Vectors

Vectors
Introduction of Vector
Physical quantities having magnitude, direction
and obeying laws of vector algebra are called vectors.
Example : Displacement, velocity, acceleration,
momentum, force, impulse, weight, thrust, torque,
angular momentum, angular velocity etc.
If a physical quantity has magnitude and direction
both, then it does not always imply that it is a vector.
For it to be a vector the third condition of obeying laws
of vector algebra has to be satisfied.
Example : The physical quantity current has both
magnitude and direction but is still a scalar as it
disobeys the laws of vector algebra.

Types of Vector
(1) Equal vectors : Two vectors A and B are said
to be equal when they have equal magnitudes and same
direction.
(2) Parallel vector : Two vectors A and B are
said to be parallel when
(i) Both have same direction.
(ii) One vector is
multiple of another vector.

scalar

(positive)

non-zero

(3) Anti-parallel vectors : Two vectors A and

B are said to be anti-parallel when
(i) Both have opposite direction.
(ii) One vector is scalar non-zero negative multiple
of another vector.
(4) Collinear vectors : When the vectors under
consideration can share the same support or have a
common support then the considered vectors are
collinear.

(5) Zero vector (0) : A vector having zero

magnitude and arbitrary direction (not known to us) is a
zero vector.
(6) Unit vector : A vector divided by its magnitude
(read as A cap or
is a unit vector. Unit vector for A is A
A hat).

A
Since, A
A

.
A AA

Thus, we can say that unit vector gives us the

direction.

i ,
j

(7) Orthogonal unit vectors

called orthogonal unit vectors.
These vectors must form a Right
Handed Triad (It is a coordinate
system such that when we Curl
the fingers of right hand from x to
y then we must get the direction
of z along thumb). The

are
and k

k
z

Fig. 0.1

y
x
z

, j
,k
i
y
x
z

x x
j , z zk
i , y y
(8) Polar vectors : These have starting point or
point of application . Example displacement and force
etc.
(9) Axial Vectors : These represent rotational
effects and are always along the axis of rotation in
accordance with right hand screw rule. Angular velocity,
torque and angular momentum, etc., are example of
physical quantities of this type.
Axial vector

Anticlock wise
rotation

Axis of rotation

Axis of rotation

Clock wise rotation

Axial vector

Vectors
If two non zero vectors are represented by the
two adjacent sides of a parallelogram then the resultant
is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing
through the point of intersection of the two vectors.

Fig. 0.2

(10) Coplanar vector : Three (or more) vectors

are called coplanar vector if they lie in the same plane.
Two (free) vectors are always coplanar.

If two non zero vectors are represented by the two

sides of a triangle taken
B
in same order then the
R A B
resultant is given by the
closing side of triangle in
B
opposite
order.
i.e.
O

OB OA AB

Since, R 2 ON 2 CN 2

R 2 (OA AN)2 CN 2

Triangle Law of Vector Addition of Two Vectors

R A B

(1) Magnitude

R 2 A2 B 2 2AB cos

R | R | | A B |
B

Fig. 0.3

sin

BN
B

AN B cos

R A B when = 0o

o
A 2 B 2 when = 90

CN
B sin

ON
A B cos

tan

B sin

N
B cos

(2) Direction

R A B when = 180o

In OBN, we have OB 2 ON 2 BN 2

Special cases :

Fig. 0.5

BN B sin

B sin

AN
B

C
R AB

(1) Magnitude of resultant vector

In ABN, cos

A 2 B 2 2AB cos

Polygon Law of Vector Addition

If a number of non zero vectors are represented by

the
(n 1) sides of an n-sided polygon then the
resultant is given by the closing side or the nth side of
the polygon taken in opposite order. So,

B
Fig. 0.4 cos

R 2 (A B cos )2 (B sin )2
R 2 A2 B 2 cos2 2AB cos B2 sin2

R A BC D E

OA AB BC CD DE OE

R 2 A 2 B 2(cos2 sin2 ) 2AB cos

R 2 A2 B 2 2AB cos

A 2 B 2 2AB cos

is

A 2 B 2 2AB cos

R makes

an angle with

OBN,

tan

BN
BN

ON OA AN

tan

B sin
A B cos

Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition

angle between A and B, then

If

(2) Direction of resultant vectors : If

| A B|

R
A,

then in

B
O

Note

A
Fig. 0.6

: Resultant of two unequal vectors can

not be zero.
Resultant of three co-planar vectors may
or may not be zero
Resultant of three non co- planar vectors
can not be zero.

Vectors
Since R and are usually known, Equation (ii) and

Subtraction of vectors

(iii) give the magnitude of the components of R along

x and y-axes respectively.

Since, A B A ( B) and

Here it is worthy to note once a vector is resolved

into its components, the components themselves can be
used to specify the vector as

A 2 B 2 2AB cos

| A B|

A 2 B 2 2AB cos(180o )

| A B|

(1) The magnitude of the vector R is obtained by

squaring and adding equation (ii) and (iii), i.e.

Since, cos(180 ) cos

A 2 B 2 2AB cos

| A B|

R sum A B

(2) The direction of the vector R is obtained by

dividing equation (iii) by (ii), i.e.

tan (Ry / Rx ) or tan1(Ry / Rx )

Rx2 Ry2

Rectangular Components of 3-D Vector

180

i Ryj Rzk
R R x R y R z q or R Rx
Y
R dif A ( B)
Fig. 0.7

B sin
tan 1
A B cos

Fig. 0.9

and

cos(
180 ) cos

tan 2

and

B sin
A B cos

R Rx R

Now

A An

Ry

as

for

so, R x

any vector

i Rx and R y jRy

z
z
n
cos R
Rx2 Ry2 Rz2

Rx
Fig. 0.8

Where l, m, n are called Direction Cosines of the

vector R and

l 2 m2 n2

i Rx jRy
so R

cos2 cos2 cos2

(i)
But from figure Rx R cos

Note

(ii)
and Ry R sin

y
y
m
cos R
2
Rx Ry2 Rz2

orthogonal vectors R x and R y

along x and y axes respectively,
by
law
of
vector
addition,

If R makes an angle with x axis, with y axis

with z axis, then

x
x
l
cos R
2
Rx Ry2 Rz2

Resolution of Vector Into Components

Consider a vector R in X-Y
plane as shown in fig. If we draw

sin(180 ) sin

But

Rx

Rz

B sin(180 )
A B cos(180 )

and tan 2

Ry

(iii)

Rx2 Ry2 Rz2

Rx2 Ry2 Rz2

When a point P have coordinate

(x, y, z) then its position vector OP x

i y
j zk

When a particle moves from point (x1,

y1, z1) to (x2, y2, z2) then its displacement vector

Vectors

A . B (iAx jAy kAz ).(iBx jBy kBz )

r (x2 x1)
i (y2 y1)j (z2 z1)k

[Ax Bx Ay By AZ Bz ]

Scalar Product of Two Vectors

(1) Definition : The scalar product (or dot
product) of two vectors is defined as the product of the
magnitude of two vectors with cosine of angle between
them.
Thus if there are two vectors A and B having
between them, then their scalar product
written as A . B is defined as A . B AB cos
angle

(2) Properties : (i) It is always a

scalar which is positive if angle
between the vectors is acute (i.e., <
90) and negative if angle between
them is obtuse (i.e. 90< < 180).
(ii)

It

is

commutative,

It

is

As

A
Fig. 0.10

distributive,

or

force

The

between

dW
ds
F.
dt
dt

the

vectors

(A . B)max AB

ds

velocity.

dW
ds
P and
v
As
dt
dt

Magnetic flux through an

area
is
given
by
d B dscos
(i)
But

by

definition
...(ii)

Fig. 0.11

of

scalar

product

B . d s Bdscos

So from eqn (i) and (ii) we have

(vi) Scalar product of two vectors will be minimum

when | cos | min 0, i.e. 90o
(A . B)min 0

i.e. if the scalar product of two nonzero vectors

vanishes the vectors are orthogonal.
(vii) The scalar product of a vector by itself is
termed as self dot product and is given by

d B . d s

or

B. ds

(iv) Potential energy of a dipole U : If an electric

dipole of moment p is situated in an electric field E
or a magnetic dipole of moment

in a field of

induction B, the potential energy of the dipole is given

by :
U E p. E and U B M . B

(A)2 A . A AA cos A 2

Vector Product of Two Vectors

A. A

(viii) In case of unit vector n

so

.k
1
.n

n
i .
i
j .
j k
i,
j and
(ix) In case of orthogonal unit vectors

k
.

i .
j
j .k
i 1 1 cos90 0

with

(iii) Magnetic Flux :

when cos max 1, i.e. 0o , i.e., vectors are

parallel

.n
1 1 cos0 1
n

i.e., power is the scalar product of

P F .v

(v) Scalar product of two vectors will be maximum

(x) In terms of components

or

i.e.

A. B
cos1

AB

,
k

W F .s

[As F is constant]

i.e.

A . B AB cos

So from eqn (i) and (ii) W F .s i.e. work is the

scalar product of force with displacement.

(iv) As by definition

i.e.

(ii)

(ii) Power P :

A .(B C) A . B A . C

angle

But by definition of scalar product of two vectors,

F . s Fs cos

A. B B. A

(iii)

(3) Example : (i) Work W : In physics for constant

force work is defined as, W Fs cos
(i)

(1) Definition : The vector product or cross

product of two vectors is defined as a vector having a
magnitude equal to the product of the magnitudes of
two vectors with the sine of angle between them, and
direction perpendicular to the plane containing the two
vectors in accordance with right hand screw rule.
C A B

Thus, if A and B are two vectors, then their

vector product written as A B is a vector C defined
by

Vectors
(vi) The self cross product, i.e., product of a vector
by
itself
vanishes,
i.e.,
is
null
vector

C A B AB sin n

0
A A AA sin0o n

(vii) In case of unit vector

n
0 so that
n

k
0

i
i j j k

(viii) In case of orthogonal unit vectors,

i,
j, k

in accordance with right hand screw rule :

Fig. 0.12

The direction of A B, i.e. C is perpendicular

to the plane containing vectors A and B and in the
sense of advance of a right handed screw rotated from
A (first vector) to B (second vector) through the
smaller angle between them. Thus, if a right handed
screw whose axis is perpendicular to the plane framed
by A and B is rotated from A to B through the
smaller angle between them, then the direction of
advancement of the screw gives the direction of A B
i.e. C

Fig. 0.13

i
j k

jk
i

and k
i
j

And as cross product is not commutative,

, k

j
i k
j
i and
i k
j

(2) Properties
(i) Vector product of any two vectors is always a
vector perpendicular to the plane containing these two
vectors, i.e., orthogonal to both the vectors A and
though the vectors A and B may or may not be
orthogonal.
B,

(ii) Vector product of two vectors is not

commutative, i.e., A B B A [but B A]
Here it is worthy to note that
| A B|| B A| AB sin

i.e. in case of vector A B and B A

magnitudes are equal but directions are opposite.
(iii) The vector product is distributive when the
order of the vectors is strictly maintained, i.e.
A (B C) A B A C

(iv) The vector product of two vectors will be

maximum when sin max 1, i.e., 90o

[A B]max AB n

i.e. vector product is maximum if the vectors are

orthogonal.
(v) The vector product of two non- zero vectors will be
minimum when | sin | minimum = 0, i.e.,
o

0 or 180
[ A B]min 0

i.e. if the vector product of two non-zero vectors

vanishes, the vectors are collinear.

(x) In terms of components

i
A B Ax
Bx

k
Az
Bz

j
Ay
By

i (Ay Bz Az By )

(A B A B )
j(Az B x A x Bz ) k
x
y
y
x

(3) Example : Since vector product of two vectors

is a vector, vector physical quantities (particularly
representing rotational effects) like torque, angular
momentum, velocity and force on a moving charge in a
magnetic field and can be expressed as the vector
product of two vectors. It is well established in physics
that :
(i) Torque r F
(ii) Angular momentum L r p
(iii) Velocity v r
(iv) Force on a charged particle q moving with
velocity v in a magnetic field B is given by
F q(v B)

(v) Torque on a dipole in a field E p E and

B M B

Lami's Theorem
In any A B C with sides

a, b, c

180

sin
sin
sin

a
b
c
c

180

Fig. 0.14

180

Vectors

Now to find the velocity of a moving object relative

to another moving object, consider a particle P whose

position relative to frame S is r

while relative to
PS

i.e. for any triangle the ratio of the sine of the

angle containing the side to the length of the side is a
constant.
For a triangle whose three sides are in the same
order we establish the Lami's theorem in the following
manner. For the triangle shown

is r
.
PS

time is r

a (a b) a c

Pre-multiplying both sides of (ii) by b

b a b b b c

particle P1 moving with velocity v with respect to

1

v r12 = v1 v2

get

v1

| a b| | b c| | c a|

v2

absin(
180 ) bcsin(
180 ) casin(180 )

P2

absin bcsin casin

sin sin
sin

a
b
c

(1) Introduction : When we consider the motion

of a particle, we assume a fixed point relative to which
the given particle is in motion. For example, if we say
that water is flowing or wind is blowing or a person is
running with a speed v, we mean that these all are
relative to the earth (which we have assumed to be
fixed).
Y

r
PS

rS' S

S
Fig. 0.15

(ii) If the two particles are moving in the opposite

direction, then :

r12 1 2
(iii) If the two particles are moving in the mutually
perpendicular directions, then:

r12 12 22

(iv) If the angle between and

1

(i) If both the particles are moving in the same

direction then :

r12 1 2

Relative Velocity

P1

Fig. 0.16

Dividing through out by abc, we have

From (iii) and (iv), we get a b b c c a

we

vPS vPS vSS

another particle P2 moving with velocity v is given by,

2

(iv)

magnitude,

[as

(2) General Formula : The relative velocity of a

a b b c a b b c

Taking

or

(iii)

b (a b) b c

vPS vPS vSS

v dr /dt ]

0 a b a c

a b c a

or

Pre-multiplying both sides by a

(ii)

a b c

then from figure, r r r

PS
PS
SS

drPS drPS drSS

dt
dt
dt

(i)

SS

relative to S at any

Differentiating this equation with respect to time

a b c 0 [All three sides are taken in order]

If the position of frames

r12 12 22 21 2 cos

PS'

X
X

1/ 2

2 be , then

Vectors
(3) Relative velocity of satellite : If a satellite is

moving in equatorial plane with velocity v and a point

s

And if the swimming is opposite to the flow of

water, vM v vR
(6) Crossing the river : Suppose, the river is

on the surface of earth with v relative to the centre of

e
earth, the velocity of satellite relative to the surface of
earth

flowing with velocity r . A man can swim in still water

with velocity m . He is standing on one bank of the

river and wants to cross the river, two cases arise.

vse vs v e

So if the satellite moves form west to east (in the

direction of rotation of earth on its axis) its velocity

(i) To cross the river over shortest distance : That

is to cross the river straight, the man should swim
making angle with the upstream as shown.

vr

relative to earth's surface will be vse vs ve

And if the satellite moves from east to west, i.e.,
opposite to the motion of earth,

vm

Upstream

Here OAB is the triangle of vectors, in which

which by law of vector addition has magnitude

cos

2
2
vR
vM

direction tan1(vM / vR ) with the vertical as

shown in fig.

vR

vM

vR

vM

vM

vR

OA vm, AB r . Their resultant is given by OB

. The direction of swimming makes angle with

upstream. From the triangle OBA, we find,

to observer will be v
RM vR vM

vRM

Downstrea
m

Fig. 0.18

vertically with a velocity v and an observer is moving

R
the velocity of rain relative

vr

(4) Relative velocity of rain : If rain is falling

horizontally with speed v

M

vse vs (ve) vs ve

Also

sin

r
m

Where is the angle made by the direction of

swimming with the shortest distance (OB) across the
river.
Time taken to cross the river : If w be the width of
the river, then time taken to cross the river will be given
by

t1
Fig. 0.17

r
m

w
2
m
r2

(ii) To cross the river in shortest possible time : The

man should swim perpendicular to the bank.
(5) Relative velocity of swimmer : If a man can

swim relative to water with velocity v and water is

flowing relative to ground with velocity v velocity of

R

The time taken to cross the river will be:

t2

m
A

man relative to ground v

will be given by:
M

v vM vR , i.e., vM v vR

vr

vm

vr

So if the swimming is in the direction of flow of

water, vM v vR

Upstream

O
Fig. 0.19

Downstrea
m

Vectors

In this case, the man will touch the opposite bank

at a distance AB down stream. This distance will be
given by:

AB r t2 r

w
m

or

AB

r
w
m

So unit vector v
has no unit as East is not a physical
quantity.

Unit vector has no dimensions.

.k
1

i .
i
j .
j k

k
0

i
i j j k

i
j k
jk
i, k
i
j

k
.

i .
j
j .k
i 0

A A 0 . Also A A 0 But A A A A

Because A A A and A A is collinear with

All physical quantities having direction are not

vectors. For example, the electric current possesses
direction but it is a scalar quantity because it can not
be added or multiplied according to the rules of
vector algebra.

vector can have only two rectangular

components in plane and only three rectangular
components in space.

Multiplication of a vector with 1 reverses its

direction.

B
.
If A B , then A = B and A

B
.
If A B 0 , then A = B but A

Minimum number of collinear vectors whose

resultant can be zero is two.

A vector can have any number, even infinite

Minimum number of coplaner vectors whose

components. (minimum 2 components)

resultant is zero is three.

Following quantities are neither vectors nor

Minimum number of non coplaner vectors whose

scalars : Relative density, density, viscosity,

frequency, pressure, stress, strain, modulus of
elasticity, poissons ratio, moment of inertia, specific
heat, latent heat, spring constant loudness,
resistance, conductance, reactance, impedance,
permittivity,
dielectric
constant,
permeability,
susceptibility, refractive index, focal length, power of
lens, Boltzman constant, Stefans constant, Gas
constant, Gravitational constant, Rydberg constant,
Plancks constant etc.

resultant is zero is four.

Distance covered is a scalar quantity.

are

added,

subtracted

A.B 0 .

Two vectors are parallel to each other if

A B 0.

Displacement, velocity, linear momentum and

force are polar vectors.

Angular velocity, angular acceleration, torque and

angular momentum are axial vectors.

The displacement is a vector quantity.

Scalars

Two vectors are perpendicular to each other if

Division with a vector is not defined because it is

or

divided

not possible to divide with a direction.

algebraically.

Distance covered is always positive quantity.

Vectors are added and subtracted geometrically.

The components of a vectors can have magnitude

Division of vectors is not allowed as directions

than that of the vector itself.

cannot be divided.

The

Unit vector gives the direction of vector.

rectangular components cannot have

magnitude greater than that of the vector itself.

Magnitude of unit vector is 1.

When we multiply a vector with 0 the product

Unit vector has no unit. For example, velocity of

an object is 5 ms1 due East.

i.e. v 5ms1 due east.

v
5ms1(East)

v
East
| v|
5ms1

becomes a null vector.

The

resultant of two vectors

magnitude can never be a null vector.

of

unequal

Three vectors not lying in a plane can never add

up to give a null vector.

A quantity having magnitude and direction is not

necessarily a vector. For example, time and electric

Vectors
current. These quantities have magnitude and
direction but they are scalar. This is because they do
not obey the laws of vector addition.

A physical quantity which has different values in

different directions is called a tensor. For example :
Moment of inertia has different values in different
directions. Hence moment of inertia is a tensor. Other
examples of tensor are refractive index, stress, strain,
density etc.

The magnitude of rectangular components of a

vector is always less than the magnitude of the vector

If

A B , then Ax Bx , Ay By and

Az Bz

A B C . Or if A B C 0 , then A, B

and C lie in one plane.

If A B C , then C is perpendicular to A as

well as B .

If | A B | | A B | , then angle between A

and B is 90.

If

Resultant of two vectors will be maximum when

= 0 i.e. vectors are parallel.
Rmax

P 2 Q 2 2PQ cos0 | P Q |

Resultant of two vectors will be minimum when

= 180 i.e. vectors are anti-parallel.
Rmin

P 2 Q 2 2PQ cos180 | P Q |

Thus, minimum value of the resultant of two vectors

is equal to the difference of their magnitude.
Thus, maximum value of the resultant of two
vectors is equal to the sum of their magnitude.
When the magnitudes of two vectors are unequal,
then

Rmin P Q 0

[
| P || Q |]

Thus, two vectors P and Q having different

magnitudes can never be combined to give zero
resultant. From here, we conclude that the minimum
number of vectors of unequal magnitude whose
resultant can be zero is three. On the other hand, the
minimum number of vectors of equal magnitude
whose resultant can be zero is two.

Angle between two vectors A and B is given

by

A.B
cos

| A | | B|

Projection of a vector A in the direction of

vector B

A.B

| B|

Projection of a vector

B in the direction of vector

A.B

| A|

If vectors

A, B andC

are represented by
three sides ab, bc and ca respectively taken in a
order, then

| A| | B | | C |

ab
bc
ca

The vectors

is equally inclined to the

i j k

coordinate axes at an angle of 54.74 degrees.

If A B C , then A . B C 0 .

A. B C 0

If

, then

A. B

and

are

coplanar.

If angle between A and B is 45,

then A . B | A B |

A1 A2 A3 ...... An 0

If

and

A1 A2 A3 ...... An then the adjacent vector

are inclined to each other at angle 2 / n .

If A B C and A2 B2 C 2 , then the angle

between A and B is 90. Also A, B and C can have

the following values.
(i) A = 3, B = 4, C = 5
(ii) A = 5, B = 12, C = 13
(iii) A = 8, B = 15, C = 17.