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Model Solutions to Examination

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SI

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8 Pages

Date:
Subject:

Reservoir Engineering
INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES
No. Mk.

1. Complete the sections above but do not seal until the examination is finished.
2. Insert in box on right the numbers of the questions attempted.
3. Start each question on a new page.
4. Rough working should be confined to left hand pages.
5. This book must be handed in entire with the top corner sealed.
6. Additional books must bear the name of the candidate, be sealed and be affixed to
the first book by means of a tag provided

PLEASE READ EXAMINATION REGULATIONS ON BACK COVER

Model Solutions to Examination

SECTION A
1. Compositional Model

Based on the fluid description in terms of the paraffin series up to an

upper C value eg C6. Then defining the rest as a C+ component, eg C7+.
The properties of the C+ component are unique and therefore need to
be measured for apparent molecular weight and specific gravity.
Can also include non paraffin components in some cases PNA analysis

Black-oil model
Based on the concept of a two component system of solution gas and
stock tank oil.
Results in black oil parameters of Bo and Rs.
Values of these change as a result of changes in operating conditions
of separators.

2. The variations in permeability can give rise to preferential

flooding of the higher permeability layers and result in poor flooding
characteristics, and reduced recovery, even when the mobility ratio
for water displacing oil may be very favourable.

3. Instantaneous GOR = Producing gas/producing oil = Qg/Qo

Qg & Qo surface production rates of gas and oil.

qg and qo down hole rates for gas & oil

qg =

k rg Adp
g dx - Darcys law

qo =

k ro Adp
o dx

Surface flow of gas Qs

Q g = Q o R s + q g Bg

Surface flow of oil Qo

Q o = q o Bo

Qg
k Adp
= R s + rg
Qo
g dxBg

k ro Adp
o dxBo

Instantaneous GOR = R s +
4.

krg oB o
kro gB g

At dew point gas composition the same as system composition

ie zj = yj
Equilibrium ratio kj = yj/xj
Therefore zj = kj x xj
Composition of liquid xj = zj/kj
Since xj = 1.0
Then xj = zj / kj = 1.0

eqn 1

At bubble point liquid composition the same as system composition

ie zj = xj
Equilibrium ratio kj = yj/xj
Therefore zj = yj/kj
Composition of gas yj = zj kj

Model Solutions to Examination

Since yj = 1.0
Then yj = zj * kj = 1.0

eqn 2

At dew point use equation 1.

Estimate Pd to determine k values from whatever source.
Check if eqn. 1 adds up to 1.
If not select new values of Pd until convergence is reached.

At bubble point use equation 2.

Estimate Pb to determine k values from whatever source.
Check if eqn. 2 adds up to 1.
If not select new values of Pb until convergence is reached.

5.

(i) a) Normal pressured reservoir

Normal pressured reservoir is where the pressure versus depth

gradient for water zone intersects at zero depth with a
pressure of zero ie 1 atmosphere absolute.

b) Overpressure reservoirs

Overpressured reservoir is where the pressure vs depth gradient for

water zone intersects at a positive pressure at zero depth.

Pressure
Normal Pressured

Depth

Gas Gradient

Oil Gradient

GAS

OIL

Water Gradient

WATER
Over Pressured

6.

The steady state solution (essentially darcys Law) requires stable

pressures at the outer boundary and the wellbore. In petroleum
engineering, the requirement for steady state conditions may take a
long time to develop, or may never develop (i.e. the flow may never
change from transient conditions during the fields economic life).
Therefore to determine sensible values for permeability, short term
tests were required and these required transient solutions which could
be related to real measurements in the field taken over economically
viable times, i.e. 1 day, 2 days etc.

7.

The radial diffusivity equation has a specific solution assuming that

the wellbore is a line source (or sink). The calculation of the pressure
within the reservoir based on the well flow and drawdown can then be
made as long as the fluid is in transient flow. The effect of skin around
the well is to reduce the permeability such that for a given drawdown,

Model Solutions to Examination

the flow rate reduces. To maintain the original flow rate in the
equivalent undamaged well, an additional pressure drop must be
imposed around the wellbore. It is assumed that since the effect of
skin will manifest itself after the pressure perturbation has moved off
into the reservoir, the flow across the skin zone can be assumed to be
in steady state, and a steady state inflow equation can be applied to
the small region at most a few feet in extent in which the skin effect
is produced. This can be used to calculate a pressure drop, and by
comparison with the pressure drop required for the equivalent
undamaged region, a skin factor can be defined. Thus the skin factor is
a normalised pressure drop for a given flow rate.

Section B
Question 1
Critical Point

(i)
Cricondenbar

Region of Retrograde Condensation

Dew Point Line

Bubble Point Line
Lines of Constant L/V

Cricondentherm

Gas Cycling: Gas cycling is the reinjection of separated gas back into
the reservoir - in some cases with gases from other near reservoirs.

It is used to keep the reservoir above the dew point line - preventing
condensation in the reservoir.
(ii)
Comp

MW
lb/lb ml

Gas

C1

16.04

0.89

C3

44.09

0.07

0.21

C5

72.15
114.2

0.04
-

0.61
0.18

C8

GOR ratio

Liquid
lb/cu ft

Density

Weight
lb/lb ml

Volume
cu ft

31.66

9.2589

0.29

39.36
44.09

44.0115
20.5560
73.826

1.12
0.47
1.88

= 1 x 106 80 STB

= 12500 SCF/STB

= 12500

SCF
1 STB
lb mole gas
73.83 lb
1 cu ft

STB 5.615 cu ft 379.4 SCF lb mole oil 39.34 lb oil

GOR

= 11.0127

Comp

C1
C3
C5
C8

MW

16.04
44.09
72.15
114.2

lb mole gas
lb mole oil

Gas

Liquid

0.89
0.07
0.04
-

0.21
0.61
0.18

lbMole
zj
Res. Fluid Mole Frac

Pc

9.8013
0.9809
1.0505
0.1800
12.0127

673
618
485
370

0.8159
0.0817
0.0874
0.0150
1.00

at 240F and 8500 psia

240 = 700R

Tr = 700/424.48 = 1.6491

Tc

z j Pc

344 549.11
666
50.46
847
42.41
1025
5.54
647.53
Ppc

zjTc

280.67
54.38
74.07
15.36
424.48
Tpc

Model Solutions to Examination

Pr=8500/647.53 = 13.1268

z = 1.3500

from Z vs. Tpr & Ppr charts

at 6750 psi

Pr = 6750/647 = 10.4243

z = 1.15

Vm = ZRT/P cu ft/lb mole

at 8500 psi Vm = 1.1918 cu ft/lb mole

6750 psi Vm = 1.2785 cu ft/lb mole

Volume of reservoir = 5 x 1011 cu ft

Water Saturation = 0.17

Gas Volume = 4.15 x 1011 cu ft

Reservoir moles @ 8500 psia = 3.48 x 1011 moles

Reservoir moles @ 6750 psia = 3.25 x 1011 moles

Moles of reservoir fluid produced = 2.36 x 1010 moles

Mole split = 11.0127 moles gas:1 mole liquid

Moles condensate produced

= 2.36

1010 1 moles liq

12.0127 total moles

= 2.36

cu ft
lbb
1010 1 moles liq 73.83lb

12.0127 wt
lb mole 39.34lb 5.615 wt

= 6.57 x 108 STB condensate

Gas produced

= 2.36

11.0127
SCF
379.4
12.0127 total moles
lb ml

= 8.21 x 1012 SCF gas

(or 6.57 x 108 STB Condensate x GOR)

QUESTION B2

PART 1

a) Rel. Volume Test

carried out in a PVT all at reservoir temperature

no fluids removed from the cell
measurement made of volume of fluids as a function of pressure
(pressure determined by expanding the system)

graph made of P vs V and intersection of two slopes indicates

bubble point pressure

10

Model Solutions to Examination

used to determine Pb and Bo above bubble point and BT over total

pressure

P
Gas
P

Oil
Hg

Pb

Vb

b) Separator Test

oil from PVT cell at reservoir temperature and at bubble point

pressure released to surface conditions

gas collected from each stage collected and final volume of oil at
standard conditions measured

volume of oil removed from PVT cell at bubble point and

reservoir temperature measured

used to determine GOR and Bob as a function of separator

conditions

11

c) Differential Test

oil in cell at reservoir temperature

pressure dropped in stages to atmospheric pressure from Pb
gas produced at each pressure step removed, measured and
volume of oil remaining measured

used to determine Bo and Rs below bubble point pressure

PART 2

Constant Volume Depletion Test

gas in PVT cell at dew point

pressure reduced in stages
at each stage gas displaced to bring all back to original volume
and volume of condensate measured

relative liquid volume curve produced to determine extent of

retrograde condensation

Relative Volume
Vol
Condensate/Vol
of Fluid in Cell

Max. liqd. Dropout

12

Pd

Model Solutions to Examination

PART 3

Draw graph and determine intersection of oil and oil and gas slope
= occurs at p = 1595 psi and a volume of 168.08cc

(a)

Bubble point = 1595 psig

(b)

Bo at 3650 psi
Vol @ 3650 psi = 164.42 cc

Bob from separator test = 34/27.4

= 1.241 bbl/stb

Bo @ 3650 = Bob x rel. vol. @ 3650/vol @ Bp

= 1.02409 x 164.42/168.08

Bo @ 3650 = 1.2138 bbl/stb

(c)

GOR @ 3650 & 2700

GOR

= 4976 cc of gas per 27.4 cc

4976 cc or SCF
5.615 cu ft

27.4 cc or STO Cu. Ft.

bbl

GOR

= 1020 SCF/STB

13

Same value since both above Bp.

(d)

GOR @ 1200

Below Bp need differential result

Gas produced from Bp to 1200

= 4438 cc for 140 cc residual oil

R s

diff

= 177.99

4438 cc or SCF
5.615 cu ft

140 cc or Cu. Ft. residual oil

bbl

SCF
bbl residual oil

to convert to flash units

= 177.99

SCF
140 cc
residual oil
34 cc or bbl pt oil

bbl residual oil 184.80 cc or bbl Bpt oil 27.4 STO oil

= 167.33 SCF/STB

GOR @ 1200 = GOR @ Bpt 167.33

= 1019.72 167.33

14

Model Solutions to Examination

1800

1700

Pb = 1595 psi
1600

1500

1400
166

167

168

169

170

171

172

174

173

15

(e) BT @ 3650 = Bo @ 3650 = 1.2138

BT @ 1200

= Bob x rel. oil @ 1200

= 1.24 x rel. volume @ 1200

vol at 1234 psi = 186.95 cc

1113 psi = 197.28 cc
197.28 186.95 34
at 1200 = 186.95 +
1234 1113
= 186.95 + 2.9026

vol @ 1200 = 189.85 cc

BT @ 1200

= 1.24

vol @ Bpt 189.85

vol STO 168.08

= 1.3713

QUESTION 10

(i)

Free Water Level (FWL)

The free water level is the position of zero capillary pressure and lies
below the last 100% water saturation level, the oil-water contact
(OWC).

16

Model Solutions to Examination

Pc
h

OWC
FWL 0
0

100%
Water Saturation

(ii)

Based on Pore Doublet Model

Oil

Trapped Oil

Water

As water rises capillary forces move ahead of natural level, more in

narrow pores than in larger pores as above. The capillary forces then
isolate oil in larger pore as above which is then held by capillary forces
in the swept position of the reservoir.

(iii)

Recalibrate Pcvs. saturation curve air/Hg for oil/water

17

Pc = hpg

pc

lb f
lbm
= h(ft )p 3 g
2
1n
ft

lbf = lbm x g

= Pc

lb m g 144in 2
lb

= h ft (1.03 0.8) g 62.4 m3

2
2
in
ft
ft

h=

Pc 144
(1.03 0.8) 62.4

2.30
0.23

h = 10.03 Pc oil water

Pc oil water = Pc air/Hg 10

h ft = Pc air/Hg psi

Rescale capillary pressure to this:

18

Model Solutions to Examination

Air/Mercury Capillary Pressure Curves

h(ft)

k(md) 55

25

0.05

0.01

(%) 15

10

10

150

Capillary Pressure (psi)

100
100
95.5
3
82'=18
5

85.5

69.5

49.5

50

36.75
23'
17.5

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90 100

FWL

Pore Space Not Occupied by Mercury

19

h (ft) Scale 2cm = 10ft

Rock Type

Top of
Reservoir
103.2'

91
(90)

A
45

95.5'

90

(44)
85.5'

10

43

82'
(5)

E
69.5'

44

C
(35)
83

49.5'
A

(79)
36.75'

44

76

(22)

23' 23'
46

17.5'
A
(23)
100% Sw in Rock Type
A Found at This Level

6'
0

20

40
60
Oil Saturation

80

FWL
100

Water Saturation
100
20

80

60

40

20

Model Solutions to Examination

(a)

Free water level = Rock A = 6ft below OWC

(b)

Construction of water profile on the shell

(c)

Oil in place A x h x x SWAVG

Oil in Place: h x So x

Zone A1 = (17.5 6)ft x 0.23 x 0.15

0.39675

B1 = (36.75 23)ft x 0.22 x 0.10

0.3025

A2 = (49.54 36.75)ft x 0.79 x 0.15

1.5156

C1 = (69.5 49.5)ft x 0.35 x 0.10

0.7

E = (85.5 82)ft x 0.44 x 0.5

0.00875

D = (95.5 85.5)ft x 0.05 x 0.05

0.22

A3 = (103.25 95.5) x 0.9 x 0.05

0.34875

3.4924
Oil in place = 3.4924 cu ft oil/sq ft
Oil in place = 0.6220 res bbl/sq ft
Oil in place = 0.5098 stb/sq ft

21

QUESTION 11

(i)

Rate Sensitive Water Reservoirs

Three aquifer characteristics

(a) Artesian well type whose oil production is less than aquifer influx
then pressure at oil/water contact remains constant. If not get
solution gas drive combination.

(b)Sealed aquifer system whose oil production is less than aquifer

influx then pressure at oil/water contact will steadily decline. Again if
oil production greater than aquifer influx combination drive of water
drive and solution gas drive will result.

(c) Sealed system where oil production is greater then aquifer system
will result in combination drive.

Type a

P
Pressure at OWC

Type b
Type c

Time

(ii)

Hurst and Van Everdingen unsteady state solution is for a fixed

boundary pressure, i.e. We= BpQt, where P is constant and Qt is a
function of dimensionless time tD.

22

Model Solutions to Examination

A declining pressure can be simulated by superimposing fixed Ps to

cover the decline then the water flux is BPQt, where the effective
water influx for each P as a function of time is calculated and added
to the water influx for the other Ps.
P1=(Pi-P1)/2

Pi

P2=(Pi-P1)/2+(P1-P2)/2
=(Pi-P2)/2
P3=(P1-P2)/2+(P2-P3)/2
=(P1-P3)/2

(iii)

Need to calculate h

We = 1.119 cRo2hPQt

h is unknown but We is known

t D = 2.309

kt
w cR 2o

calculate Qt for tDs as a function of t

23

Time Yrs.
Pressure
P
tD
Qt (Chart)
We=BpQt

0
6700
0
0
-

0.5
6688
6
1.1574
1.88
80,000

1.0
6642
29
2.3148
2.74
495,016

1.5
6584
52
3.4722
3.65
1,672,657

B = 1.119 cRo2f where f = 140/360 = 139.52 x h

We = 80,000 = 139.52 x h x PQt

h = 50 ft.

h is now used in years = 1, 1.5 and 2

B = 139.52 x h = 6976
h = thickness = 50 ft

Water influx at

1 year = 495,016 bbl

1.5 years = 1.672 x 106 bbls
2 years = 3.54 x 106 bbls

24

2.0
6508
67
4.6296
4.33
6
3.54x10

Model Solutions to Examination

QUESTION 12

(i)

The well is in the centre of a radial reservoir and the full thickness is
perforated therefore there are no geometrical effects to influence
the flow. The well is assumed to have a constant flow rate from the
moment it is put on production therefore there is only 1 rate
dependent pressure perturbation. The flow regimes may be described
in terms of:

(a) an initial transient flow regime where the fluid acts as if it were
infinite in extent. The pressure changes within the reservoir
manifest themselves as a wave which moves from the wellbore
out into the reservoir. The transient nature of the flow regime
means that the pressure close to the wellbore falls at a greater
rate than the pressure farther into the formation. Initially, the
fluid at the outer boundary senses no pressure gradient and doesnt
expand (and flow).

(b) a flow regime that mimics steady state flow, termed semi-steady
state. In this flow regime, the fluid pressure gradient in the
reservoir from the wellbore to the outer boundary does not change
through time, i.e. the differences in pressure between points in the
reservoir remain the same (as in steady state flow) but the
absolute value of pressure declines through time. In this case, the
pressure wave has developed across the reservoir and it slowly sinks
through time as the fluid is produced.

25

(ii)

The line source solution is used to determine the pressures required

at the specified radius and at the specified time. Checks are made to
ensure that:

(i) there has been adequate time since the start of production to allow
the line source solution to be accurate
(ii) the reservoir is infinite acting.

Thereafter, the choice of Ei function or ln approximation to the Ei

function has to be made.

A Check Ei applicability

line source not accurate until

100crw2
t>
k
100x0.25x2.2x10 -3 x0.8x10 9 x0.152
t>
120x10 -15
t > 8.25s

time is 8 hours, therefore line source is applicable.

B Check reservoir is infinite acting

cre2
the reservoir is infinite acting if the time, t <
4k

26

Model Solutions to Examination

0.25x2.2x10 3 x0.8x10 9 x650 2

4x120x10 -15
t < 387292s

i.e. t <

t < 108 hours

therefore line source solution is applicable.

(i) check ln approximation to Ei function

the ln approximation is valid if the time, t >

25x0.25x2.2x10 3 x0.8x10 9 x0.152
t>
120x10 -15
t > 2.1s

25cr 2
k

therefore ln approximation is valid.

qBo crw2
ln
(taking account of the conversion from
(ii) Pwf = Pi +
4kh 4kt
stock tank to reservoir conditions via the formation volume factor for oil).

qBo
200x2.2x10 3 x1.30
=
= 87805
4kh 24x3600x4x120x10 15 x50
3
9
2
crw2 0.25x2.2x10 x0.8x10 0.15
=
= 716x10-9
4kt
4x120x10 -15 x8x3600

Pwf = 270x105 + 87805xln(1.781x 716x10-9)

= 270x105 - 1191726
= 25808274Pa
= 258.1bar

27

QUESTION 13
(i) Steady state flow regime:

Substitute the values into the steady state flow equation

P Pwf =

qBo re 1
ln
2kh rw 2

Pwf = P

qBo re 1
ln
2kh rw 2

Pwf = 270

220x1.3x10 3 x1.42
ln 530 1
15
24x3600x2 100x10 x60 0.15 2

Pwf = 270.0 - 9.6

Pwf = 260.4bar

(ii) Semi-Steady state flow regime:

Substitute the values into the semi-steady state flow equation

P Pwf =

qBo re 3
ln
2kh rw 4

Pwf = P

qBo re 3
ln
2kh rw 4

220x1.3x10 3 x1.42
ln 530 3
15
24x3600x2 100x10 x60 0.15 4
Pwf = 270.0 - 9.3
Pwf = 270

Pwf = 260.7bar

28

Model Solutions to Examination

The main differences in the flow regimes is the effect of time. In the
steady state flow regime, there is the assumption that the original
pressure perturbation produced by opening the well has travelled
through the reservoir to the oil water contact. There has been an
influx from the aquifer of equal magnitude as that removed at the
well, and the pressure profile that has developed in the reservoir is
now constant and doesnt vary with time.

In contrast, pressure perturbation in the reservoir in a semi-steady

state flow regime has also reached the outer boundary, but there is no
influx. The pressure at the boundary falls, as does the absolute
pressure at every point in the reservoir. However, the pressure
gradient at all points within the reservoir remains constant, mimicing
the constant pressure gradient in the steady state flow regime. In this
flow regime, the absolute pressure in the reseroir fluid declines
through time, but the pressure gradient remains the same.

29