Introduction
1. Some physical systems are represented by these simple systems.
For example, the tank-level system consists of two fundamental system in series:
H (s )
R1
s + 1
Qin (s )
q t =
Qs =
Qin
+
_
1
R1
Q (s )
h t
R
q in t qt =
Hs
R
Qin s Qs = AsHs
1
As
1
R
A ddth
It has a build-in feedback
Structure.
2. Many complex chemical processes dynamic behaviors can usually be approximated by
certain combinations of fundamental systems.
3. The objective of process control---the desirable time response of a closed-loop system
can only understood in terms of these simple systems.
These fundamental elementary systems are:
Step
impulse
frequency
yes
yes
yes
Zeroth-order System (proportional element)
G( s) = k
First-order system (lag)
G( s) =
1
s + 1
yes
yes
yes
Second-order System (lag)
G( s) =
1
s + 2s + 1
yes
yes
yes
Dead time element (Transportation lag)
G ( s ) = e d s
1
G( s) =
s
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
Capacitance element
2 2
In addition, there are other elementary systems which cannot exist by themselves and usually
appear in a combination with some of the systems mentioned above.
Some of these systems have names such as:
First-order lead
s + 1
no
no
yes
Second-order lead
2 s 2 + 2s + 1
no
no
yes
no
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Others do not have commonly-accepted given names.
Negative lead
Negative lag
s + 1
1
s + 1
Zeroth-Order Systems G (s ) = k
X (s )
Thermocouple:
~
~
E (mv.) = kTm ( o C , or o F )
Tm (o C )
Step Response
The output voltage will be
Converted to temperature with the
Conversion (another zero-order system):
Y (s )
1~
~
Tm (o C , or o F ) = E (mv.)
k
E ( mv)
xt = Aut
yt = Akut
y (t )
x (t )
kA
t=0
t=0
Impulse Response
xt = t
yt = kt
kA
y (t )
x (t )
t=0
Frequency Response is the sinusoidal response over
all frequency range characterized by the following
properties:
Sinusoidal response
xt = Asint
yt = kAsint
x, y
x(t)
y(t)
2/
3/
t=0
AR =
Amplitude of the output sinusoid
Amplitude of the input sinusoid
Lead or lag time
or =
Lead or lag time
time of a period
time of a period
360 in degree
2 in radian
Bode Diagrams
db
40
20
0
20
40
log(AR )
AR
2
1
0
100
10
1
0 .1
0.01
1
2
0.01
0 .1
10
100
180
90
0
90
180
0.01
0 .1
10
100
Decibel is defined as the common logarithm of the amplitude ratio multiplied by 20.
AR db = 20 logAR
For example, AR= -20 db means AR=0.1.
decibel
Abbreviated dB. One-tenth of a bel (named after Alexander Graham Bell), a
unit used in electronics and other fields to measure the strength of a sound or
signal. Decibel measurements fall on a logarithmic scale and compare the
measured quantity against a known reference. The following formula gives
the number of decibels between two values:
dB = n log (x/r)
where x is the measured quantity, r is the reference quantity, and n is 10 for
voltage and current measurements and 20 for power measurements.
First-order system
T ms =
T t = Aut
A
s (s + 1)
1
s + 1
A
s
Step response
A
ss+1
= A
1
s
1
s+1/
T mt = A1 e t/ ut
1.00
The response reaches 63.2% of the
final value at one time constant. The
response reaches 86.5%,95%, 98% and
99% of the final values at the elapsed
the time of 2,3,4 and 5,
respectively.
The slope of the response curve (the
response velocity) is at the maximum
value of A/ at t=0 (Applying the initial
ms to obtain this
value theory to T
result).
The tangent of the response curve at
t=0 intercepts the final steady state
value at t=.
0.80
T /A
m
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
t/
8.00
10.00
Step response
Ramp response
A
s (s + 1)
1
s + 1
A
s
T m s |ramp = T m s |step /s
T m t
t
= T m t
ramp
A
s (s + 1)
1
s + 1
A
s2
dt = A
step
= A t + e t /
t
0
mt
As t , T
10.00
t
0
1 e t / dt
= A t + e t /
ramp
= At
8.00
6.00
T, Tm
Dynamic lag is
4.00
2.00
0.00
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
t/
8.00
10.00
Step response
A
s
1
s + 1
Impulse Response
A
s (s + 1)
T ms |impulse = sTs|step
Step response is
T mt = A1 e t/ ut
1
s + 1
T m t
impulse
dT t
dt
A
s + 1
step
Impulse response is
T mt =
ut
e
The response reaches the maximum value
of A/ at t=0
The response drop exponentially with
time. It drops to 36.8%, 13.5%, 5%, 2%
and 1% of the maximum value at the
elapsed the time of ,2,3,4 and 5,
respectively.
A
s2 + 2
T ms =
2
s + 1 s + 2
s + 1
C1
s +1/
T mt = 2
C2
s +j
2 2
2 +1
C3
s j
C2
s +j
A
2 2 +1
C3
s j
as
cost + sint =
= sin1
Define = tan1
1
T mt =
T t = Asint
Input is a sinusoid
Sinusoidal Response
2 2 +1
t
A
2 +1
= sin 1
sin cost + sint cos =
C2 =
A j
2 2 2 +1
cost + sint
2 2 +1
A
2 2+1
sint +
1 + 2 2
General Frequency Response and Bode Diagram
Short-cut method: Let s = j in the system transfer function, Gs
The complex function Gj is expressed in polar form,
Gj = |Gj|e j
The magnitude of the complex number is the amplitude ratio
AR = |Gj | =
real part of Gj 2 + imaginary part of Gj
and the argument is the phase angle:
= tan1
Frequency response of a first-order system Gs =
Gj =
rearranging
Gj =
1
1+ 2 2
Amplitude ratio:
Phase angle
e j
1
1+j
1j
1+ 2 2
1
1+ 2 2
= tan1/1
Real part of Gj
Y
X
1
s +1
into polar form
= tan1/1
where
AR =
Imaginary part of Gj
Bode Diagram representation is made up of two plots
High frequency asymptote slope=-1,or -20 db/decade, or -6 db/octave
0
1.000
-15
-30
AR
0.100
-45
-60
0.010
-75
-90
0.001
0.1
0.10
1.00
10.00
High and low frequency asymptotes
intercept each other at corner
frequency c = 1/
logAR = log1 + 2 2 1/2
As 0
As
1.0
10.0
100.00
= tan1/1
As 0
= 0
As
= 90
At corner frequency c = 1/
logAR = log1 = 0
logAR = log 2 2 1/2 = log log
= 45
100.0
Example, if the input is 10sin5t and the time constant of the thermocouple is 2sec, What is the
output?
AR =
1
1+ 2 2
1
1+52 2
= tan1/1 = tan 1
25
Output= A AR sint + =
= 1. 47
1
10
1+522
sin5t 1. 47
The output is behind input by 1.47 / 2 , or 0.234, of a period,
or, (1.47 / 2 )(2 / 5) = 1.47 / 5 = 0.294 sec .
In general, the lag or lead time is
=
2