LE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Reflexes: Sensory nuerons: trasmit info from sensors that detect

external stimuli/internal conditionsInfor sent to CNS where interneurons
analyze/interpret sensory inputMotor output leaves CNS via motor
nuerons which communicate w/ effector cells

Le Neuron Structure

Neurons organelles located in cell body. Dendrites are highly branched extensions that
receive signals from other neurons. The axon is a loner extension that transmits signals to
other cells (other neurons or effector cells). The conical region of axon where it joins cell
body is axon hillock, region where signals that travel down axon are generated. Many
axons are enclosed in myelin sheath layer. Near the end, the axon divides into several
branches, each ending in a synaptic terminal. The site of communication between a
synaptic terminal and another cell is a synapse. Info can be passed by neurotransmitters.
Gilia are supporting cells that are essential for sturctural integrity of nervous system: 1)Astrocytes: structural
support for neurons/regulate extracellular concentrations of ions/neurotransmitters, can facilitate info transfer at
synapse between neighboring neurons (cellular mechanism: learning/memory). Astrocytes next to active neurons also
cause nearby blood vessels to dilate, increasing blood flow and enabling neurons to obtain O 2 and glucose more
quickly. During development, astrocytes induce formation of tight junctions between cells that line capillaries in
brain/spinal cord resulting in the blood-brain barrier-which restricts passage of certain stuff into CNS 2)Radial Glia:
(embryo) form tracks along which newly formed neurons migrate from neural tubegiving rise to CNS, can act as stem
cell. So can astrocytes. 3)Oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann cells (PNS): glia that form the myelin sheaths
around axons. Neurons become myelinated when Schwann cells or oligodendrocytes wrap around axons in my layers
of membrane-mostly lipid so it is poor conductor of electrical currents & provides for electrical insulation of axon. Gaps
between adjacent Schwann cells are nodes of Ranvier.

Le Resting Potential/Gated Ion Channels

Resting potential-membrane potential of neuron not
transmitting a signal, depends on ionic gradients across
membrane. Concentrations of Na+ and Cl- are higher in
extracellular fluid than cytosol. The reverse is true for K+.
Neurons have gated ion channels which open/close in
response to 1)stretch-gated ion channels: found in cells
that sense stretch when membrane is mechanically
deformed 2)ligand-gated channel: found at synapses and
open/clsoe when chemical like a neurotransmitter binds to
channel 3)voltage-gated ion channels-found in axons and
open/close when membrane potential changes.

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Dem Action Potentials

If cell has gated ion channels, its membrane potential may change in response to stimuli. Stimuli can trigger a
hyperpolarization, an increase in magnitude of membrane potential (inside of membrane becomes more negative, may
be caused by opening of gated K+ channels). Other stimuli trigger depolarization, reduction in magnitude of
membrance potential (may be due to opening of gated Na+ channels)
Depolarizations are graded only up to a certain membrane voltage, called a threshold. The action potential [all or
none] is strong enough to produce a depolarization that reaches the threshold. Voltage-gated Na+ and voltage-gated
K+ channels produce action potential. Na+ channel opens first. Na+ channel has an activation gate/inactivation gate
whereas K+ has one activation gate. 1)Resting State: Activation gates of Na+ and K+ channels are closed.
2)Depolarization: Stimulus opens activation gates on some Na+ channels. Na+ influx thru channels depolarizes
membrane; if depolarization reaches threshold, it triggers an action potential. 3)Rising Phase of Action Potential:
Depolarization opens more Na+ channels, while K+ channels remain closed. Na+ influx makes inside of membrane
positive w/ respect to outside. 4)Falling Phase of Action Potential: The Inactivation gates close, blocking Na+
influx. K+ channels open permitting K+ efflux, making inside of cell negative. 5)Undershoot: Both Na+ gates close,
K+ channels are still open, but eventually closeresting state.
The refractory period sets a limit on the max frequency at which action potentials can be generated.
The action potential functions as a long-distance signal by not diminishing from the cell body to the synaptic terminals;
it does so by regenerating itself along axon. 1)Action potential is generated as Na+ flows inward across membrane at
one location. 2)Depolarization of action potential spreads to neighboring region of membrane, re-initiating action
potential there. To the left of this region, the membrane is repolarizing a K+ flows outward.
3)Depolarization/repolarization repeats in next region so action potential is propagated along axon.
The larger the axons diameter, the faster the conduction. Myelin increases the conduction speed of action potentials
by insulating the axon membrane. Insulation causes the depolarizing current to spread further along interior of axon,
bringing distant regions of membrane to threshold sooner. Action potentials are not generated in regions between the
nodes of Ranvier-Saltatory conduction.

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Dem Neurons Communicate at Dem
Synapses
Many synapses are chemical synapses which involve
release of chemical neurotransmitter by presynaptic
neuron. Presynaptic neuron synthesizes the
neurotransmitter and packages it in synaptic vesicles
(stored in synaptic terminals which interact with
postsynaptic neuron).
1)When action potential depolarizes plasma membrane
of synaptic terminal, it 2)opens voltage-gated Ca2+
channels in membrane. 3)Elevated Ca concentration in
terminal causes synaptic vessicles to fuse w/
presynaptic membrane. 4)Vesicles release
neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft.
5)Neurotransmitter binds to receptor portion of ligandion channels in postsynaptic membrane, opening them
and allowing ions to diffuse across-direct synaptic
transmission and result is a postsynaptic potential.
6)Synpatic transmission ends when neurotransmitter diffuses out of synaptic cleft, taken by another cell, or degraded
by enzyme.
Indirect Synpatic Transmission (slower but longer onset):1)Neurotransmitter binds to receptor not part of an ion
channel, activating a signal transduction pathway involving a 2 nd messenger in postsynaptic cell.

Dem Neurotransmitters

Le Specialized Nervous System

Vertebrate CNS: narrow central canal of spinal cord and four ventricles of the brainfilled w/ cerebrospinal fluid,
which circulates slowly thru central canal/ventricles and drains into veins, assisting in supply of nutrients/hormones to

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diff parts of brain and in removal of wastes. In mammals, the fluid cushions the brain & spinal cord. In cross sections of
the brain and spinal cord, there is the white matter (myelin sheaths give axons whitish appearance) and the gray
mattermainly dendrites, unmyelinated axons, & neuron cell bodies.
PNS: transmits info to and from CNS, regulates movement/internal environ. Vertebrate PNS consists of light-right pairs
of cranial and spinal nerves and associated ganglia.
o
o

Somatic Nervous System: carries signals to and from skeletal muscles (response to external stimuli
and is voluntary)
Autonomic Nervous System: regulates internal environ by controlling smooth and cardiac muscles
and organs of digestive, cardiovascular, excretory, and endocrine systems

Sympathetic: fight or flight response

Parasympathetic: promote calming and a return to self-maintenance functions

Enteric: consists of network of neurons in digestive tract, pancreas, and gallbladder that
control organs secretions as well as activity in smooth muscles

Le Brain Stuf
Forebraintelencephalon [cerebrum(cerebral hemispheres: cerebral cortex, white matter, basal nuclei)]and
diencephalon [Diencephalon(thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus)]
Midbrainmesencephalon [Midbrain(part of brainstem)]
Hindbrainmetencephalon [pons(part of brainstem), cerebellum)] and myelencephalon [medualla oblongata (part of
brainstem)]

Brainstem
Medulla Oblongata, Pons, Midbrain-homeostasis, coordination of movement, conduction of info to higher brain centers
Medulla Oblongata: (automatic,homeostatic) breathing, heart and blood vessel activity, swallowing, vomiting,
digestion
Pons: regulates breathing centers in medulla
Information transmission is one of the most important functions of medulla dn pons since all axons carrying sensory
info to and motor instructions from higher brain regions pass thru brainstem. The midbrain contains centers for receipt
and integration of several types of sensory info. It also sends coded sensory info along neurons to specific regions of
forebrain.
The reticular formation(RAS) is a network of neurons present in the core of the brainstem. Part of the RAS regulates
sleep and arousal. RAS acts as a sensory filter, selecting which info reaches cerebral cortex; the more info that reaches
cerebral cortex, the more alert/aware a person is. The pons and medulla contain centers that cause sleep when
stimulated, and the midbrain has a center that causes arousal.

Cerebellum
Develops from part of metencephalon, important for coordination and error checking during motor, perceptual, and
cognitive functions (learning, decision making, consciousness), recieves sensory info about position of joints and
length of muscles and auditory/visual systems. Cerebellum also integrates sensory/motor info to coordinate movement
and balance.

Diencephalon
Epithalamus: pineal gland and choroid plexus cluster of capillaries that produce cerebrospinal fluid
Thalamus: main input/output center for motor info leaving cerebrum. Incoming info from senses is sorted in thalamus
and sent to proper cerebral centers for processing, also receives imput that regulate emotion/arousal.
Hypothalamus: regulates hunger, thirst, sexual/mating behaviors, fight-flight responses, pleasure

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Biological clocks-maintain circadian rhythms, regulate physiological phenomena, including hormone release, hunger,
heightened sensitivity to external stimuli. In mammals, biological clock is the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Bio clocks
require external cues to remain synchronized w/ environmental cycles.

Cerebrum
Develops from telencephalon, divided into right and left cerebral hemispheres and each hemisphere consists of basal
nuclei located deep within white matter-basal nuclei are important centers for planning and learning movement
sequences. In humans, cerebral cortex is the most complex part of brain; sensory info is analyzed, motor commands
are issues, and language is generated in there. Neocortext forms the outermost part of mammalian cerebrum,
consisting of 6 parallel layers of neurons arranged tangential to brain surface. The left side of cortext recieves info
from, and controls movement of. The corpus callosum enables communication between right/left cerebral cortices.