Writing tips
Sentence
Make your sentences simple and clear.
A sentence always encloses a subject, a verb and , optionally, a complement.
Examples:
she tells stories
She lies
A sentence may contain subordinate clauses (relative clauses, if clauses)
Paragraph
As to paragraphs, keep the following rules in mind:
Concentrate on one main point per paragraph. Summarize this point in the first
sentence ( topic sentence.)
All sentences that follow support the main point or limit its scope (supporting
sentences)
The last sentence is a summary of the main point of the paragraph and is used as a
transition to the next paragraph. (concluding sentence)
Text
The typical structure of a text is as follows:
(title)
introduction
main part
conclusion
Make your texts interesting. Vary the lengths of your sentences. Use a short sentence to put
emphasis on an important statements. Vary the lengths of your paragraphs and avoid onesentence paragraphs.
There are various possibilities on how to structure your texts, e.g.:
General to Specific:
general statement followed by details and examples
Specific to General:
details and examples followed by a generalization:
Known to Unknown:
provide new information based on what readers already know
Least Important to Most Important:
catch and keep readers' attention
Chronology (ordering by time):
e.g. in biographies
Type of texts
Descriptive
Argumentative
Letters (personal and business letters)
Cause and effects
Topic Sentence
What is a topic sentence?
The topic sentence, also called a focus sentence, is the sentence which summarizes the
principal idea of the paragraph. Although topic sentences may appear anywhere in a
paragraph, it is usually the first sentence in that paragraph.
The topic sentence summarizes the main idea of the paragraph and adds cohesion to a paper
and helps organize ideas both within the paragraph and the whole body of work at large.
All the other sentences in a paragraph have to support the topic sentence by offering more
information or details about the topic. These sentences are called supporting sentences.
Example of a topic sentence
Louisiana hosts one of the most well known celebrations - Mardi Gras. Mardi Gras is French
for "Fat Tuesday". This holiday is sometimes called "Shrove Tuesday". People wear masks and
costumes, overturn social conventions, dance, organize competitions and parades. Related
popular practices were associated with celebrations before the fasting and religious
obligations associated with the penitential season of Lent.
The sentence "Louisiana hosts one of the most well known celebrations - Mardi Gras" is the
topic sentence of the paragraph. The other sentences give more information to support the
topic sentence.
Linking words
Like other languages, English has a lot of cohesive or transitional devices and linking
words that can be used to express and join ideas.
1. Expressing addition
To add information, you can use these expressions:
Examples:
in addition, - as well as - moreover - what is more - not only...but also... - furthermore besides - also - too - and...
If the project fails this will have terrible consequences not only on our
department, but also on the whole organization
John's grades are terrible because he has been so lazy these days. In addition
to this, his relationship to his parents got worse.
The report is badly written. Moreover, it's inaccurate.
2. Expressing contrast
To express contrast, you can use these expressions:
Examples:
although - even though - in spite of / despite - however - yet - nevertheless - nonetheless on the contrary - whereas - on the one hand ...but on the other hand... - conversely - but...
Brain drain has terrible consequences on the developing
countries. Nevertheless, nothing has been done to solve the problem or at
least reduce its negative effects.
In spite of / despite Fred's old age, he goes jogging every morning.
Although she's very nice, her classmates hate her.
They have got two children, a boy and girl. The boy looks after his
father whereas the girl looks after the mother.
3. Expressing cause and effect
To express cause and effect, you can use these expressions:
Examples:
consequently - as a consequence - as a result - therefore - because of this - for this reason because - since - as - for - due to - owing to
She remained silent, for she was so depressed to talk.
We can't go to Sue's party because we'll be busy working on our project.
The plane was delayed because of the foggy weather.
He had spent most of his time hanging around instead of revising his
lessons. Consequently, he had a lot of trouble answering the exam questions.
4. Expressing purpose
To express purpose use the following words:
Examples:
in order to - in order not to - sa as to - so as not to - to - not to
She wakes up early in order to be on time to work.
They visited him so as to offer their condolences for the death of his wife
He helped the new policewoman so as not to fail in her first mission.
5. Summarizing
To summarize, you can use the following expressions:
Examples:
in conclusion - to conclude - to sum up - in a nutshell - in brief - in short - all in all everything considered...
Useful Academic Expressions
These are some useful expressions used in academic writing:
1. Stating your own position on a Subject or Topic
This paper aims at...
This paper will be concerned with...
The aim of this paper is to
The point of this article is to
It shall be argued in this paper/essay/review that
The view presented in this paper/essay/review is that..
2. Presenting your own point of view
I strongly believe that...
To my mind...
As I see it....
It seems to me evident/obvious that...
I feel that...
I think/contend that...
There are many reasons why
It is important/necessary to point out that
The first thing to be considered is
It is a fact that
3. Supporting your view and adding more information:
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The first/second reason whyis
Firstly/Secondly...
not only ...but also...
The most important
In addition,
Furthermore,
What is more,
Another reason is
A further point is
4. Stating the view of Another Person on a Subject or Topic
Harris's approch (1970, p. 1) can be described as follows...
Chomsky (1965, p. 133) maintains/argues/asserts/claims/points out that...
Th authors views ca be stated as follows...
The opinion of Chomsky (1965, p. 133) is that
Chomsky (1965, p. 133)) has suggested that .
According to Smith (1992, p. 123),
It is thought by some theorists, for example, Chomsky (1965, p. 133) and
Harris (1970, p. 1) that
5. Agreeing with the Views of Others
I don't agree with the authors ideas/thoughts...because...
I don't think the author's views are accurate...because...
Chomsky (1965, p. 133) is certainly/may be correct/accurate in saying that
because
As Chomsky (1965, p. 133) says/states
Like Chomsky (1965, p. 133), it can be agreed that . because
6. Disagreeing with the Views of Others
Chomsky (1965, p. 133) fails to address the issue when he says "" because
When Chomsky (1965, p. 133) argues that . his reasoning is questionable
because.
One of the main arguments against Chomsky (1965, p. 133) and Harris (1970,
p. 1) is that
Harris (1970) approach/position/methods is/are somewhat
inadequate/inaccurate/insufficient because
There is some doubt that
7. Indicating a Lack of Knowledge in a Particular Topic or Subject
Despite the book's attempts to... it lacks a accuracy...
What I find lacking in the research is...
Although the research has tended to focus on..rather less attention has
been paid to
Most studies, such as Harris (1970, p. 1) and Chomsky (1965, p. 133) have
emphasized/concentrated on/focused on inadequate /insufficient.
8. Drawing a Conclusion Using the Work of Others
To sum up, ...
In a nutshell, ...
As a conclusion, ...
As a summary, ...
All in all, ...
To conclude, ...
Based on these authors, a connection can be made between
It can be concluded from what Jones (2004, p. 2) and Smith (2002, p. 1) have
stated that... is
When Smiths (2001, p.52) work/paper is looked at closely, it is seen that
One outcome of Smiths (2001, p.52) work/paper/research is
Writing a book/film review
Follow these steps to write a book or film review.
Pre writing
Remember and take notes of the plot of the story. What impression did it produce on you?
Writing
Introduction: give the title and author of the book. If you're reviewing a film mention
the director or actors.
Body:
1. Summarize the plot in a few sentences.
2. Mention the setting: the place and time of the plot.
3. Say something about the main characters.
4. Say something about the content.
Conclusion:
1. Comment on the book or film.
2. Let others know whether or not you liked the book/film.
3. Why do you like it? Why don't you like it?
4. Is the author's style good or bad, is the book / film interesting or boring etc.
5. Do you want to recommend the book/film?
Post writing
Edit your writing.
Useful Expressions:
Title, Author / Director, Actors
The film is directed by
The film is produced by..
It is starred by...
The book is written by ...
Setting
The action takes place in ... (setting)
The action of the film is set in ...
The story takes place in...
Characters and Plot
The main characters are ...
The story is about ....
The novel tells the story of ...
In the course of the novel the action develops dramatically.
The novel / film begins with...
The novel has an unexpected ending.
The end of ... is ...
Reaction
I am impressed by
I think ....
The book is terribly / beautifully written
The film is terrible / exciting.
What surprised me is ...
What I liked is...
What I didn't like is...
I liked/didn't like the film / novel because ...
Writing a Personal Experience Essay
Pre-writing
Choose one experience from your life that is interesting enough to be told.
Introduction
Think of an introduction that will make the reader eager to know more about the
experience.
Body
Use simple past or past continuous tense. If something happened previous to the personal
experience, use past perfect.
Write down some quick notes about the experience.
Don't worry about grammar. Take five minutes at the end to proofread your essay.
Remember every detail and try to visualize it.
Your feelings
Your thoughts
Objects around you (their shape, color, size, ...)
The smell
The taste
Actions
Include the setting: place, time. (Give specific details about the place and the time.)
Tell the events:
in chronological order
or using a flash back technique (depicting / recalling a set of events
that occurred before the scenes immediately proceeding)
Conclusion
Conclude by telling what you learned from the experience.
Post writing
Edit your essay.
Writing a descriptive essay
Learn to write a descriptive essay.
Pre-writing
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Write down notes
Try to be specific
Remember things we describe are what we
feel: happy, angry, cold, hot ...
see: big, large, small, tiny ...
touch: coarse, hard, soft, smooth ...
taste: sweet, sore, bitter,
hear: loud, quiet, silent ...
smell: bad, moldy, unpleasant, pleasant ...
Describe your feelings, your thoughts, your actions, ...
Writing:
You can organize your description:
from general to specific or vice versa
from the outside to the inside or vice versa
from the least important to the most important or vice versa
from the start (e.g. of a journey) till the end ...
Post writing
Edit your essay
Narrative Essay
Narration
In a narrative, essay we basically tell a story that is related to your own life. It can be a
narration of a personal experience or the events that happened to someone you know. The
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narrative essay should have a purpose. It must make a point and the reader must learn a
lesson or gain insight.
Tips to write a narrative essay
Tell a story based on one of your own experiences.
Use concrete details so that your readers can visualize what is happening. Give as
many sensory details and vivid descriptions to involve the reader.
You may use dialogue.
Make sure that your narrative essay communicates a main idea or a lesson.
Spend some time drafting what you can remember about the experience.
Create an outline of the basic parts of your narrative.
Write your first draft and don't pay attention to mistakes at this stage.
When writing a narrative essay you may use the tools of descriptive writing.
Edit the essay:
1. Does the writing effectively recreates the experience for your readers?
2. Are there any more details and descriptions are needed?
3. Are there any information that has to be removed?
4. Is your narration effectively written to help your readers visualize events?
5. Is there any logical or chronological order in your narration?
6. Are there any grammatical or spelling mistakes?
7. Have you used appropriate cohesive devices?
Write your final draft.
Writing - An email to a hotel manager to make a
reservation
Hotels
When traveling, we almost always stay at hotels. That's why it is advisable to pay attention
to the following:
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Book a room in advance.
On arrival, confirm your reservation. Check in at the reception.
At large hotels you may ask for services by phone. For example, you may call
for room service when you want a drink or a meal.
Let the hotel manager know well in advance when you will leave.
Booking a room
To book a room you need to do one of the following:
to make a phone call,
to write a letter,
or to write an email.
Writing an email to make a reservation
1. Include all relevant information in your email:
your complete contact information,
date and time of arrival and departure,
number of days of your stay,
type of room and any special needs or requests such as a smoking or
nonsmoking room.
2. Be to the point. don't include any unnecessary details.
3. Be polite and start your email by "Dear sir or Madam"
4. Example:
Dear Sir or Madam,
Would you mind reserving a nonsmoking room for me and my wife for this date (...) We
will be spending three nights. We will arrive on August 4th at 5 o'clock in the morning.
Please charge my credit card for the initial deposit required. Include any discounts that my
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early registration permits.
Credit card number:
Name:
Expiration date:
I look forward to receiving a letter confirming my reservation.
Thank you.
Name
5. Don't forget your name, address, email, phone, fax or any contact details.
Business Letter
How to write a business letter
What kind of letter is it?
A business letter is a letter written in formal language. There are many reasons to write a
business letter. It could be:
to request direct information or action from another party,
to order supplies from a supplier,
to identify a mistake that was committed,
to reply directly to a request,
to apologize for a wrong
or simply to convey goodwill.
Elements of a business letter
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The parts of a business letter are as follows:
Sender's address
Date
Inside address
Attention line
Salutation
Body of the letter
Complimentary close
Signature
Enclosure
Positions of the elements
Styles of business letters are of two main types:
1. Full block style:
In this type you align all elements on the left margin.
2. Modified block:
In this style, some elements are on the left page margin.
The following is an example of the modified block style.
Example
[SENDER'S NAME]
[SENDER'S ADDRESS]
(optional[SENDER'S PHONE]
(optional[SENDER'S E-MAIL]
[DATE]
[RECIPIENT W/O PREFIX]
[RECIPIENT'S COMPANY]
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[RECIPIENT'S ADDRESS]
(Optional) Attention [DEPARTMENT/PERSON],
Dear [RECIPIENT],
[CONTENT.]
[VALEDICTION (Sincerely, Respectfully, Regards, etc.)],
[SENDER]
[SENDER'S TITLE]
Enclosures ([NUMBER OF ENCLOSURES])
Punctuation
Generally speaking, a comma follows the salutation/greeting, but in the United States a
colon is often preferred. The valediction/closing is followed by a comma.
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