, J.F. 413
Doplicher, S. 403
Doran, C. 411
Dor, O. 414
Douglas, M.R. 409
Drechsler, W. 415
Drinkwater, M.J. 417
Dubochet, J. 417
Dumont, Jean-Paul 407
Dllenbach, Werner 66
Drrenmatt, Friedrich 398

423

424

H
Hackett

I
Illy, Jzsef 403
Ingelman, G. 415
Inverno, Ray d 400
Ishii, N. 414
Isidori, G. 416
J
Jacobson, T. 31, 400
Jaekel, M.-T. 400, 402
Jafari, N. 412
Jammer, Max 399
Janssen, Michel 403
Jarlskog, Cecilia 349
Jarosik, N. 414
Jauch, W. 79, 405
Jehle, Herbert 416
on particles as knots 326
Johnson, Samuel 398
Jones-Clerici, Franca 420
Ju, L. 400

free pdf le available at [Link]

L
Lammers, Edi 416
Lamy, Ronan 417
Lange, B. 399
Lao Tse
on motion 379, 387
Lasenby, A. 411
Laughlin, Robert 398
Lartius, Diogenes 407
Lee Tsung Dao 233, 403
Lee, J. 404, 407, 410
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm
379, 406
on parts 104
on relations in nature 285
Leighton, Robert B. 402
Lenin (Vladimir Ilyich
Ulyanov) 78
Lerner, L. 411
Lesage, Georges-Louis 413
on universal gravitation
265
Li, W. 414
Li, Y-Q. 401
Lichtenberg, Georg Christoph
on truth 23
Lieu, R. 405
Limon, M. 414
Lindgren, Astrid 388, 419
Lineweaver, C.H. 413
Lith-van Dis, J. van 399
Lloyd, Seth 406
on information 103
Loinger, A. 411

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

K
Kaluza, Theodor
on unification 21
Kant, Immanuel 160, 410
Karliner, M. 406, 416
Karliner, Marek 325
Karolyhazy, F. 405
Katritch, V. 417
Katsuura, K. 404
Kauffman, Louis 408410,
417, 420
on commutation relations
195
Kelly, D.D. 419
Kempf, Achim 400, 403
Kennard, E.H. 402
Kennedy, D.C. 415
Kephart, T.W. 414
Keselica, D. 411
Klaus Tschira Foundation 420
Klebanov, I. 406
Kleinert, Hagen 280, 413
Klempt, E. 414
Kleppe, G. 415
Knox, A.J. 403
Kochen, S. 410
Kogut, A. 414

Komatsu, E. 414
Kondo, K. 414
Konishi, K. 403
Kostro, L. 399
Koul, R.K. 407
Kovtun, P. 401
Kramer, M. 400
Kreimer, Dirk 408
on knots in QED 134
Kronecker, Leopold
life 103
Krner, Ekkehart 280, 413
Kuester, Johannes 420
Kunihiro, T. 414
Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

H
Hackett, J. 408
Halpern, M. 414
Hammond, R.T. 413
Harari, H. 404
Hartle, J.B. 407
Hatsuda, T. 414
Hattori, T. 404
Haugk, M. 412
Hawking, Stephen 402, 406,
407, 414
Heath, T. 403
Hegel, Friedrich 137
Heisenberg, Werner 402, 419
on symmetry 380
on thermodynamic
indeterminacy 28
on unification 21
Hellund, E.J. 403
Henley, E.M. 415
Henson, J. 410
Hermes Trismegistos 377, 419
Hernandez, L. 408
Hestenes, D. 411
Hilbert, David 418
famous mathematical
problems 104
his credo 138
on infinity 372
on unification 21
Hilborn, R.C. 408
Hildebrandt, Dieter
life 206
Hiley, B.J. 406
Hill, E.L. 403
Hill, R.S. 414
Hillion, P. 411
Hillman, L. 405
Hinshaw, G. 414
Hite, Kevin 421
Hoffer, Eric 63
Hoffmann, Richard 420
Honner, John 399
t Hooft, Gerard 70, 280, 403,
406, 413, 416
Hooke, Robert 264
Horowitz, G.T. 407, 409, 412
Hudry, F. 419

name index

name index

L
Loll

Loll, R. 403
Lomonaco, S.J. 410
Loren, Sophia
on everything 332
Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon 399
on the speed limit 25
Lu, J. 414
Lucentini, P. 419
Lucrece, in full Titus
Lucretius Carus 407
Luzio, E. 404
Lvy-Leblond, J.-M. 411

on particles as tangles 326

Montonen, C. 407
Murakami, T. 414
Myriam70 381, 421
Mndez, F. 404
N
Nakamura, K. 415
Nanopoulos, D.V. 405
NASA 16, 421
Nelson, Edward 412
Netz, Roland 420
Newell, D.B. 398
Newton, Isaac 264
Ng Sze Kui 326, 409
Ng, Y.J. 89, 400, 405
Nicholson, A.F. 415
Nicolai, H. 416
Nielsen, H.B. 415
Niemi, A.J. 414
Nikitin, A.G. 411
Nikoli, H. 412
Nikoli, Hrvoje 207
Nolta, M.R. 414

free pdf le available at [Link]

P
Padmanabhan, T. 402
Paffuti, G. 403
Page, L. 414
Papanicolas, C.N. 415
Park, B.S. 414
Parmenides 124
Pascazio, Saverio 407, 420
Pati, J.C. 404
Pauli, Wolfgang
on gauge theory 233
Peiris, H.V. 414

R
Raamsdonk, Mark van 281,
412, 413
Racey, Thomas 411, 421
Ragazzoni, R. 405
Rainer, M. 412
Ralston, J.P. 414
Ramsauer, Carl
life 377
Ramsey, N.F. 404
Randjbar-Daemi, S. 406
Rawdon, Eric 337, 416, 417,
420
Raymer, Michael 402
on the indeterminacy
relation 61
Reidemeister, Kurt 412
on knot deformations 212,
259
Renaud, S. 400, 402
Rensburg, E.J. Janse van 417
Reznik, B. 402
Richter, Burton 409
Riemann, Bernhard
on geometry 35
Riess, A.G. 414
Rindler, Wolfgang 400
Riquer, V. 416

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

O
Occam, William of 123
Odegard, N. 414
Ohanian, Hans 401
Oka, M. 414
Olesen, P. 415
Olive, D. 407
Ono, A. 414
Oppenheimer, J. 402
Orlandini, E. 417
zer, A.D. 416

Penrose, Roger 414

Peres, A. 403
Phaedrus 389
Piatek, M. 417
Pieranski, Piotr 334, 416, 417,
421
Piran, T. 405
Pittacus 114
Planck, M. 406
Plato 90, 407
on love 389
on natures unity 124
Plotinus 394
Polchinski, J. 407, 409, 412
Polosa, A.D. 416
Pontecorvo, Bruno 350
Por, A. 416
Preparata, G. 401
Provero, P. 403
Przybyl, S. 416, 417

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

M
Maddocks, J.H. 410
Maddox, John 407
life 407
Maggiore, M. 403
Magueijo, J. 404
Maiani, L. 416
Maimonides 61
Majid, S. 408
Major, S.A. 408
Maldacena, J. 408
Mandelbaum, G. 404
Markopoulou, F. 408, 412
Marmo, G. 401
Marsden, Jerry 256
Martos, Antonio 168, 421
Marx, Groucho
on principles 36
Massa, Corrado 399, 420
Mavromatos, N.E. 405, 408
Mead, Alden 256, 400, 420
Meissner, K.A. 416
Mende, P.F. 403, 408
Mende, Paul
on extension checks 133
Metzler, Ralf 420
Meyer, C.A. 414
Meyer, D. 404, 410
Meyer, S.S. 414
Michoud, D. 417
Mills, Robert 233
Misner, C.W. 400, 401
Moffat, J.W. 415
Mohr, P.J. 398
Monastyrsky, M.I. 417
Mongan, Tom 416

425

426
Rivas, Martin 411
Robbins, J.M. 408
Roberts, J.E. 403
Roger, G. 410
Rosen, N. 403
Rosenfeld, L. 99, 406
Rothman, T. 406
Rovelli, C. 401, 403
Ruffini, Remo 401
Rutherford, Ernest 140

R
Rivas

113
Suzuki, M. 404
Sweetser, Frank 420
Szapudi, I. 414
Szilard, Leo 399
on minimum entropy 28
Snchez del Ro, C. 411

U
Uffink, J. 399
Uglum, J. 406
Unruh, W.G. 402, 404
Urban, F.R. 414
V
Vafa, C. 407
Vancea, I.V. 406

free pdf le available at [Link]

T
Takabayasi, T. 411
Tamburini, F. 413
Tanaka, K. 403
Tausk, J.B. 416
Taylor, B.N. 398
Terence, in full Publius
Terentius Afer
life 111
Tesi, M.C. 417
Thales of Miletus 371
Thomas Aquinas 394
Thomas, L.H. 411
ThomsonKelvin, William
416
on atoms as knotted
vortices 325
Thorn, C.B. 415
Thorne, K.S. 400, 401, 413
Thot, V.T. 415
Tillich, Paul 86
Tino, G.M. 408
Tiomno, J. 410
Tit, Tom 416
Townsend, P.K. 400
Treder, H.-J. 406
Tregubovich, [Link]. 399
Tschira, Klaus 420
Tucker, G.S. 414
Turatto, M. 405
Turnbull, D. 401

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Shakespeare, William 120, 135,

371
Shalyt-Margolin, A.E. 399
Shapere, Alfred 256, 412
Shaposhnikov, M. 413, 416
Shaposhnikov, Mikhail 282
Sharein, R.G. 417
Sharein, Rob 416
Shariati, A. 412
Shibata, A. 414
Shinohara, T. 414
Shupe, M.A. 404
Simoni, A. 401
Simplicius 407
Simplicius of Cilicia 120
Sjstrand, T. 415
Slavnov, A.A. 408
Smolin, L. 400, 403405, 408,
412
Smoot, G.F. 414
Snyder, H.S. 403
Socrates 389
Son, D.T. 401
Sorabji, R. 404
Sorkin, R.D. 401, 404, 407,
410
Spaeth, Tyler 417
Sparzani, A. 411
Specker, E.P. 411
Spergel, D.N. 414
Spinoza, Baruch 379, 406
Springer Verlag 201, 421
Srinivasan, S.K. 412
Stachel, John J. 403
Stanhope, Philip 374
Starinets, A.O. 401
Stasiak, Andrzej 416, 417, 420
Stewart, Ian 403
Stone, Michael 408
Strominger, A. 407
Sudarshan, E.C.G. 412
Suganuma, H. 414
Sumners, D.W. 417
Supernova Search Team
Collaboration 414
Susskind, L. 413
Susskind, Leonard 280, 406,
409, 414
on Planck scale scattering

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

S
Sagan, Carl 406
Saghian, Damoon 420
Sakar, S. 405
Sakharov, Andrei 400
life 74
on matter constituents 117
on maximum particle
mass 37
on minimum length 40
portrait 74
Salam, Abdus 404
Salecker, H. 110, 402
Salogub, V.A. 411
Sanchez, N.G. 408
Sands, Matthew 402
Santamato, E. 411
Santiago, D.I. 402
Schaefer, B.E. 405
Schenzle, Axel 420
Schild, A. 403
Schiller, Britta 420
Schiller, Christoph 399, 402,
412, 421
Schiller, Isabella 420
Schiller, Peter 420
Schiller, R. 410
Schiller, Stephan 420
Schoen, R.M. 399
Schrdinger, Erwin 411
on thinking 112
Schulmann, Robert 403
Schulz, Charles 131
Schwarz, J.H. 407, 409
Schwinger, Julian 225, 412
Schn, M. 402
Sen, A. 409
Seneca, Lucius Annaeus 383

name index

name index

V
Veltman

Veltman, H. 415
Veltman, Martin 409, 415
Veneziano, G. 403
Verde, L. 414
Verlinde, Erik 413
on universal gravitation
264
Vigier, J.-P. 411
Viro, Julia 325, 416
Viro, Oleg 325, 416
Voltaire
life 292

Wussing, H. 406
X
Xing, Z.-Z. 416
Xu, L. 414
Xue, S.-S. 401
Y
Yanagida, T. 417
Yandell, Ben H. 406
Yang Chen Ning 233
Yazaki, K. 414

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Z
Zaanen, J. 413
Zaitsev, A. 414
Zedler, Michael 420
Zee, A. 412
Zeh, H.D. 405
Zeno of Elea 67, 115, 117, 124,
206
on motion as an illusion
388
on size 120
Zhang, P.M. 414
Zhao, C. 400
Ziegler, U. 416
Zimmerman, E.J. 110, 402
Zurek, W.H. 413
Zwiebach, B. 409

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

400, 401
life 55
on natures principles 376
on topology change 55
on unification 21
Whittington, S.G. 417
Wigner, Eugene 110, 402
Wikimedia 169, 421
Wilczek, Frank 256, 400, 409,
412
Wilde, Oscar 88, 89
life 87
Wiles, Andrew
on research 381
W
William of Occam 123
Wald, R.M. 404
Wiltshire, D. 288, 414
Wallstrom, T.C. 412
Winterberg, F. 407
Wan, Y. 408
Winterhoff, Reinhard 420
Webb, J.K. 417
Witten, Edward 409, 412
Weber, G. 407
on duality 133
Weiland, J.L. 414
on infinities 136
Weinberg, Steven 99, 398, 401,
on unification 21
402, 409
Woit, Peter 409
on unification 21
Wolf, C. 404
Weis, A. 404
Wolf, E. 407
Weisskopf, Victor F. 416
Wolff, Barbara 403
Weizel, W. 411
Wollack, E. 414
Wen, X.-G. 408
Woodard, R.P. 405, 415
Wetterich, C. 413
Wright, E.L. 414
Wetterich, Christof 282
Wheeler, John A. 150, 152, 277, Wunderling, Helmut 420

427

free pdf le available at [Link]

SUBJECT I NDEX

bands 326
axioms
in a final theory 142
in physics 104, 159161
axion 257

free pdf le available at [Link]

B
background
continuous 147
dependence 142
differs from physical space
266, 268
illustration of 160
independence 161
space 194, 268
space-time 159
Balinese candle dance 167
ball
tethered 343
BanachTarski
paradox/theorem 67, 69
band models 134, 158
BarberoImmirzi parameter
270
bare quantity 224
baryogenesis 351
baryon
density in universe 288
form factor 320
masses 317
number 293
number conservation 236,
251, 293
number limit 289
number of leptons 306
number of quarks 298
observed number of 18, 97,

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

A
acceleration
indeterminacy 26
upper limit, or Planck 34
accelerator, Planck 79
accuracy, maximum 90
action
as fundamental quantity
372
defined with strands 151,
196, 197
is change 24
lower limit 2627
no lower limit for virtual
particles 37
principle of least 196
upper limit 43
action, quantum of,
as lower limit 34
from strands 144
ignored by relativity 5455
lower limit 2627
physics and 8
Planck scales and 5758
quantum theory implied
by 17, 26
addition of states 177, 179
ADM mass 99
AdS/CFT correspondence 211
aether
useless 67, 150
vortices in 325

amoeba and nature 125126,

162
Anaxagoras of Clazimenes
on unification 378
angle
weak mixing 335
angular frequency
upper limit, or Planck 34
angular momentum
limit for black holes 273
lower limit and spin 37
upper limit 43
anomaly issue 136, 326
antimatter
belt trick and 169
indistinguishability from
matter 50, 7374, 100
antiparticle see antimatter
apheresis machine 169
illustration of 169
aphorism, a physical 110
apple counting 103
area
lower limit, or Planck 34
Aristotle
on learning 389
on points 117
on vacuum 79
arrow
Feynmans rotating 203
Zenos flying 117, 206
Aspect experiment 192
asymptotic safety 282
atoms 112
averaging of strands 175
Avrin, Jack
on particles as Moebius

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Numbers
3
omnipresence in the
standard model 330

subject index

B
bath

C
Cabibbo angle 347

free pdf le available at [Link]

blood platelets 169

blurring of tangle 174, 183
Bohm, David
on entanglement 192
on wholeness 102
Bohr, Niels
on minimum action 26
on thermodynamic
indeterminacy 28
BohrEinstein discussion 27
Boltzmann constant k 28, 144
physics and 8
boost see Lorentz boost
border of space 146
BoseEinstein condensates 47
bosonization 134
bosons
as radiation particles 17
definition 165
gauge 295
illustration of 172
illustration of exchange 172
in millennium description
17
masses of W and Z 334
none at Planck scales 73
strand model 171
weak gauge 233
weak intermediate 233
Botta Cantcheff, Marcelo
on fluctuating strings 281
bound see limit
boundary
of objects 113
of point particles 113
of space 96
boxes, limits to 112
braid 129
braid symmetry 129
braided tangles 319
brain, and circularity 161
breaking of SU(2) 235
Broglie, de, wavelength
lower limit 64
bucket experiment, resolution
205

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

two options 168

wheels and 207
beta decay, neutrinoless
double 307
big bang
creation and 378
distance in time 89
initial conditions and 132
lack of 142
not a singularity 97
not an event 88
precision and 50
size of 95
strand illustration of 286
strands and the 286
Bilson-Thompson, Sundance
on particles as triple
ribbons 326
biology 161
black hole
see also Schwarzschild
radius
as size limit 33
as smallest systems 36
charged 39
clock limits and 61
definition 29
entropy 126, 269272
strand illustration of 270
entropy limit 4445
evaporation 40, 43, 272
limits 272
lower power limit 44
lower temperature limit 46
magnetic field limit and 41
mass 269
maximum force and 29, 30,
39
microstates 270
no microscopic 281
radiation 272
Schwarzschild 29
shape of 274
size limit 33
sphericity of 274
strand definition 268
universe as inverted 285
universe lifetime and 49
upper power limit 40

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

155
quadrupole moment 415
Regge trajectories 317
shape 320
spin 313
strand illustration of
321323
strand model of 279,
320322
bath
gluon 253
measurement and 189
perfect 80
photon 216
vacuum as a 148
weak boson 231
beauty
in physics 53
of strands 376
symmetry is not 379
beginning of time 88
Bekensteins entropy bound
40, 4446, 273
Bekenstein, Jacob
on the entropy bound 127
beliefs
about unification 21
in finitude 374
Occam and 123
belt trick 244, 245, 421
antimatter and 169
Dirac equation and
200204
illustration of 201
fermions and 309
illustration of 166
parity violation and 169,
232
particle mass and 183,
337339
phase and 185
quantum theory and 207
saving lives 169
space-time symmetries
and 211
spin 1/2 and 165169
spin and 130
SU(2) and 230233
torsion and 280

429

430

C
calculations

free pdf le available at [Link]

fundamental 141
contants
values of fundamental 144
continuity 67, 151, 162
discreteness and 150
lack of 36, 6567, 82, 121
of motion 372
of space and time 65
continuum
see continuity
contradictions between
relativity and quantum
theory 5459
coordinates
fermionic 129
Grassmann 129
core, tangle
deformation of 211
rotation 209
rotation of 211
thethered 343
corpuscules ultra-mondains
266
cosmic background radiation
patterns in 103
cosmic string 278, 279, 283
strand illustration of 278
cosmological constant
286288
as millennium issue 18, 155
cosmological limits and 48
cosmology and 284
cosmology implied by 17
for flat vacuum 198
from thermodynamics 32
general relativity 48
implies cosmology 48
is dark energy 286
minimum length and 40
problem 138
time variation 291
vacuum density and 48
cosmological limit
see also system-dependent
limit
lowest force 48
to observables 42, 4849
cosmological scales 86
cosmology 284291

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

climbing
a green hill 381
Motion Mountain 381
symbolism of 384
clocks
limits and Planck time
6163
CODATA 398
cogito ergo sum 385
ColemanMandula theorem
257
collapse of wave function 189
colour charge 253, 254
strand illustration of 301
three types 254
colours in nature, origin of 17,
387
complex numbers 256
compositeness and strand
number 324
Compton wavelength
as displacement limit 27
elementarity and 72, 74
final theory and 141
lower limit 64
mass and vacuum 120
particle rotation and 265
quantum effects and 5758,
102, 204
table with examples 57
upper limit 48
vacuum and 76
computer
nature is not a 374
conditions
initial, of universe 97, 285
confinement 300
conformal invariance 136
consciousness
problem 17, 20
constant
cosmological see
cosmological constant
coupling see coupling
constant
constituents
common, of particles and
space 82
extended 280

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

calculations
non-perturbative 224
perturbative 224
Calugareanus theorem 362,
392
capacitors 42
capacity
indeterminacy of 42
Carlip, Steven
on fluctuating lines 153, 281
Casimir effect 54
catechism, catholic 394
categories 102
Cerro Torre 381
chain
film of falling ring 328
illustration of falling ring
327
chain ring trick 329
challenge classification 8
change
is action 24
nature minimizes 24, 372
charge
see also electromagnetism
conjugation 227
electric 216
electric, from strands 145
elementary e, physics and
8
fractional 41
limit for black holes 273
magnetic, no 217
quantization 357
unit, electric 356
weak 231233
chirality 216, 356
circularity
contradictions and 107
fundamental 159161, 176
in classical physics 56
resolution 205
in modern physics 58
in physics 105
resolution 124
classical gravitation 32, 263
classicality
of measurement apparatus
189

subject index

subject index

C
Coulombs

see also space-time

around spherical masses
273
of curve 390
space, from strands 266,
273
strand illustration of 266
total 307, 345
upper limit, or Planck 34,
35
curve, unknotted 295
cutting matter 115

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

D
D-branes 162
dance 167
dangers of a final theory 20
Dante Alighieri
on a knot 375
dark energy see cosmological
constant, 18, 155, 284, 286
dark matter 17, 284, 288, 331
challenge 288
is conventional matter 331
death 384
decay
neutrino-less double-beta
330
decoherence 190
defects in vacuum 266, 267,
278
definition
circular 160
deformation
gauge groups and 256
of core 211
of tails 211
degrees of freedom 45, 46, 80,
116, 136
entropy limit and 38
in universe 46
delocalization of W and Z
bosons 309, 310
Democritus
on learning 389
on particles and vacuum
123
denseness 67
density limit for black holes

273
desert
high-energy 327, 331
determinism 81, 381
Deutsch, David
on explanations 157
devils 20
diffeomorphism invariance
67, 71, 121, 126
differences are approximate
123
dimensions
higher 135, 153
higher, and the final
theory 139
no higher 260
none and superstrings 81
none at Planck scales 50,
68
of space undefined 142
orgin of three 194
origin of spatial 194
dinner parties, physics for 24
dipole moment, electric 73
Dirac equation 69, 163, 200,
207
from tangles 200204
ingredients 204
visualizing the 202
Dirac, Paul
on unification 21
discreteness
continuity and 150
none in nature 107, 374
displacement
indeterminacy 27
displacement limit
quantum 26
distance
defined with strands 150
lower limit, or Planck 34
distinction
none in nature 107
dogmas about unification 21
domain walls 278, 283
donate
for this free pdf 9
double beta decay,
neutrinoless 307

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

in one statement 47
Coulombs inverse square
relation deduced from
strands 217
counting objects 103
coupling constant
calculation of 355364
comparison of 359
definition 353
electromagnetic, and
Planck limits 41
illustration of running 353
running and the Higgs
boson 357
covering, topological 68
CP problem, strong 252, 257
CP violation 317, 348, 349, 351
CP violation in neutrinos 351
CPT symmetry 70, 84, 108
not valid 100
creation 102, 103, 396
is impossible 97
cross sections at Planck scales
113
crossing
as simplest tangle 298
density 176
illustration of 173
illustration of definition
145
in knot theory 146
number 345
of strands 145
position density 176
switch 143
switch is observable 324
switch, definition 146, 173
switch, illustration of 144
crossing number, signed 391
crossing orientation
average 176
crossing switch
in space-time 144
crystal, nematic world 280
crystals and vacuum 33
curiosity 7
current
indeterminacy 42
curvature

431

432

D
doubly

doubly special relativity 262,

404
dreams 385387
duality 159
as an argument for
extension 122
between large and small
120, 121
gravity/gauge 211
space-time see space-time
duality
strings and 406
superstrings and 135

free pdf le available at [Link]

potential 196
speed 25
system-dependent limits
and 42
upper limit for elementary
particles 37, 78
energymomentum tensor 31
ensembles 102
entangled state 190194
entanglement 190194, 207
quantum gravity and 281
entropy
at Planck scales 81
Bekensteins bound 4446,
127, 273, 287
black hole 4445
defined with strands 151
lower limit, or Boltzmann
constant k 28, 34
of black holes 269272
of gravity 264
of horizons 269272
of vacuum 45
particle shape and 116
upper limit 273
upper limit to 4445
equations
non-existence of evolution
142
Escher, Maurits
illustrating circularity 58
essence of universe 106
Euclid
on points 68
Euler angles 186
event
definition 56, 146
from strands 145
horizon 285
in dreams 385
symmetry 80, 124
exchange
extension and 128, 130
existence and Planck scales
104
exotic manifold 162
experiment
hard challenge 351
explanation

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

upper limit 41, 217

electric potential 184
electrodynamics
from strands 213228
electromagnetic coupling
constant
see fine structure constant
electromagnetic energy
from strands 217
electromagnetism
cosmological limits 47
from strands 213228
illustration of 215
Planck limits 4142, 217
electron
-factor 187, 224, 228
tangle of 305
elementary charge see fine
structure constant
elementary particle
see also particle
action limit and 26
cannot be point particle 72
cannot have Planck mass
342
definition 37
properties 292, 332
shape of 112, 115, 116
size limit and 26, 27, 33, 36
size of 113
speed limit and 25
upper energy limit 37
upper mass limit 37
upper momentum limit 37
virtual particles and 37
elements of sets
none in nature 50, 102
elongation 127
emotions, beautiful 7
energy
dark see cosmological
constant
density, critical 287
electromagnetic, from
strands 217
from strands 182, 196, 267
indeterminacy 28, 33, 61
kinetic 196
of horizons 268

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

E
Eddington, Arthur
on particle number 123
EddingtonFinkelstein
coordinates 67
Ehlers, Jrgen
on point particles 55
Ehrenfest, Paul
on spinors 186
Einsteins field equations
see field equations
Einsteins hole argument 55
Einstein, Albert
last published words 82
on continuity 82
on dropping the
continuum 65, 66, 82
on gods 398
on his deathbed 36
on mathematics 103
on modifying general
relativity 156
on thinking 53
on ultimate entities 66
on unification 21
EinsteinBohr discussion 27
EinsteinBrillouinKeller
quantization 27
electric charge quantum
number 356, 357
electric dipole moment 73,
260, 364
electric field
illustration of 218
lower limit 47

subject index

subject index

E
extension

definition of 157
extension
exchange and 128, 130
final theory and 138
in superstrings 135
of constituents 280
spin and 130
tests of 133
unification and 140
extinction 186
extremal identity 108109

free pdf le available at [Link]

fluctuating lines 281

fluctuations of strands 148, 152
fluid
tangle motion in 183184,
335
foam
quantum see foam,
space-time
space-time 290
foam, space-time 150, 277
folds 126, 379, 419
fool
making one of oneself 326
foolishness 20, 326
force
is momentum flow 16, 28
lower limit 44, 48
maximum see force limit,
maximum
Planck see force limit,
maximum
surface and 28
unlimited for virtual
particles 37
upper limit 40
force limit, maximum c 4 /4G
34
4-force and 40
black hole and 39
electric charge and 39
general relativity implied
by 16, 2833
principle 32
quantum effects and 35
size limit and 36
why gravitational 38
form factor
of baryons 320
of mesons 314
framing of tangle 362, 390
freedom
asymptotic 256
Frenet frame 390
Frenet ribbon 391
FullingDaviesUnruh effect
77, 264
fundamental principle 143
illustration of 141, 366
funnels 161, 377

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Feynman, Richard
on many-particle
wavefunctions 192
field equations
deduced from a drawing
276
from maximum force
3032
from strands 274276
field without field 152
field, electric 216
field, magnetic 217
films
dreams and 386
final theory 143, 376, 398
arguments against 1920
candidates 21, 134, 135, 158,
280, 326
dangers 20
disinformation 398
extension and 138
higher dimensions and 139
list of testable predictions
21, 367
modification 141
of motion 19
requirements of 141
steps of the search for a 21
supersymmetry and 139
table of requirements 141
unmodifiable 156
fine structure constant 17, 145,
353
see also coupling constant,
electromagnetic
charge unit and 47, 356
electrodynamics and 213
estimation of 360364
Planck limits and 41
fine-tuning
none 344
finitude
absence of 374
Finkelstein, Robert
on fermions as knots 326
fish in water 119, 134
flavour quantum numbers 293
flavour-changing charged
currents 301

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

F
family of tangles 329
fate 94
Faust 106
featureless
strands are 146
Fermats theorem 381
fermion
as matter particle 17
definition 164, 165, 170
exchange and extension
128129, 131
from strands 165
illustration of 151
illustration of exchange
170
illustration of wave
function 164
in general relativity 55, 282
in millennium description
17
none at Planck scales 73
spin and extension 130
fermionic coordinates 129
Feynman diagram 329
QED, illustration of 222,
223
high-order QED 134
mechanism for 209261
strands and 223
strong, strand illustration
of 254
weak 239
weak, illustration of 237
weak, strand illustration of
238
Feynmans rotating arrow 203

433

434
illustration of 161

-factor

H
Haags theorem 257
HaagKastler axioms 257
hadron
see meson, baryon
harmonic oscillator 257
heat and horizons 31

free pdf le available at [Link]

grand unification 354, 368

does not exist 228, 240,
257, 260, 297
not final 157
Grassmann coordinates 129
gravitation 263
see also general relativity,
quantum gravity
classical 263
entropic 264266
entropy and 264
from strands 267
maximum force and 2832
of superposition 279
strand illustration of 263
strands and 263, 270
surface 2931, 44
universal 32, 263266
vacuum energy and 263
gravitational constant G 28
see also force limit,
maximum, see also power,
upper limit
absence from quantum
theory 55
as conversion constant 56
physics and 8
gravitational wave
emitted from atoms 281
gravitational waves 83
graviton 277, 298, 302
illustration of 303
strand illustration of 277
gravity see gravitation
gravity wave detectors 83
Greene, Brian
on popularization 50
on superstrings 135
Gregori, Andrea
one particle mass 132
GUT see grand unification

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

in one statement 28
indeterminacy relation 33
millennium issues and
1819, 155
minimum force 48
non-locality 72
size limit 33
generalizations of the strand
model 156, 377
generalized indeterminacy
principle see
indeterminacy relation,
generalized
generalized uncertainty
principle see
indeterminacy relation,
generalized
generations of quarks 302
generators
of SU(3) 247
geometry
hardest open problem 361
Gibbs, Phil
on event symmetry 80, 124
Glashow, Sheldon
on fake unification 239
global coordinate systems 65
glueballs 303305, 319, 322
gluon
as slide 250
illustration of 242
Lagrangian 252253
self-interaction
illustration of 252
waves 296
gluonic waves 296, 303
gluons 241, 242, 250
Gdels incompleteness
theorem 19, 102, 160
gods 419
Dante and 375
definition of 394
describing 106
existence proof 395
final theory and 20
intervention of 382
things and 371
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von
on searching 106

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

G
-factor 187, 224, 228
Galilean physics 24, 56, 372,
386
Galilean physicss circular
reasoning: resolution 205
gamma-ray bursters 217
gamma-ray bursts 41, 83
gasoline 79
gauge
choice 219221
covariant derivative 221
freedom, illustration of 219
group, no other 297
interaction 220
interaction antiscreening
358
interaction screening 358
interactions 209261
interactions, summary 259
symmetry 18, 155, 209,
219221
symmetry and cores 211
symmetry, not valid 70,
100
theory, non-Abelian 233,
251, 295296, 303304
transformation 220
gauge boson
no other types 297
role of 295
strand illustration of 295
weak, illustration of 233
Gedanken experiment see
thought experiment
Gell-Mann matrices 248
Gell-Mann, Murray
on strings 138
gender and physics 132
general relativity
see also field equations
contradicts quantum
theory 5459
deviations from 283
from maximum force 32
from strands 262
horizons and 30

subject index

subject index

H
Heisenberg

free pdf le available at [Link]

in special relativity 26
in thermodynamics 28
indeterminacy relations 183
indivisibility of nature 374
induction: not a problem 383
infinity
absence of 19, 372
as a lie 373
inflation
and strands 286
lack of 290
information
alleged loss 272
in the universe 102
initial conditions
of the universe 97, 285
integers 103
interaction
definition 210
from tangles 211
gauge 209
inversion and 109
interference
from strands 184, 187
illustration of 185, 188
visualized with strands 187
invariant
see also action, quantum
I
of, see also force limit, see
idea, Platonic 389
also Lorentz invariance,
of observables 90
see also Planck units, see
identity, extremal 108109, 133
also speed of light
impenetrability of strands 144,
knot 216
maximum force as 16
207
Planck unit as 22, 2442
incompleteness theorem,
quantum of action as 17
Gdels 19, 102, 160
indeterminacy principle
speed of light as 16
see indeterminacy relation
topological 216
indeterminacy relation
inversion 109
all together 34
irreducibility
equivalence to Planck
computational 19
limits 34
isotropy of the vacuum 65
for capacitors 42
issue
for current 42
open: diameter behaviour
for temperature 28
under boosts 162
generalized 65
open: ending funnels 162
Heisenbergs 27, 61, 65, 79
open: gluon tangles 252
in general relativity 33
open: lepton tangles 307
in quantum theors 27
open: SU(3) concatenation

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

entropy 269272
entropy limit 4445
heat flow 31
maximum force 2932,
3940
maximum power 2932, 39
nature of 285
no space beyond 68
nothing behind 369
nothing behind a 68
Planck scales 108
quantum effects at 87
radius 30
relation 31
singularities and 55
strand illustration of 267
symmetries at the 100
temperature 272
temperature limit 38
thermodynamic properties
274
types 285
Hubble radius 94
Hubble time 91
hydrogen atom 205
illustration of 205
hypercharge, weak 227, 353

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

Heisenberg picture 195

Heisenberg, Werner
on symmetry 380
on thermodynamic
indeterminacy 28
on unification 21
heresy, religious 395
hidden variables 176, 190
hierarchy
of particle masses 184, 333,
341344
Higgs boson
2012 update 310
mass prediction 310, 336
predictions about 307
strand illustration of 308,
311
Higgs mechanism 340
Hilbert action 276
Hilbert space 180
Hilberts problems 104
Hilberts sixth problem 51,
104105
Hilbert, David
famous mathematical
problems 104
his credo 138
on infinity 372
on unification 21
hill, gentle green 381
hole argument 55
Einsteins 267
Hollywood films 94
holography 101, 109, 134136,
285
t Hooft, Gerard 280
hopping
from strand to strand 329
horizon 96, 267
see also black hole
behind a 268
cosmic 48
cosmic, diameter of 96,
98100
cosmic, distance 9396
cosmic, none 100101
cosmic, shape of 9697
electric charge 39
energy 268

435

436

J
Jarlskog

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

tangle of 305
Lesage, Georges-Louis
on universal gravitation
265
LHC see Large Hadron
Collider
Lichtenberg, Georg Christoph
on truth 23
lie, infinity as a 373
life
meaning 384
origin of 20
saving with belt trick 169
light
see also speed of light
deflection by the Sun 56
onion 93
propagation and quantum
gravity 83
scattering of 65
Lilliput
no kingdom 327
lily, beauty of 16
limit
cosmological see
cosmological limit
Planck see Planck limits
limits
in nature, summary 51
our human 387
physics in 24
Planck units as 24
size-dependent 42
system-dependent 42
to cutting 113
to measurements 64
to motion 24
to observables, additional
43
to precision see precision
linear combination 177
lines, skew 325
linking number 362, 391
liquid, tangle motion in
183184, 335
list
millennium 17, 154
lists, three important 22
Lloyd, Seth

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

of QED 221
of general relativity 290
of the standard model 261
of the strong interaction
J
255
Jarlskog invariant 349
of the weak interaction 234
Jehle, Herbert
properties 223
on particles as knots 326
strands and 149, 196197
strings and 136
K
superstrings and 137
Kaluza, Theodor
Lagrangian density see
on unification 21
Lagrangian
kaons and quantum gravity 84
Lamb shift, gravitational 84
Kauffman, Louis
on commutation relations Landau pole 224
Lao Tse
195
on motion 379, 387
Killing vector field 31
Large Hadron Collider
KleinGordon equation 200
no discoveries 331
knife, limitations of 112
no Higgs boson 310
knot
strand model and 382
closed 297
W and Z scattering 309,
definition 297
368
hardest open problem 361
large number hypothesis 99
long 294, 297
lattice space-time 70
models of mesons 322
laziness of nature 24
models of nature 158
least action principle
models of particles 134
from strands 163, 196197
open 294, 297
in nature 16, 24, 53
table of properties 390
valid for strands 261, 276
tight, illustration of 334
leather trick 299, 302, 337
topological invariant 216
illustration of 302
writhe probabilities 418
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm
knots 297
on parts 104
dimensionality and 68
on relations in nature 285
KochenSpecker theorem 190
length
Kreimer, Dirk
definition 56
on knots in QED 134
Kronecker, Leopold 103
indeterminacy 26
KruskalSzekeres coordinates
intrinsic 118
67
lower limit, or Planck 34
maximum 94
L
minimum 151
Lagrangian
Lenin (Vladimir Ilyich
description of physics 53
Ulyanov) 78
Dirac 207
leptogenesis, none 351
electromagnetic field 218
lepton
electroweak 237
mass ratios 339
from strands 197
number 293
strand illustration of 306,
gluon 252253
340
none for strands 326
image 246
open: W and Z tangles 236

subject index

subject index

L
locality

free pdf le available at [Link]

of nature, simplicity of 36,

51
matter
density in universe 288
difference from vacuum 61
extension of 81, 111139
indistinguishable from
vacuum 4950, 7778
made of everything 378
made of nothing 378
mixes with vacuum 76, 77
mattress analogy of vacuum
33
maximons 74
maximum force
see force limit, maximum
maximum speed
see speed of light c
Maxwells field equations 213,
218, 226
meaning in life 384
measurement
always electromagnetic 152
averaging in 81
classicality of 189
definition 372
from strands 189
none at Planck scales 69
precision see precision
problem in quantum
theory 20
problem, quantum 20
mechanism for Feynman
diagrams 209261
membranes 135
Mende, Paul
on extension checks 133
mesons
charmed, illustration of 315
CP violation 317
excited 317
form factor 314
from tangles 312
heavy, illustration of 316
illustration of 313
knotted 322
mass sequences 316
pseudoscalar 312
Regge trajectories 317

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

M
magnetic
monopole, none 217
magnetic charge 217
magnetic field
lower limit 47
upper limit 41, 217
magnetic moment
anomalous 224225
neutrino 307
magnetic vector potential 184
man-years of work in
superstrings 138
manifolds
see also space, space-time

as prejudice 21
definition 69
exotic 162
lack of 67
none at Planck scales 36
many-particle state 191
Marx, Groucho
on principles 36
mass
absolute value for particles
341
ADM 99
and overcrossing of
strands 341
black hole 269
calculation for neutrinos
344
calculation of 332
crossing switch rate as 342
eigenstates 348
elementary particle 291,
333
flow, upper limit 38
from strands 183, 266, 308,
324
gap 303
generation 235
generation, illustration of
235
gravitational 75, 76, 99, 332,
334
hierarchy 184, 333, 341344
in universe 98
inertial 76, 332, 335
inverse of 121
maximum density 34
measurement 7478
negative 79
rate limit 273
ratios across families 341
ratios of leptons 339
ratios of quarks 336
sequences of mesons 316
upper limit for elementary
particles 37, 7475
W and Z bosons 334
without mass 152
matchboxes and universe 95
mathematics

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

on information 103
locality
lack of 142
need to abandon 71
none at Planck scales 113
quantum theory vs.
general relativity 55
long knots 294
loop quantum gravity 134
loop, twisted
electromagnetism and 213
Loren, Sophia
on everything 332
Lorentz boosts
maximum force and 29
quantum theory and 203
Lorentz invariance
fluctuations and 71
none at Planck scales 67,
79, 83, 84
of strand model 150
quantum gravity and 84
quantum theory and 202
Lorentz symmetry
see Lorentz invariance
Lorentz transformations
from invariance of c 199
lattices and 71
minimum length and 67
temperature 47
Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon
on the speed limit 25
love, Platonic 389

437

438

M
metre

free pdf le available at [Link]

N
National Institute for Play 399
natural units see also Planck
limits, see also Planck
units, 35, 143
naturalness
none 344
nature 146
and description, table of
difference 159
event symmetry 80
has no meaning 107
is indivisible 374
is not finite 374
limits motion 35
made of one strand 378

multiplicity of 124
no infinity in 372
no sets nor elements 5051
non-locality of 71
not a computer 374
not a set 124
not discrete 374
table of properties 108
unity of 124
vs. people 389
whether deterministic 81,
381
whole in each of its parts
378
negative-energy regions 279
nematic world crystal 280
neurobiology 161
neutrino
magnetic moment 307
mass calculation 344
mixing 350
illustration of 350
tangle of 305
neutrinoless double beta
decay 307
neutron
decay and strand model
239
form factor 320
neutronantineutron
oscillations 260
Newtons bucket 205
Newtonian physics
see Galilean physics
night sky 16
meaning of 379
no-hair theorem 128, 269
non-locality 142
natural 161
solves contradictions 72
non-perturbative calculations
224
non-zero action 26
norm of quantum state 179
nothing
difference from universe
86
NSA dream 285
number of stars 98

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

motion 164
as an illusion 388
continuity of 372
essence of 387
helical 335
limited in nature 24, 34
limits to 24
none at Planck scales 82
of particles through
vacuum 329
predictability of 372
quantum 165
strand illustration of 328
translational 329
ultimate questions and 371
Motion Mountain 20
climbing 381
nature of 381
supporting the project 9
top of 371
move see Reidemeister move
multi-particle state
see many-particle state
multiplicity
approximate 126
multiverse nonsense 104, 107,
327, 378, 394
muon
-factor 187, 224, 228
tangle of 305
muon decays
rare 307

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

shape 314
vector 312
metre rule
cosmic horizon and 94
Planck scales and 63
metric
Planck scales and 67
space 68, 69
microstates of a black hole
270
millennium description of
physics 1619
millennium list
final summary 366, 367
of open issues 17, 154
table of open issues 18, 154
millennium problems, from
the Clay Mathematics
Institute 303
minimal coupling 184, 187,
220, 221
minimal crossing number 216
minimization of change
see least action
minimum length 151
mixed state 194
mixing
angle, weak 335
angles 347
matrices 347
quark 348
models, topological 326
modification of final theory
141
modified Newtonian
dynamics 283
momentum 182
indeterminacy 27
upper limit for elementary
particles 37
momentum flow
is force 16, 28
momentum indeterminacy 63
monad 104
Mongan, Tom
on particles as tangles 326
monism 379, 406
monopoles, magnetic, none
217

subject index

subject index
numbers, no real 49, 70

N
numbers

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

on gauge theory 233

Penrose conjecture 269, 283
pentaquarks 325
permutation symmetry
not valid 70, 100, 129
origin of 173
perturbation theory
convergence of 225
failure of 310
validity of 224
phase 164
average 176
quantum 176, 177
tangle 213
Philippine wine dance 167
photography, limits of 114
photon 214
affected by quantum
gravity 83
disappearance of 214
entangled
illustration of 193
model of 214
speed of 198
stability of 214
physical space differs from
background space 266
physical system 25, 102
see also system-dependent
limit
illustration of 147
physicists
conservative 51, 383
physics 159
approximations and the
sky 379
beauty in 53
book, perfect 105
definition 16
Galilean 24, 56, 372, 386
gender and 132
golden age 21
in four steps 375
in limit statements 24
in the year 2000 17
map of 8
motion limits in 24, 34
progress of 375
simplicity in 380

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

in the millennium
description of physics 17
O
intrinsic property list 293
lower speed limit 48
obervable properties
made of one strand
unexplained, as
294297
millennium issues 17
made of three strands 305
object
spin of 319
motion and 56
made of two strands 298
observables
mass 332
basic 150
mass, absolute value 341
defined with crossing
massive 329
switches 149
motion 56
none at Planck scales 69
motion through vacuum
system-dependent limits
329
42
no exchange at horizon
observer
scales 100
definition 78
no point 29, 36, 39, 55,
Occams razor 123, 158
7274
octonions 256
none at Planck scales
Olbers paradox 40
7378, 85, 153
operator
number in the universe
Hermitean 195
97100, 103, 106, 108,
unitary 195
123125
order out of chaos 376
number that fits in
origin
vacuum 119
human 384
of four and more strands
overcrossing 235, 348, 349
320
overcrossing of strands, and
pair creation 55, 57, 96
mass 341
properties 292, 332
quantum 151, 165
P
stable 165
pantheism 395
table of correspondence
parity 227
with tangles 325
none at Planck scales 74
tangle as 153
violation 231233
translational motion 329
belt trick and 169
virtual 37, 146, 150, 163
part of nature
parts
lack of definition 123
are approximate 123
particle
in nature 123, 372
see also elementary
none in nature 374
particle, see also matter, see
pastime, unification as 20
also virtual particle
path
circular definition of
helical 335
space-time and 56
integral 175, 187
common constituents with
Pauli equation 187, 200
vacuum 84
from tangles 186
definition 56, 164, 292
Pauli matrices 187
electrically charged 216
Pauli, Wolfgang
exchange 70, 73, 128

439

440

P
Planck

free pdf le available at [Link]

plural 372
and motion 388
point particles
do not exist 29, 36, 39, 55,
7274
points
as clouds 115
as tubes 119
cross section of 119
do not exist 22, 29, 38, 50,
6369
exchange 128
in vacuum 117
incompatible with
unification 22, 59
shape of 111
size of 117, 119
poke see also Reidemeister
move
basic
illustration of 232
gauge group
illustration of 230
transfer
illustration of 229
posets 102
position
from strands 164
indeterminacy 63
positron charge 320
potential
electric 217
indeterminacy 42
electromagnetic 218
from strands 184
magnetic 217
power
lower limit to 44
misuse of 20
surface and 28
upper limit 39
upper limit c 5 /4G 2833
precession 168
precision
does not increase with
energy 122
fun and 110
lack at Planck scales 67
lack of at Planck scales 65

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

Planck scales
as domain of
contradictions 56
definition 35
general relativity and
quantum theory at 5659
nature at 6185
no dimensions at 68
no events at 66
no measurements at 6970
no observables at 6970
no space-time at 68
no supersymmetry at 74
no symmetries at 6970
surprising behaviour at
6185
vacuum and matter at
4950, 7778
Planck speed c see speed of
light c
Planck time 144
age measurement and 89
as measurement limit
6163, 89, 93, 110
shutters and 114
value of 57
Zeno effect and 117
Planck units 3435, 142, 143,
151
as invariants 24, 35
as key to unification 139
as limits 24, 35, 64
as natural units 64
corrected, definition 35
definition 22
key to unification 51
Planck value 35
see natural units, see
Planck units
Planck volume 34, 41, 64
number in the universe 46
plate trick 167
platelets 169
Plato
on love 389
on natures unity 124
Platonic idea
of time 90
play 20

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

simplicity of 2433, 35
table of progress 375
the science of motion 16
unification in one
statement 374
Planck acceleration 34
Planck accelerator 79
Planck action
see action, quantum of
Planck angular frequency 34
Planck area 34
Planck constant
see action, quantum of
Planck curvature 34
Planck density 34, 75
Planck distance 34
Planck energy 38, 54, 78
see also Planck scales
definition 37
Planck entropy 144
Planck force c 4 /4G
see force limit, maximum
Planck length 34, 144
see also Planck scales,
Planck energy
antimatter and 50
as measurement limit
6369
duality and 109
extremal identity and 109
mass limit and 74
shutters and 114
space-time lattices and 70
value of 57
Planck limits
see also Planck units,
natural units
curiosities and challenges
3742
definition 34
electromagnetic 4142
Planck mass 74, 342
definition 37
does not exist as
elementary particles 342
strand model of 342
Planck mass density 34
Planck momentum
definition 37

subject index

subject index

decay 260
form factor 320
mass 320
tangle of 320
puzzle about strands 304
Q
QCD 255258
QED 213228

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

convergence of 225
quantities
bare 224
quantum action principle 197,
206
quantum effects
are due to extension 378
quantum field theory 205, 358
as approximation of the
strand model 259
strand hopping and 329
quantum fluctuations 102
quantum foam see foam,
space-time
quantum geometry 50, 72, 109
quantum gravity
QED and 228
definition of 277
effects on photons 83
entanglement and 281
entropy and 270
experiments in 8384
extension and 134, 270
finite entropy 127
from strands 290
gravity waves and 83
is unobservable 283
large symmetry 121
loop 280
Lorentz symmetry and 84
minimum distance and 35
minimum power and 44
non-locality 72
Planck scales and 70
predictions 283, 369
predictions about 261
strands and 274, 279
topology and 289
quantum groups 368
quantum lattices 102

quantum measurement
from tangles 188
quantum mechanics see also
quantum theory, 204
quantum numbers
all 293
baryon number 293
charge(s) 293
flavour 293
lepton number 293
parity 293
spin 293
quantum state 175
quantum theory
and space-time curvature
77
contradicts general
relativity 5459
displacement limit 26, 27
implied by quantum of
action 17
in one statement 26
measurement problem 20
millennium issues and 18,
154155
no infinity in 372
non-zero action 26
of matter 163
space-time curvature and
54
vacuum and 75
quark
flavour change
illustration of 301
mixing
illustration of 347
ropelength table 338
quark model
acceptance of 313
quarks
are elementary 72
fractional charge 41
generations of 302
mass ratios 336
mesons and 312
mixing 347, 348
strand illustration of 300,
337
tangles 298302

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

limited by quantum theory

55
limits 73
limits to 4951
maximum 90
of age measurements 89
of clocks 63, 8994
of final theory 141
of length measurements 63
predictability
of motion 372
predictions
about axions 257
about cosmology 289
predictability
about dark matter 331
about general relativity 282
about grand unification
260
about mesons 316
about supersymmetry 260
about the number of
interactions 259
about the strong
interaction 257
of the strand model 367
on charge quantization 356
on coupling constants 355
on the weak interaction
240
preon models 404
pride 20
prime knot 296
principle
fundamental 143
of least action 16, 24, 53,
196
of least change 16, 24, 53
of maximum force see
force limit, maximum
of non-zero action 26
probability density 179
projection, minimal 356
propagator 204
properties
intrinsic 82, 292
unexplained, as
millennium issues 17
proton
charge 320

441

442
quasars 217
quasi-quantization of writhe
361
quaternions 256

Q
quasars

114
Reynolds number 335
ribbon 362
ribbon models 134, 158, 326
ribbons and framings 390
Ricci tensor 31
Riemann, Bernhard
on geometry 35
ring chain trick 329
ropelength 334
rotation of tangle cores 209
rule, superselection 179
running
of coupling constants 358

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

S
S-duality 120
safety, asymptotic 282
Sakharov, Andrei 74
on matter constituents 117
on maximum particle
mass 37
on minimum length 40
portrait 74
scalar multiplication 177
scalar product 179
scales, cosmological 86
scattering
by vacuum 78
of longitudinal W and Z
bosons 308, 310
to determine mass 76
to determine size 72, 113
Schrdinger equation 69, 180,
200
Schrdinger picture 175, 195
Schrdinger, Erwin
on thinking 112
SchrdingerKleinGordon
equation 200
Schwarzschild black hole 268
see black hole
Schwarzschild radius
see also black hole
as limit of general
relativity 56
as measurement limit 64,
75, 76
definition 29

entropy and 127

extension and 111
lack of sets and 102
mass and vacuum 120
table with examples 57
science fiction, no 331
scissor trick 167
see-saw mechanism 340, 351
self-linking number 391
sets
not useful to describe
nature 124
not useful to describe
universe 5051, 101102
shape of points 111
short-time average 175
shutter
limits of a 114
time table 114
SI units 144
simplicity
of physics 35
simplification
as guiding idea 380
single atom 79
singularities
horizon and 55
none in nature 80, 142
none in the strand model
273
none inside black holes
268
none predicted in nature
283
size
indeterminacy 33
system-dependent limits
and 42
size limit
due to general relativity 33
due to quantum theory 27
due to special relativity 26
skew lines 325
sky, at night 16
slide see Reidemeister move
concatenation 247
illustration of observable
244
illustration of

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

R
race, in quantum gravity 83
Raychaudhuri equation 31,
275
Raymer, Michael
on the indeterminacy
relation 61
real numbers, no 49, 70
reductionism 20
Regge slope
illustration of 318
Regge trajectories 317
regions of negative energy 278
regularization
non-local 309
weak bosons and 309
Reidemeister move
first or type I or twist
212228
illustration of types 211
second or type II or poke
212, 229240
third or type III or slide
212, 241258, 296
Reidemeisters theorem 259
Reidemeister, Kurt
on knot deformations 212,
259
relativity
as approximation of the
strand model 290
doubly special 404
general see general
relativity
no infinity in 372
special see special relativity
summary on 290
renormalization
at Planck scales 70
of QCD 256
of QED 224
requirements
for a final theory 141
resolution in measurements

subject index

subject index

S
slide

free pdf le available at [Link]

spinor 186, 202, 206

visualization 202
sponsor
this free pdf 9
standard model of particle
physics
millennium description of
physics 17, 140
strands and 145
Stark effect, gravitational 84
stars
in the universe 97
number of 98
state
in dreams 385
SternGerlach experiment 187
stones 165
strand
as cloud 147
averaging 175
definition 146
density 150, 162
diameter 144
diameter, issues 146
evolution equation 176
fluctuations, conditions on
175, 275
hopping 329
illustration of fluctuations
174
impenetrability 144, 281
linear combination
illustration of 180
puzzle 304
scalar multiplication
illustration of 178
spacing 150
substance of a 152
vs. superstring 326
strand model
anomalous magnetic
moment and 224225
basis of 140
beauty of 376
checking of the 162
confirmation of 332
extension and 140
foundations 143
fundamental principle 143

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

speed 25
symmetries 211
spatial order 65
special relativity
double or deformed 282
doubly special 262
falsified by minimum
length 67
implied by maximum
speed 16
in one statement 2526
massive tangles and 330
strands and 262
speed
lower limit 43, 48
of energy 25
of light c
from strands 197200
physics and 8
strands and 198
tangles and 329
special relativity implied
by maximum 16, 25
unlimited for virtual
particles 37
upper limit 25, 34
spin
at Planck scales 73
belt trick and 130, 280
entangled
illustration of 193
extension and 130
foam 134, 280
from strands 165
from tangles 165
general relativity and 55
importance of 130
many-particle
illustration of 191
minimal action and 37
operator 186
orientation 164
superposition
illustration of 189
three-dimensionality and
195
without topology change
401
spinstatistics theorem 165

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

unobservable 243
slide transfer
illustration of 241
space see also background, see
also vacuum
airless, breathing in 82
background 159
border of 146
constituents of 117
curved 266
definition 372
in dreams 385
isotropy and strands 149,
150, 175, 197, 199
mathematical 68
metric 68
no points in 117
none at Planck scales 85
not a manifold 68
physical 268
physical, definition of
149150
physical, differs from
background space 268
physical, from strands 158
space-time see also curvature
as statistical average 71
as thermodynamic limit 71
circular definition of
particles and 56
continuity 36, 6567, 82,
121
curvature 31
curvature and quantum
theory 54, 77
discrete and continuous
150
duality 109, 120, 211
elasticity 33
entropy of 45
foam 150, 277, 290
motion of 45
must be fluctuating 71
no dimensionality at
Planck scales 68
non-commutative 260
not a lattice 70, 102
not a manifold 68
results from upper energy

443

444

S
stress-energy

free pdf le available at [Link]

T
T-duality 120
T-shirt 382
first use 419
tachyons 25
tail
deformations 211
model 130
shifting 348
Tait number 391
tangle 149
alternating 357

blurred 174, 183

chirality 356
coloured, illustration of
253
complicated 297
core 164
core deformation
illustration of 210
core rotation 209
illustration of 210
family 314, 329, 342
family of leptons 339
function 173, 174
functions are wave
functions 176183
ideal 334, 390
lepton 305
locally knotted 298
moving
illustration of 181, 198
of four or more strands 320
phase 213
prime 298
quark 298
rational 298, 320
table of properties 390
tails 164, 165
tight 334, 360
topological invariant 216
trivial 298
tangle classes
one strand, illustration of
294
three strands, illustration
of 305
two strands, illustration of
299
tangle framing 362, 390
tau
tangle of 305
technicolour 368
temperature
indeterminacy 28
lower limit 46
upper limit 38
vacuum 264
tetraquark
strand illustration of 323
tetraquarks 322

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

final theory and 139

not correct 70, 74, 129, 157,
228, 240, 260, 297, 330, 368
required 21
strings and 135
support
this free pdf 9
surface
force and 28
gravity 2931, 44, 272
physical 40
surprises in nature 81, 381
Susskind, Leonard
on Planck scale scattering
113
switch of crossing 143, 145
symmetry
at the horizon 100
beauty and 379
between large and small
120
breaking 235
event 80
none at Planck scales 70,
142
space-time 211
total 121
system, physical
table of correspondence
with strands 148
table of correspondence
with tangles 279
system-dependent limits
to all observables 4247
Szilard, Leo
on minimum entropy 28

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

generalizations of 156, 377

history of 382
illustration of fundamental
principle 141
list of predictions 367
other research and the 383
simplicity of 157
slow acceptance 383
table of predictions 368
vs. superstrings 326
stress-energy tensor 40
string nets 134
string trick 167, 207
strings see superstrings
strong interaction
conservation properties
255
strong nuclear interaction
241258
SU(2) 230, 353
SU(2) breaking 235
SU(2) field
classical waves 296
SU(3) 242252
multiplication table 247
SU(3) field
classical waves 296
supergravity
not correct 228, 240, 260
supermembranes 135
superparticles 260
superposition
from strands 177
gravitational field of 279
of clocks 55
principle 70
superselection rules 179
superstrings
basic principles of 138
black hole entropy and 271
conjecture 135
dimensionality and 81
joke 136
not an explanation 157
overview 135139
status 138
summary 138
vs. strands 326
supersymmetry

subject index

subject index

T
theorem

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

free pdf le available at [Link]

as pastime 20
as riddle 20, 21
beliefs and dogmas 21
difficulty of 282
disinformation 398
grand see grand
unification
is possible 121
key to 51
millennium issues and 17
of interactions 259, 260,
355
quantum theory and
relativity 53
requiring extreme
thinking 20
simplicity of 21, 35
steps of the search for 21
unified models
assumptions of 158
complexity of 158
requirements of 140, 141
uniqueness 377
uniqueness
of the unified model 377
unitarity
violation in W and Z
boson scattering 308
units
Plancks natural see Planck
units, natural units
universal gravitation 32, 263
universe
age error of 89, 90
age of 87
as inverted black hole 285
definition of 107, 109
U
difference from nothing 86
U(1) 184, 213221, 227, 353
essence of 106
U-duality 120
finiteness of 284
uncertainty see indeterminacy
has no meaning 107
uncertainty principle see
horizon of 285
indeterminacy relation
information and 103
uncertainty relation see
initial conditions 97, 285
indeterminacy relation
luminosity limit 40
unification see also final
mass of 98100
theory
matter density 288
arguments against 1920
no boundary 100101
as lack of finitude 374
not a container 125

proper, end of 63
time-like loops 278
tombstone 382
topological models 326
topological space 69
topological writhe 216
definition 356
topology of the universe 289
toroidal black holes 278
torsion
in general relativity 280,
283
of curve 390
of tangles 361
total, of a curve 391
touching shapes 115
translation invariance 65
trick
belt 167
dirty Higgs 310
leather 337
plate 167
scissor 167
tubes in space 119
tuning, fine
none 344
Turing machines 102
twist see Reidemeister move,
296, 362, 391
and gauge
illustration of 220
generalized 221
random 364
twist transfer
illustration of 213
twisted loop 213

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

theorem
BanachTarski see
BanachTarski
paradox/theorem
Calugareanu 392
ColemanMandula 257
Fermats last 381
Gdels see incompleteness
theorem, Gdels
KochenSpecker 190
no-hair 128, 269
Reidemeisters 259
spinstatistics 165
WeinbergWitten 257
theory
final 398
final, not of everything 376
freedom of 379
of everything 125
of everything does not
exist 376
physical, definition 19
thermodynamics in one
statement 2728
thinking
extreme 20
mechanism of 17
ThomsonKelvin, William
on atoms as knotted
vortices 325
thought experiment
constituents and 117
on extension 133
on force and power 29
on shape 116
on vacuum 76, 119
time 159
beginning of 88
coordinate 63
defined with strands 151
definition 56, 372
does not exist 90
in dreams 385
indeterminacy 42, 61
issue of 144
lower limit, or Planck 34
maximum 87
measurement 55
Platonic idea 90

445

446

free pdf le available at [Link]

weak interaction 229240

weak mixing angle 335
Weinberg, Steven
on unification 21
WeinbergWitten theorem
257
Wheeler, John A.
on mass without mass 152
on natures principles 376
on space-time foam 150,
277
on topology change 55
on unification 21
WheelerDeWitt equation 70
wheels, none in nature 207
wholeness, Bohms unbroken
102, 407
Wightman axioms 257
Wiles, Andrew
W
on research 381
W boson
Witten, Edward
mass of 334
on duality 133
strand model 233
on infinities 136
two mass values 309
on unification 21
W polarization
words and physics 380
illustration of 309
world
walls
crystal, nematic 280
limitations to 113
of dreams 385
water flow
origin of 384
upper limit 38
wormhole 277
wave function 164, 175
wormholes 162, 278, 279, 283
and crossing size 177
writhe 362
as blurred tangles 204
2d 391
as rotating cloud 176
3d 360, 363, 392
collapse 189
quasi-quantization 361
collapse from tangles 188
topological 391
definition 176
topological, definition 356
is a tangle function 176183 writhing number 392
visualizing the 202
wave, gravitational
Y
emitted from atoms 281
YangMills theory see gauge
theory, non-Abelian
waves
gluonic 296
Z
weak bosons 233
Z boson
weak charge 231233
mass of 334
weak current
strand model 233
absence of
two mass values 309
flavour-changing 324
Zeno effect, quantum 26, 117
weak hypercharge 227, 353

copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014

V
vacuum see also space
as a bath 148
breathing in 82
common constituents with
particles 51, 58, 59, 77, 82,
84, 128
defects in 266, 267, 278
difference from matter 61
elasticity of 33
energy density 18, 54, 155,
197, 286
energy density and
gravitation 263
entropy bound 4445
entropy of 45
illustration of 149
indistinguishable from
matter 4950, 7778
mass error 7577
mixes with matter 76
none at Planck scales 85
relativity vs. quantum
theory 5459
strand model 149, 163
temperature 264

uniqueness of 150
variables, hidden 190
vector
binormal 390
normal 390
Verlinde, Erik
on universal gravitation
264
violence and infinity 373
virtual particles 37, 146, 150,
163
at Planck scales 73
viscous fluids
tangles and 183, 335
volume 69
lower limit, or Planck 34
of the universe 96
vortices in the aether 325

Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics

not a physical system 102

not a set 5051, 101102
oscillating 87
power limit 44
radius 96
sense of 106
size of 94
strand illustration of 284
strand model 284
system dependent limits
and 4249
table of properties 106
topology of 289
volume of 96
unmodifiabilityunmodifiability of final
theory 156
Unruh effect see
FullingDaviesUnruh
effect
Unruh radiation see
FullingDaviesUnruh
effect

subject index

subject index
Zeno of Elea
on motion as an illusion
388

447
on size 120
Zenos argument against
motion 67, 115, 117

resolution 206
zero-point energy 54, 69
Zitterbewegung 203

Z
Zeno
Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics
copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990December 2014
free pdf le available at [Link]

MOTION MOUNTAIN
The Adventure of Physics Vol. VI
The Strand Model
A Speculation On Unification
What is the origin of colours?
Which problems in physics are unsolved since the year 2000?
What might be their solution?
At what distance between two points does it become
impossible to find room for a third one in between?
What is the most fantastic voyage possible?
Why do change and motion exist?
Answering these and other questions on motion,
this book gives an entertaining and mind-twisting
introduction into research on the unification
of physics: it presents the strand model. Based on a
simple principle, strands reproduce quantum theory,
the standard model of particle physics and general
relativity. Strnds leave no room for alternative
theories, agree with all experimental data and
allow calculating the fine structure constant.
Christoph Schiller, PhD Universit Libre de Bruxelles,
is a physicist and physics popularizer. He wrote this
book for students, teachers and anybody interested
in modern research about fundamental physics.

Pdf file available free of charge at

[Link]