M 22-24

Highway Engineering

Field Formulas

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Metric (SI) or US Units

Unless otherwise stated the formulas shown
in this manual can be used with any units.
The user is cautioned not to mix units within
a formula. Convert all variables to one unit
system prior to using these formulas.

Significant Digits
Final answers from computations should be
rounded off to the number of decimal places
justified by the data. The answer can be no
more accurate than the least accurate
number in the data. Of course, rounding
should be done on final calculations only. It
should not be done on interim results.

Persons with disabilities may request this

information be prepared in alternate forms
by calling collect (360) 664-9009. Deaf and
hearing impaired people call 1-800-833-6388
(TTY Relay Service).
1998
Engineering Publications
Transportation Building
Olympia, WA 98504
360-705-7430

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CONTENTS
Nomenclature for Circular Curves .....................
Circular Curve Equations ..................................
Simple Circular Curve .......................................
Degrees of Curvature to Various Radii ...............
Nomenclature for Vertical Curves ......................
Vertical Curve Equations ...................................
Nomenclature for Nonsymmetrical Curves .........
Nonsymmetrical Vertical Curve Equations .........
Determining Radii of Sharp Curves ...................
Dist. from Fin. Shld. to Subgrade Shld. .............
Areas of Plane Figures .....................................
Surfaces and Volumes of Solids .......................
Trigonometric Functions for all Quadrants ........
Trigonometric Functions ...................................
Right Triangle ..................................................
Oblique Triangle ..............................................
Conversion Factors ..........................................
Metric Conversion Factors ...............................
Land Surveying Conversion Table ...................
Steel Tape Temperature Corrections ...............
Temperature Conversion .................................
Less Common Conversion Factors ..................
Water Constants .............................................
Cement Constants ..........................................
Multiplication Factor Table ...............................
Recommended Pronunciations ........................
Reinforcing Steel .............................................

2
4
5
6
7
8
10
11
12
13
14
18
23
24
25
26
28
30
31
31
31
32
32
32
33
33
34

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Nomenclature For
Circular Curves
POT

Point On Tangent outside the

effect of any curve

POC

Point On a circular Curve

POST

Point On a Semi-Tangent (within

the limits of a curve)

PI

Point of Intersection of a back

tangent and forward tangent

PC

Point of Curvature - Point of

change from back tangent to
circular curve

PT

Point of Tangency - Point of

change from circular curve to
forward tangent

PCC

Point of Compound Curvature Point common to two curves in the

same direction with different radii

PRC

Point of Reverse Curve - Point

common to two curves in opposite
directions and with the same or
different radii

Total Length of any circular curve

measured along its arc

Lc

Length between any two points on

a circular curve

Radius of a circular curve

Total intersection (or central) angle

between
back
and
forward
tangents

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Nomenclature For
Circular Curves (Cont.)
DC

Deflection angle for full circular

curve measured from tangent at
PC or PT

dc

Deflection angle required from

tangent to a circular curve to any
other point on a circular curve

Total Chord length, or long chord,

for a circular curve

Chord length between any two

points on a circular curve

Distance along semi-Tangent from

the point of intersection of the
back and forward tangents to the
origin of curvature (From the PI to
the PC or PT)

tx

Distance along semi-tangent from

the PC (or PT) to the perpendicular
offset to any point on a circular
curve. (Abscissa of any point on a
circular curve referred to the
beginning of curvature as origin
and semi-tangent as axis)

ty

The perpendicular offset, or

ordinate, from the semi-tangent to
a point on a circular curve

External distance (radial distance)

from PI to midpoint on a simple
circular curve

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Circular Curve Equations

Equations

Units

R=

180 L

m or ft.

180 L

degree

L=

R
180

m or ft.

T = R tan
R

E=

cos

C = 2R sin

m or ft.

m or ft.

, or = 2R sin DC
2

m or ft.

MO = R1 cos

DC =
dc =

m or ft.

degree

Lc

L 2

degree

C' = 2R sin( dc)

m or ft.

C = 2 R sin( DC )

m or ft.

tx = R sin( 2 dc)

m or ft.

ty = R[1 cos( 2dc) ]

m or ft.

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Simple Circular Curve

Constant for = 3.14159265

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Degree of Curvature for

Various Lengths of Radii

Exact for Arc Definition

180
100

18000
D=
=
R
R
Where D is Degree of Curvature
__________________________________________
____

Length of Radii for Various

Degrees of Curvature

180
100

18000
R=
=
D
D
Where R is Radius Length

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Nomenclature For
Vertical Curves
G1 & G2 Tangent Grade in percent
A

The absolute of the Algebraic

difference in grades in percent

BVC

Beginning of Vertical Curve

EVC

End of Vertical Curve

VPI

Vertical Point of Intersection

Length of vertical curve

Horizontal distance to any point on

the curve from BVC or EVC

Vertical distance from VPI to curve

Vertical distance from any point on

the curve to the tangent grade

Distance required to achieve a 1

percent change in grade

L1

Length of a vertical curve which will

pass through a given point

D0

Distance from the BVC to the

lowest or highest point on curve

Horizontal distance from P' to VPI

A point on tangent grade G1 to

vertical position of point P'

P and P'

Points on tangent grades

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Symmetrical Vertical
Curve Equations

A = (G 2 ) (G1 )
E=

AL
800

E=

1 [Link] + [Link]

Elev. VPI

2
2

e=

4ED2
L2

Notes: All equations use units of length (not

stations or increments)
The variable A is expressed as an absolute
in percent (%)
Example:

If G 1 = +4% and G 2 = -2%

Then A = 6

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Symmetrical Vertical Curve

Equations (cont.)

e=

AD 2
200L

L1 =

2( AX + 200 e + 20 AXe + 100e2 )

A

D 0 = G1

L
A

X=

100( ElevH ElevP' )

A

K=

L
A

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Nomenclature For
Nonsymmetrical Vertical
Curves
G1 & G2 Tangent Grades in percent
A

The absolute of the Algebraic

difference in grades in percent

BVC

Beginning of Vertical Curve

EVC

End of Vertical Curve

VPI

Vertical Point of Intersection

l1

Length of first section of vertical

curve

l2

Length of second
vertical curve

Length of vertical curve

D1

Horizontal distance to any point on

the curve from BVC towards the
VPI

D2

Horizontal distance to any point on

the curve from EVC towards the
VPI

e1

Vertical distance from any point on

the curve to the tangent grade
between BVC and VPI

e2

Vertical distance from any point on

the curve to the tangent grade
between EVC and VPI

Vertical distance from VPI to curve

section

of

10

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Nonsymmetrical Vertical
Curve Equations

A = (G 2 ) (G 1 )
L = l1 + l2
E=

l 1l 2
A
200( l 1 + l 2 )

D
e1 = m 1
l1

D
e 2 = m 2
l2

11

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Determining Radii of
Sharp Curves by Field
Measurements

BC2 BD
+
2BD
2
AC
BC =
2

R=

Note:

Points A and C may be any two

points on the curve

Example:
Measure the chord length from A to C
AC = 18.4 then BC = 9.2
Measure the middle ordinate length B to D
BD = 3.5

R=

9.2 2 3.5
+
= 13.8
7. 0
2

12

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Distance From Finished

Shld. to Subgrade Shld.
and Slope Equivalents

Equation: x =

100B
A

A = Algebraic difference in % between shld. slope

and subgrade slope
B = Depth of surfacing at finished shoulder
x = Distance from finished shld. to subgrade shld.
Shoulder
Slope
1:1.5
1:1.75
1:2
1:2.5
1:3
1:4
1:5
1:6
1:8
1:10

Equivalent
Rate of Grade
66.67%
57.14%
50.00%
40.00%
33.33%
25.00%
20.00%
16.67%
12.50%
10.00%

Equivalent
Vertical Angle
33 41'24"
29 44'42"
26 33'54"
21 48'05"
18 26'06"
14 02'10"
11 18'36"
9 27'44"
7 07'30"
5 42'38"

Subgrade
Slope
.020 / 1
.025 / 1
.030 / 1
.035 / 1
.040 / 1
.050 / 1

Equivalent
Rate of Grade
2.00%
2.50%
3.00%
3.50%
4.00%
5.00%

Equivalent
Vertical Angle
1 08'45"
1 25'56"
1 43'06"
2 00'16"
2 17'26"
2 51'45"

13

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Areas of Plane Figures

Nomenclature
A = Area
h = Height
R = Radius
P = Perimeter
__________________________________________
____

Triangle

bh
2
P = a + b+ c
A=

__________________________________________
____

Circle

A = R 2
P = 2 R
__________________________________________
____

Ellipse

A = ab
14

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__________________________________________
____

15

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Areas of Plane Figures

Segment

A = R 2

R2 Sin

2
360 0

__________________________________________
____

Sector

3600

P = 2R +
( 2R )
360 0
A = R 2

__________________________________________
____

Fillet

A = RT
R 2
3600
When: = 90 0 , A = 0.2146R 2
__________________________________________
____

16

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Areas of Plane Figures

Parallelogram

A = bh
A = ah'
P = 2( a + b)
__________________________________________
____

Trapezoid

A=

( a + b) h
2

__________________________________________
____

Polygon

Divide into triangles

A = Sum of all triangles
__________________________________________
____

17

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Areas of Plane Figures

Annulus
(Circular Ring)

A=

2
D d2
4

__________________________________________
____

Irregular Figure

a+ j

A = L
+ b + c + d + e + f + g + h + i
2

__________________________________________
____

18

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Surfaces\Volumes of Solids
Nomenclature
S Lateral surface area
V Volume
A Area of section perpendicular to sides
B Area of base
P Perimeter of base
PA Perimeter of section perpendicular to its
sides
R Radius of sphere or circle
L Slant height or lateral length
H Perpendicular Height
C Circumference of circle or sphere
__________________________________________
____

Parallelepiped

S = PH
S = PAL
V = BH = AL
__________________________________________
____

Pyramid or Cone
Right or Regular

S=

1
PL
2

V=

1
BH
3

__________________________________________
____

19

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Surfaces\Volumes of Solids
Pyramid or Cone, Right or
Oblique, Regular or Irregular

V=

1
BH
3

__________________________________________
____

Prism: Right or Oblique,

Regular or Irregular

S = PH = PA L

V = BH = AL

__________________________________________
____

Cylinder: Right or Oblique,

Circular or Elliptic

S = PH = PA L

V = BH = AL

__________________________________________
____

20

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Surfaces\Volumes of Solids
Frustum of any Prism or Cylinder

V=

V = BH

1
A ( L2 + L1 )
2

__________________________________________
____

Frustum of Pyramid or Cone

Right and Regular, Parallel Ends

S=

1
L( P + p )
2

V=

p = perimeter of top

1
H B + b + Bb
3

b = area of top

__________________________________________
____

Frustum of any Pyramid or Cone,

with Parallel Ends

V=

1
H B + b + Bb
3

b = area of top
__________________________________________
____

21

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Surfaces\Volumes of Solids
Sphere

V=

S = 4R 2

4
R 3
3

__________________________________________
____

Spherical Sector

S=

1
R( 4H + C)
2

V=

2
R 2H
3

__________________________________________
____

Spherical Segment

S = 2 RH =

1
4H 2 + C 2
4

1
H 2 ( 3R H )
3
____________________________________
__
V=

22

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Surfaces\Volumes of Solids
Spherical Zone

S = 2 RH
1
V=
H 3C12 + 3C 2 + 4H 2
24

__________________________________________
____

Circular Ring

S = 4 2Rr

V = 2 2Rr2

__________________________________________
____

Prismoidal Formula

V=

H
( B + b + 4M)
6

M = Area of section parallel to bases,

Midway between them
b = area of top
__________________________________________
____

23

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Signs of Trigonometric
Functions for All
Quadrants

Note:
When using a calculator to compute
trigonometric
functions
from
North
Azimuths, the correct sign will be displayed

24

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Trigonometric Functions

y
P (X,Y)
(hypotenuse)

y (opposite )

x (adjacent)

Sin =

y
opposite
=
r hypotenuse

cos =

x
adjacent
=
r hypotenuse

Sine
Cosine

tan =

y opposite
=
x adjacent

cot =

x adjacent
=
y opposite

Tangent
Cotangent
sec =

r hypotenuse
=
x
adjacent

csc =

r hypotenuse
=
y
opposite

Secant
Cosecant
sin =

Reciprocal
Relations

1
csc

tan =

cos =

1
cot

1
sec

X = r cos

Rectangular

y = r sin
r=

(x

+ y2

= arctan

Polar

y
x

25

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Right Triangles
B

A+B+C= 180 0
K=Area
Pythagorean
a2 + b 2 = c 2
Theorem
A and B are complementary angles
sin A = cos B tan A = cot B sec A = csc B
cos A = sin B
cot A = tan B
csc A = sec B

Given

To
Find

a, c

A, B,
b, K

a, b

A, B,
c, K

A, a

B, b,
c, K

A, b

B, a,
c, K

A, c

B, a,
b, K

Equation
sinA =
b=

a
c

c2 a 2

tanA =

a
b

c = a 2 + b2

B = 90 0 A
a
c=
sin A
B = 90 0 A
b
c=
cos A
B = 90 0 A

b = c cos A

cos B =

a
c

a 2
c a2
2
b
tanB =
a
ab
K=
2
b = a cot A
a 2 cot A
k=
2
a = b tan A
b 2 tan A
K=
2
a = c sin A
c 2 sin 2 A
K=
4
K=

26

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Oblique Triangles
B
a

C
A

Law of Sines
Law of Cosines

a
b
c
=
=
sin A sin B sin C
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 2bc cos A
b 2 = a 2 + c 2 2ac cos B
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 2ab cos C

Sum of Angles

K = Area
Given

A + B + C = 180 0
a + b+ c
s=
2

To
Find

Equation
A

sin

a, b, c

cos

(s b)(s c)

=
A
2

bc
=

s(s a )
bc

( s b)(s c)
tan =
2
s(s a )
A

27

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Oblique Triangles
Given

To
Find

Equation
sin

a, b, c

cos

(s a )(s c)

ac

B
2

s(s b)
ac

(s a )(s c)
tan =
2
s(s b)
B

sin

a, b, c

cos

(s a)(s b)

ab

C
2

s (s c )
ab

(s a)(s b)
tan =
2
s(s c)
C

a, b, c

a, A, B

b, c

a, A, B

a, b, A

a, b, A

K=

a sin B
a sin( A + B)
c=
sin A
sin A
ab sin C a 2 sin B sin C
K=
=
2
2 sin A
b sin A
sin B =
a
a sin C b sin C
c=
=
sin A
sin B

b=

c=

a, b, A

a, b, C

a, b, C

(a

+ b 2 2 ab cos C

ab sin C
2
a sin C
tan A =
b a cos C
a sin( A + B)
c=
sin A
K=

c=

a, b, C

s(s a)(s b)(s c )

(a

+ b2 2ab cos C

K=

ab sin C
2

28

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Conversion Factors
Class

multiply:

by:

to get:

Length

in

0.0833

ft

in

0.028

yd

ft

12

in

ft

0.33

yd

ft

0.06

rods

yd

36

in

yd

ft

yd

0.18

rods

rods

198

in

rods

16.5

ft

rods

5.5

yd

mi

5280

ft

mi

1760

yd

mi

320

rods

0.007

ft

144

in

0.11

yd

1296

in

ft

0.03

rods

272.25

ft

30.25

yd

acres

43560

ft

acres

4840

yd

acres

160

rods

Area

in
ft
ft

2
2
2

yd

yd

yd

rods
rods

2
2

2
2
2

2
2

2
2

2
2
2

29

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Conversion Factors
Class
Volume

multiply:

by:

to get:

1728

in

0.04

yd

7.48

gallons

27

ft

yd

202

gallons

quarts

pints

quarts

0.25

gallons

gallons

pints

gallons

quarts

gallons

0.13

ft

ounces

0.06

pounds

pounds

16

ounces

tons

2000

pounds

2205

pounds

miles/hr

88

ft/min

miles/hr

1.47

ft/sec

ft
ft
ft

3
3
3
3

yd

Force

3
3

(short)
tons
(metric)
Velocity

30

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Metric Conversion Factors

Class

multiply:

by:

to get:

Length

in

25.40

mm

in

2.540

cm

in

0.0254

ft

0.3048

yd

0.9144

mi

1.6093

km

0.0929

0.8361

2.590

km

16.387

cm

0.0283

yd

0.7646

gal

3.785

gal

0.0038

fl oz

29.574

mL

acre ft

1233.48

oz

28.35

Area

ft

2
2

yd
mi
Volume

in
ft

3
3

Mass

2
2
2

3
3

lb

0.4536

kg

kip
(1000 lb)

0.4536

metric ton
(1000 kg)

short ton
2000 lb

907.2

kg

short ton

0.9072

metric ton

31

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Land Surveying
Conversion Factors
Class

multiply:

by:

to get:

Area

acre

4046.8726

acre

0.40469

ha
2

10000 m
Length

ft

12/39.37*

* Exact, by definition of the U.S. Survey foot

__________________________________________
____

Steel Tape
Temperature Corrections
C = 1166
. 10 6 ( TC 20) L m
or

C = 6.45 10 6 ( TF 68)L f
Where:
C =
TC =
LM =
TF =
Lf =

Correction
Temperature in degrees Celsius
Length in meters
Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
Length in feet

__________________________________________
____

Temperature Conversion
Fahrenheit to Celsius
Celsius to Fahrenheit

5
( F 32)
9
9
C + 32
5

__________________________________________
____

32

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Less Common
Conversion Factors
Class

multiply:

Density

by:

to get:

16.0185

kg/m

lb/yd

0.5933

kg/m

psi

6894.8

Pa

6.8948

MPa

47.88

Pa

ft/s

0.3048

m/s

mph

0.4470

m/s

mph

1.6093

km/h

lb/ft

3
3

Pressure

ksi
lb/ft
Velocity

3
3

Water Constants
Freezing point of water = 0 C (32 F)
Boiling point of water under pressure of one
atmosphere = 100 C (212 F)
The mass of one cu. meter of water is 1000 kg
The mass of one liter of water is 1 kg (2.20
lbs)
1 cu. ft. of water @60 F = 62.37 lbs (28.29 kg)
1 gal of water @60 F = 8.3377 lbs (3.78 kg)
__________________________________________
____

Cement Constants
1 sack of cement (appx.) = 1 ft3 = 0.028 m 3
1 sack of cement = 94 lbs. = 42.64 kg
1 gallon water = 8.3453 lbs. @39.2 F
1 gallon water = 3.7854 kg @4 C
__________________________________________
____

33

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Multiplication Factor Table

Multiple
9

1 000 000 000 = 10

1 000 000 = 10

1 000 = 10

100 = 10

10 = 10

-1

0.1 = 10

-2

0.01 = 10

-3

0.001 = 10

-6

0.000 001 = 10

-9

0.000 000 001 = 10

* Avoid when possible

Prefix

Symbol

giga

mega

kilo

*hecto

*deka

da

*deci

*centi

milli

micro

nano

__________________________________________
____

Recommended
Pronunciations
Prefix
giga
mega
kilo
hecto
deka
centi
milli
micro
nano

Pronunciation
jiga (i as in jig, a as in a-bout
as in mega-phone
kill oh
heck toe
deck a (a as in a-bout
as in centi-pede
as in mili-tary
as in micro-phone
nan oh

34

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Reinforcing Steel
Bar
Size

Nominal
Diameter

Nominal
Area

Unit Weight

#3

9.5mm

71mm2

0.560kg\m

[0.375 in]

[0.110 in2]

[0.376 lb\ft]

12.7mm

127mm2

0.994kg\m

[0.500 in]

[0.197 in2]

[0.668 lb\ft]

#4
#5
#6
#7
#8
#9
#10
#11
#14
#18

15.9mm

199mm2

1.552kg\m

[0.625 in]

[0.309 in2]

[1.043 lb\ft]

19.1mm

287mm2

2.235kg\m

[0.750 in]

[0.445 in2]

[1.502 lb\ft]

22.2mm

387mm

3.045kg\m

[0.875 in]

[0.600 in2]

[2.044 lb\ft]

25.4mm

507mm

3.973kg\m

[1.000 in]

[0.786 in2]

[2.670 lb\ft]

28.7mm

647mm

[1.128 in]

[1.003 in2]

32.3mm

819mm2

[1.270 in]

[1.270 in2]

35.8mm

1007mm2

[1.410 in]

[1.561 in2]

43.0mm

1452mm2

[1.693 in]

[2.251 in2]

57.3mm

2579mm2

[2.257 in]

[3.998 in2]

5.060kg\m
[3.400 lb\ft]
6.404kg\m
[4.303 lb\ft]
7.907kg\m
[5.313 lb\ft]
11.384kg\m
[7.650 lb\ft]
20.239kg\m
[13.600 lb\ft]

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Notes

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