SCIENCE FORM 4

CHAPTER 5: ENERGY AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

5.1 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

Many things undergo changes in our lives.

There of two types of changes:

(i) Physical change

- Affects the physical properties of a substance, such as its size, shape and
state.
- Usually reversible.
- No new substance is formed.
-

Examples involving physical changes:

(a) Melting of ice

(b) Evaporation of water

(c) Dissolving sugar in water

(d) Crystallisation of sodium chloride from its saturated solution

(e) Heating of iodine crystals

(f) Heating of wax

(ii) Chemical change

- Produces new substances that have properties different from those of the
original substance.
- Usually irreversible.
- Examples involving chemical changes:
(a) Burning of a paper
(b) Color of a peeled apple changes when it is exposed to air

(c) Frying an egg

(d) Combustion of fuel
(e) When iron filings are heated with sulphur powder, the mixture glows brightly.
A black solid,
iron sulphide is formed.
Iron + Sulphur

Iron sulphide

(f) When magnesium ribbon is heated, it burns with a bright flame. A white solid,
magnesium oxide is formed.
Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium
oxide

(g) Zinc reacts with blue copper sulphate solution to form a colorless zinc sulphate
solution and brown copper.
Zinc + Copper sulphate

Zinc sulphate
+ Copper

(h) Iron nail rust when water and oxygen are present. Rust is brown.
Iron + Oxygen + Water

Rust

(i) Heating green copper carbonate produces black copper oxide and releases
carbon dioxide.
Copper carbonate

Copper oxide +
Carbon dioxide

(j) Mixing potassium iodide and lead nitrate solution forms lead iodide, a yellow
precipitate.
Potassium + Lead
iodide

nitrate

Potassium + Lead
nitrate

iodide

Heating a mixture of iron filings and sulphur powder

Reaction of zinc with copper sulphate solution

Aspect

Physical changes

Formation of new
substance

No

Reversibility

Reversible

Energy needed

Less energy needed

5.2 HEAT CHANGE IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

There are two types of chemical reactions:

(i) Exothermic reactions

- Reactions which release heat to the
surroundings are called exothermic
reactions.
- Temperature of the surroundings

Chemical changes

More energy needed

increases.

(ii) Endothermic reactions

- Reactions which absorb heat from
the surroundings.
- Temperature of the surroundings
decreases.

During chemical reactions, old bonds in the reactants are broken and
new bonds in the products are formed.

The breaking down of old bonds absorbs heat energy whereas the
formation of new bonds releases heat energy.

Breaking an old bond absorbs heat

energy

Forming a new bond releases heat

energy

In exothermic reactions, the heat energy absorbed to break the old

bonds in the reactants is less than the heat energy released when new
bonds are formed in the products. There is a net of heat energy loss.

The temperature of the surroundings increases due to the heat energy

that is released.

In endothermic reactions, the heat energy absorbed to break the old

bonds in the reactants is greater than the heat energy released when
the new bonds are formed in the products. There is a net of heat energy
gain.

The temperature of the surroundings decreases due to heat energy is

absorbed from the surroundings.

In exothermic reactions, the heat energy absorbed to break the old bonds in
the reactants is less than the heat energy released when the new bonds are
formed in the products

In endothermic reactions, the heat energy absorbed to break the old bonds
in the reactants is greater than the heat energy released when the new bonds
are formed in the products

Haber process is used to manufacture ammonia in the industry. Ammonia

is an important material for making nitrogenous fertilisers.

In the Haber process, nitrogen and hydrogen gases are mixed together.
The mixture is passed over an iron catalyst.

Iron catalyst

Nitrogen + Hydrogen

Ammonia
450 C
200 atm

Haber process

Contact process is used to manufacture sulphuric acid in the industry.

Step 1: Sulphur is burnt in air to produce

sulphur dioxide.
Sulphur + Oxygen

Sulphur
dioxide

Step 2: A mixture of sulphur dioxide and air are passed over

vanadium(V) oxide catalyst at 450 C to produce sulphur trioxide.

Vanadium(V)
oxide catalyst
Sulphur dioxide + Oxygen

Sulphur trioxide
450 C

Step 3: Sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to

produce oleum.

Sulphur + Concentrated
trioxide

Oleum

sulphuric acid

Step 4: The oleum is diluted with water to produce concentrated

sulphuric acid.

Oleum + Water

Concentrated
sulphuric acid

Contact process

5.3 THE REACTIVITY SERIES OF METALS

Why do gold, silver and platinum exist as elements in the Earths crust
and whereas metals such as sodium and potassium do not exist as
elements in the Earths crust?

Some metals are more reactive than others. Different metals show
different reactivity with water, acids and oxygen.

The reactions involving metals:

(i) Reaction of reactive metal with water to produce alkali and hydrogen.
Metal + Water

Alkali + Hydrogen

(ii) Reaction of reactive metal with dilute acid to produce a salt and
hydrogen.
Metal + Dilute acid

Salt + Hydrogen

(iii) Reaction of metal with oxygen to form metal oxide

Metal + Oxygen

Metal oxide

Based on their reactivity with oxygen, metals and carbon (non-metal) can
be arranged in a reactivity series as follows:

Potassium

Sodium

Calcium

Magnesium

Aluminium

Carbon

Zinc

Iron

Tin

Lead

Copper

Silver

Gold

The position of carbon in the reactivity series is determined by

comparing its attraction for oxygen with other metals.

When carbon is heated with a metal oxide, carbon can remove oxygen
from the metal oxide if carbon is more reactive than the metal.

When zinc oxide and iron oxide are heated with carbon, the oxygen in the
metal oxides are removed by carbon. Therefore, carbon is more
reactive than zinc and iron.

When carbon is heated with aluminium oxide, the carbon cannot remove
oxygen from aluminium oxide.

This means that carbon is more reactive than zinc and iron but less
reactive than aluminium. Therefore, carbon is positioned between
aluminium and zinc in the reactivity series.

5.4 APPLICATION OF REACTIVITY SERIES OF METALS

Most metals in the Earths crust are reactive. They react readily with other
elements to form compounds such as oxides, sulphides and carbonates.
These compounds are called ores.

Ore

Composition

Bauxite

Aluminium oxide

Cassiterite

Tin(IV) oxide

Haematite

Iron(III) oxide

Sphaletite

Zinc sulphide

Sedimentary rock

Calcium carbonate

The method of extracting a metal from its ore depends on its position in the
reactivity series.

Metals below carbon in the reactivity series can be extracted from their
oxides with using carbon because they are less reactive than carbon.

Carbon is used for extraction because it is cheap and readily available.

Metals above carbon in the reactivity series cannot be extracted using

carbon because they are more reactive than carbon. They are extracted
using electrolysis.

Tin ore or cassiterite is tin(IV) oxide. Tin is extracted by heating

cassiterite with carbon (coke) and limestone at high temperature in a
blast furnace.

Carbon removes the oxygen from tin(IV) oxide because it is more reactive
than tin.
Tin(IV) oxide + Carbon

Tin + Carbon
dioxide

Limestone is added to react with the impurities in the tin ore. Slag is
formed.

Two products are collected at the bottom of the blast furnace. Molten slag
floats on the molten tin. This allow the two products to flow separately.

Extraction of tin in a blast furnace

5.5 ELECTROLYSIS

Electrolysis is the decomposition of an electrolyte by electricity.

An electrolyte is a liquid or solution which contains free-moving ions that

can conduct electricity.

The electrodes are conductors which carry electricity into or out of an

electrolyte.

The electrode joined to the positive terminal of the dry cell is called the
anode whereas the electrode joined to the negative terminal is called
the cathode.

During electrolysis, the positively-charged ions (cations) are attracted

to the cathode and receive electrons. The negatively-charged ions
(anions) are attracted to the anode and release electrons.

Electrolysis

Refer to the diagram above:

In the complete circuit, the bulb lights up. This is because molten lead
bromide conducts electricity.

At the anode, the bromide ions release electrons to become bromine

atoms. The bromine atoms combine together to form bromine gas (brown
colour).

At the cathode, lead ions receive electrons to become lead atoms. Lead
metal is formed (grey solid).

Uses of electrolysis in industry:

(i) Electroplating
- To prevent iron objects from corrosion, they are electroplated with a thin layer
of unreactive metals such as copper, silver and chromium.
- Electroplating make these objects resistant to corrosion and more
attractive.
- At the anode, the copper dissolves to form positively-charged copper ions.
- At the cathode, the copper ions receive electrons to form a coat of copper on
the iron spoon.

A rheostat is used to control the current flow in the circuit so that a small current
is used and the object to be electroplated must be cleaned with a sandpaper
before electrolysis. These steps are to obtain good results.

Iron spoon electroplated with

copper
(ii) Extraction of reactive metals
- Metals which are more reactive than carbon are extracted from their ores by
electrolysis.
- For example, aluminium can be extracted from its ore, bauxite (aluminium
oxide).
- Bauxite is first purified and then dissolved in cryolite. This is to lower the
melting point of aluminium oxide.

- When aluminium oxide melts, aluminium ions and oxide ions are free to move.
- When electricity is passed through the electrolyte, the positively-charged
aluminium ions are attracted to the cathode. They receive electrons and become
aluminium atoms.
- The molten aluminium formed is channelled into moulds.
- At the anode, the oxide ions lose electrons to become oxygen atoms. The
oxygen atoms combine together to form oxygen gas.

Aluminium is extracted from bauxite by electrolysis

(iii) Purification of metals

- When electricity is passed through the electrolyte, the copper anode
dissolves to form copper ions. At the same, the impurities settle to the
bottom.
- These positively-charged ions are attracted to the cathode. They receive
electrons and form copper atoms and causes copper to be deposited on the pure
copper.

Purifying copper by
electrolysis
5.6 THE PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY FROM CHEMICAL REACTIONS

A simple cell consists of two electrodes and an electrolyte.

The more reactive metal is the negative terminal which releases

electrons whereas the less reactive metal acts as a positive terminal
which receives electrons.

A simple cell
Refer to the diagram above:

Magnesium and copper strips are used as electrodes with copper sulphate
solution as the electrolyte.

Magnesium (negative terminal) is more reactive than copper (positive

terminal).

Therefore, magnesium atoms release electrons to form magnesium ions

which move into the electrolyte. As a result, the magnesium strip becomes thinner.

The electrons flow to the copper strip through the wire and this produces
electricity.

Positively-charged copper ions from the electrolyte receive the electrons

and form copper atoms. This causes copper to be deposited on the
copper strip. Therefore, the copper strip becomes thicker. At the same
time, the blue colour of the copper sulphate solution fades.

Type of cell
Dry cells

Lead-acid
accumulators

Uses

Advantages

Used in portable
devices such as
radios, cassette
players, cameras
and toys

Used in vehicles

Light
Small
Portable
Cheap

Disadvantages

High voltage
Rechargeable
Long-lasting
if well taken
care of

Nonrechargeable
Not longlasting
Leakage may
happen when
the zinc case
becomes
thinner
Heavy
Expensive
Acid might
spill
Distilled
water needs
to be added

Alkaline batteries

Used in radios, torch

lights and toys
which need large
electric current for
long-lasting periods

Long-lasting
Large current
Constant
voltage

Nonrechargeable

Mercury cell

Used in watches,
calculators, hearing
aides and
measuring
instruments

Expensive
Nonrechargeable

Small
Portable
Steady
voltage
Constant
current
Long-lasting

Rechargeable
Long-lasting

Expensive

Nickel-cadmium
batteries

Used in electronic
devices such as

digital cameras

5.7 CHEMICAL REACTIONS THAT OCCUR IN THE PRESENCE OF LIGHT

During photosynthesis, chlorophyll absorbs light energy to split water

molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.

The oxygen is released into the atmosphere whereas the hydrogen

atoms react with carbon dioxide to form glucose.

light
Carbon + Water
dioxide

Glucose + Oxygen
chlorophyll

Photosynthesis requires light

5.8 INNOVATIVE EFFORTS IN THE DESIGN OF EQUIPMENT USING CHEMICAL

REACTIONS AS SOURCES OF ENERGY

We should use electric cells efficiently to prevent wastage. Turn off all
the electrical devices when they are not in use.

After using, we should dispose them wisely to reduce environmental

pollution.

Fuel cells are electric cells which does not run down or require recharging.

A hydrogen fuel cell uses hydrogen as fuel to react with oxygen to produce
energy.
The product is water which will not pollute the environment.