THE IDEAL DIODE

It is a two-terminal device
having the circuit symbol and i-v
characteristic shown in the
following figures (a) & (b).
Forward bias:
vD=0diode behaves like a
short ckt.

Under
the
reverse-biased
situation,
vD<0 iD=0 and the diode
behaves as an open circuit.
Under
the
forward-biased
condition, a positive current is
applied to the ideal diode, vD=0V
appears across it. The ideal diode
behaves as a short circuit in the
forward direction and an open
circuit in the reverse direction.

Fig. The ideal diode (a) diode circuit

symbol; (b) i-v characteristic.

Forward-bias vs Reverse-bias of
an ideal diode

10 0
1k
I D = 10mA
VD = 0
ID =

Forward-bias : VD=0V & ID=

Forward-bias:
VD=0V & ID=VDD/RD
ID = 0
& VD = 10V
Fig. The two modes of operation of ideal diodes
and the use of an external circuit to limit the
forward current and the reverse voltage.

Reverse-bias : ID=0, VD=-VDD

Reverse-bias: ID=0 & VD=-VDD

3

Ex Assuming the diodes to be

ideal, find the value of I and V
in the circuits of the figures
below:

Solution:(A) Refer to the circuit

of Figure(a) and assume both
diodes are conducting. Then,
VD1=VD2=0 ; VB=0, V=0

Using KCL at node B,

I+ID2=(0-(-10))/9.9
I = 0.01 mA
(B) Refer to the circuit in
Figure(b) and assume that both
ideal diodes are conducting.
Then,
VB=0,V=0
Also
ID2=(10-0)/9.9 = 1.01 mA
Applying KCL at node B,
I+ID2=(0-(-10))/10 = 1.0
=>> I=-0.01 mA
This is impossible! Our original
assumption is not correct.

ID2=(10-0)/10k = 1.0 mA
5

Now, assuming D1 is off and

D2 is on, then
ID2=[10-(-10)]/19.9=1.005mA
VB=1.005x10-10
=0.005V
The diode D1 is reverse biased
as assumed and
I=0
V=+0.005 V

Real DIODES
*What is a pn junction diode ?
A pn junction diode is a twoterminal semiconductor device
having circuit symbol of Fig.1.
* The pn junction is produced
by placing a layer of p-type
semiconductor next to a layer of
n-type semiconductor.

The formation of a pn junction is

shown in Fig. 2.
*Barrier
Potentials
junctions :
0.2~0.30 V
0.6~0.70 V

of

pn

( Germanium )
( Silicon )
Free electrons

10

FORWARD BIAS OF A PN
JUNCTION.
*This is one of the two possible
ways to apply an external
voltage source to a pn junction.
The detail is shown in Fig. 3.
*A pn
junction is forward
biased by an external voltage
source which makes its p-type
end more positive than its
ntype end.
A forward-biased junction will
allow current flow through it.

11

12

REVERSE BIAS OF A PN
JUNCTION
* Under this condition, the
external voltage source is
applied to the pn junction as
shown in Figure 4.
*A pn junction is
reverse
biased by an
external voltage
source which makes its p-type
end more negative than its
ntype end.
A reverse-biased pn junction
will have a current of approximately zero through it.
13

14

TERMINAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF
JUNCTION DIODES

The i-v characteristic of a silicon junction diode

iD = I S

vD
nVT
(e

ISe

1)

vD
nVT

Figure 5 shows the i-v characteristic of a silicon junction diode.

It has three distinct regions :
Forward-bias region,
vD > 0

Fig.5 The diode i-v relationship with some

scales expanded and others compressed in
order to reveal details.

* Forward region : vD>0

Reverse-bias region,
-VZK < vD < 0
Breakdown region,
vD < -VZK < 0

15

* Reverse-bias region -VZK<vD<0

* Breakdown region:
vD<-VZK reverse breakdown voltage
iD0

For 0<vD<0.5V
For normal applications
- VZK<vD<0.70V
16

The Forward-Bias Region

n=1 (emission coefficient)

This region of operation is

entered when terminal voltage
vD>0 and the i-v relationship is
described by the Shockley
diode equation

VT=thermal voltage (see Eq(2))

i D = I S (e
ISe

vD
nVT

vD
nVT

1)
... (1)

where
iD=diode current (A)
IS=saturation current (A),
o
doubles in value for every 10 C
rise in temperature, is of the order
of 10-17A for small-signal diodes
17

VT= kT/q

............(2)

where
k = Boltzmann's constant,
1.38x10-23 J/K
T = absolute temperature(kelvin)
q = charge on one electron,
-19
1.602x10 C
o

At room temperature(27 C).

o
VT 26mV at 27 C.
18

For iD >> IS, Eq (1) becomes

iD I S e

vD
nV T

......(3)

or
vD=nVTln(iD/IS)

.....(4)

However, for SIMPLE model

of diode, if assumes vD=0.70V,
irrespective of the current,
1 mA diode: ID=1.0mA, vD=0.70V
1 A diode : ID=1.0A, vD=0.70V

Figure 5 reveals :

iD is negligibly small for

vD<0.5V,the cut-in voltage.

vD varies within 0.6 to 0.8V

for a conducting diode.
Using eqn (4),

1-mA diode: ID=1.0mA, vD=0.65V

1-A diode : ID=1.0A, vD=0.83V

(Check if you can compute this!)

19

The forward iD-vD characteristic

varies with temperature as
shown in Figure 6.
At a given constant iD, vD
decreases
by
approximately
o
2mV for every 1 C increase in
temperature.
vD
2mV/o C
T
20

ID =

Fig. 6 Illustrating the temperature

dependence of the diode forward
characteristics. At a constant current, the
voltage drop decreases by approximately
o
2mV for every 1 C increase in
temperature.

This property can be used to

build a thermometer

21

V DD V D
R

ID ISe

VD
nV T

Fig.8 Graphical analysis of the circuit

in Fig. 7

22

The Reverse-Bias Region

In this region vD is negative
but vD >-VZK. If
|vD|>>VT then Eq(1) becomes:
i D = I S (e

vD
nVT

1)

ANALYSIS OF DIODE
CIRCUITS.
Consider the diode circuit shown
in Figure 7.
The values for ID & VD can be
found by solving Eqs (6) & (7).

For v D << 0
vD
nVT

<< 1
e
iD I S

... (5)

The Breakdown Region

This diode operation is
achieved when the reverse bias
voltage exceeds a threshold
value
(breakdown
voltage)
specific to the particular diode.
This is shown in Figure 5 and
is denoted VZK.
23

For VDD >> 0.5V ,

ID = ISe

VD
nVT

... (6)

By KVL :
V VD
I D = DD
R
Eqs (6) & (7) give :
I D , VD
24

... (7)

Iterative Solution
Solving diode circuit by iteration
method

Fig. 8 Graphical analysis of the circuit in

Fig. 7.

Graphical Analysis
This is done by plotting
Eqs(6) & (7) on the i-v plane as
depicted in Figure 8.
The straight line represents
Eq(7) and is known as load line.
The intersection point of load
line and diode characteristic is
the operating point Q of the
circuit.
25

For D ,
I S = 10 nA
n=2
iD = I S e

vD
2 VT

V D = 2VT ln

26

ID
IS

Solution:
1: Thevenin equivalent circuit
seen by VD

2 : Try VD = 0.70V
then I D

VTH 0.70V
1.06mA
RTH

3 : VD 2 x0.026ln(

1.06mA
) = 0.602V
10nA

6 0.602
= 1.08mA
5
1.08mA
5 : VD 2 x0.026ln(
) = 0.603V
10nA
6 0.603
= 1.079mA
6 : ID
5
1.079mA
7 : VD 0.026 ln(
) = 0.603V
10nA
4 : ID

R TH = R 1 // R 2
= 5.0k
R2
VS
VTH =
R1 + R 2
10
=
X12V
20
= 6.0V

ID =

VTH VD
5.0

VD = 2VT ln(

ID
)
IS

1.06(2) 1.08(4) 1.079(6) 1.079(8) mA

0.70 (1) 0.602(3) 0.603(5) 0.603(7) V

initial guess value for VD

Q-point is: ID = 1.709mA; VD=0.603V

27

28

Analysis of small-signal diode

circuits
Consider the circuit shown in Fig
10(a).

If

vd
<< 1 then
nVT
i D (t ) I D (1 +
i D (t ) I D +

iD(t)

vd (t )
)
nVT

ID
vd (t )
nVT

= I D + g d vd (t )
= I D + id (t )

v D (t ) = V

iD (t ) I S e

+ v D (t )
vD
nV T
V

= ISe
= ISe
= IDe
29

+ vd (t)
nV T

vD
nV T

vd (t )
nV T

vd (t )
nV T

where g d =

ID
nVT

gd is the small-signal conductance

for the diode and
id (t)=gd vd (t)
id(t) is the small-signal diode
current due to the small-signal
voltage, vd (t), across the diode.

30

The magnitude of vd(t) << nVT.

*VDID
iD(t)

VD

vd (t) id (t)

Application of Linear
Superposition in Diode Circuit
Analysis

vd (t) =id (t)rd

id (t) =

or

= gdvd (t)
iD(t)= ID +id (t)
vD(t)=VD +vd (t)

31

vd (t)
rd

32

or
vD=VD+vD
=VD+vd

... (2)

The slope of straight line A-B at

Q-point is
gd =

di D
dv D

ID
nV T

nV T
1
and rd =
=
gd
ID

iD=ID+iD
=ID+id

... (1)

id=gdvd
vd=rdid
rd=1/gd
33

Refer to Fig 10 (pg. 33). If

Superposition
vd(t)<<VT,
Principle can be used to find the
total diode current, iD(t), and total
diode voltage vD(t).
34

(i) The dc values for VD & ID can

be found from the diode's forward
iD-vD curve described by the
equation
iD I S e

vD
nVT

(ii) The ac values for id(t) & vd(t)

can be determined as follows:
If id(t) varies slightly around
the Q-point (see Fig 10-b), i.e.
within the portion AB of diode's
iD-vD curve. This portion of iD-vD
curve approximates a straight
line. Thus, id(t) vd(t), are
linearly related.
The proportional constant is the slope
or the small-signal conductance of the
iD-vD curve at Q-point. From

iD I S e

iD
or vD nVT ln( )
IS
The DC values, I D & VD , is the Q point
35

vD
nV T

I
iD
= S e
v D nV T

vD
nV T

36

 gd

iD
vD

v D =VD

1
gd =
ISe
nVT

VD
nVT

ID
gd =
nVT

e.g. For n=1, VT=0.026V or

26mV & ID=1mA
1 x 10 3
gd =
1 x0.026
= 0 . 0385 A

= 38 . 5 mS

id (t ) = g d vd (t )
small-signal conductance of the diode at
the Q-point

gd=slope of the iD-vD curve at

the Q-point
gd is proportional to the dc
current flowing through the diode

37

The small-signal resistance or

incremental resistance, of a diode
at Q-point is the reciprocal of the
small-signal conductance
rd

1
nV
= T
gd
ID

In terms of rd ,
vd (t ) = id (t ) rd

38

EX:
2 AC Analysis
10k

1. DC Analysis

ID =

(10 VD )
10

VD = 0.026 ln(

The small-signal resistance for

the diode at the Q point
determined in (1) is

0.930 ( 2 ) 0.934 ( 4 ) 0.934 ( 6 ) mA

ID
) 0.70(1)
IS

rd =

VT
26 mV
=
= 27 .84
I D 0.934 mA

0.657( 3) 0.657( 5 ) V

The Q-point for the diode circuit

is ID=0.934mA , VD=0.657V.
39

40

 vd = (

rd
27.84
)v S = (
)(200mV )
10,000 + 27.84
rd + RD
= 0.555mVP

id =

vd
= 0.020mAp
rd

Diode Rectifiers
A rectifier is a device that
permits current to flow through it
in one direction only.
The half-wave rectifier circuit
using a diode is shown in Fig.11.

vd = 657 + 0.555 sin t mV

id = 0.934 + 0.020 sin t mA

Fig 11. The diode used as a rectifier.

Current flows only during the positive
half-cycle of the point.

41

42

Elementary DC Power Supplies

Most practical electronic circuits
require a dc voltage source that
produces and maintains a constant
voltage. Thus, the pulsating halfsine waves must be converted to a
steady dc level. This is done by
filtering the waveforms. The
purpose in filtering the waveforms
for a dc power supply is to reject all
the ac components.
This can be done by connecting a
capacitor directly across the output
of a half-wave rectifier, the ac
components will "see" a lowimpedance path to ground and will
not therefore appear in the output.

43

Von

V
VP - Von

Fig. 12 Filter capacitor C effectively removes the ac

components from the half-wave-rectified waveform.

Fig. 13. When load resistance RL is connected across the

filter capacitor, the capacitor charges and discharges,
creating a load voltage that has a ripple votlage
superimposed on a dc level.

44

A full-wave bridge rectifier is shown in Fig.14.

Fig.15 demonstrates the current flow in

the full-wave bridge rectifier.

45

Fig. 15. Current flow in the full-wave

bridge rectifier.
46

The peak rectified voltage across

RL is
VPR=EP-1.4V
The full-wave rectified waveform
can be filtered by connecting a
capacitor in parallel with load RL.
This is shown in Fig. 16.

47

48