Astronomy 5 Life in the Universe

Midterm Exam Study Guide (from TA)

IN ADDITION TO THIS STUDY GUIDE, MAKE SURE TO REVIEW THE
HOMEWORKS!!

The Formation of the Universe

What was the early universe like?
Very hot and dense we know this because the universe is currently expanding
and cooling, and must have been smaller (and therefore hotter) in the past.
Photons were not free to travel, but were trapped between particles
(protons/neutrons/electrons). Radiation pressure was the dominant force.
As the universe expanded and cooled, electrons and protons combined neutral
hydrogen atoms. The photos were then freed, and the universe became
transparent. This is recombination.
Describe structure formation
Tiny fluctuations in the gas caused dark matter to form clumps
The clumps of dark matter attracted baryonic matter (regular, visible matter)
Stars form first, then small galaxies, then through a series of mergers, large
galaxies can form
Large stars life fast and die young (they burn through fuel quickly), so they died
first and seeded the universe with heavy elements
Our solar system is located in the thin plane of the Milky Way, near one of the
spiral arms.

The Formation of the Solar System

How was the Solar System formed?
The Solar System began as a molecular cloud of gas and dust that collapsed
Due to the conservation of angular momentum, a spinning cloud will spin faster
as it collapses.
Due to a combination of conservation of angular momentum and energy, the
collapsing cloud will form a central sphere (the Sun) and a spinning disk of gas
and dust.
The disk of gas and dust will eventually form the planets
Leftover material from planet formation will form the Asteroid Belt, and Kuiper
Belt, where we find comets and asteroids.
How were planets formed?
Rocky planets were formed by the accretion of planetesimals.
Gaseous planets were formed in two stages: first, a core was accreted from rocky
planetesimals (similar to rocky planet formation). Then, when the core has enough

gravitational pull, it will start to accrete gas from the surrounding area. A small
disk will be created around the baby gaseous planet, which will form the gaseous
planets atmosphere and moons.
Jovian planets vs. Terrestrial planets
Jovian (Jupiter-like) planets form beyond the frost line, where molecules like
water and methane can condense.
Jovian planets are mostly gaseous with a small solid core, while terrestrial planets
are mostly rocky (higher density)
Jovian planets are much larger (in mass and radius) compared with terrestrial
planets
Due to their increased gravitational pull, Jovian planets have many moons, while
terrestrial planets have few moons.

The History of the Solar System/Earth

Describe the following major events/eras in the history of the solar system (see chart on
pg. 115)
The moon forming event (Giant Impact Hypothesis, ~4.5 billion years ago)
The Hadean Era (from formation of Earth to 3.8 billion years ago
The Late Heavy Bombardment (3.8 billion years ago)
The Archaean Era (2.5-3.8 billion years ago)
Snowball Earth (2.3 billion years ago)
The Rise of Oxygen (started 2.2 billion years ago)
The Cambrian Explosion (500 million ago)
The colonization of land (began ~475 million years ago)

Life on Earth
What is life? Name (and define) 7 criteria:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Homeostasis
Organization
Metabolism
Growth
Adaption
Response to stimuli
Reproduction
Concept check: Is fire alive? Is a virus alive?

Explain the CO2 Cycle

CO2 starts in magma pools beneath the Earths surface

CO2 is emitted into the atmosphere during volcanic eruptions
CO2 forms an acidic solution in water vapor clouds
CO2 rains down on the oceans of Earth
CO2 bonds with rocks at the bottom of the ocean
Carbonate rocks are carried below the Earths surface by plate tectonics, where
they are melted and the CO2 is freed.
This cycle helps to regulate the temperature of Earths atmosphere by the
regulation of the greenhouse effect.

Explain the Greenhouse Effect

Yellow light from the Sun hits the surface of Earth
Earth absorbs and re-emits that light in the infrared (IR)
IR light tries to escape the Earths atmosphere
Large molecules (greenhouse gases like methane and water vapor) trap IR light
IR light bounces between Earth and the atmosphere
Trapped light raises the temperature of the atmosphere
What are 3 ways that life on Earth could have begun?
1. Life was brought here intact from another planet (Panspermia)
2. Organic materials were brought here by comets and asteroids
3. Organic materials were formed from inorganic materials (Clay Hypothesis)
Explain the Clay Hypothesis
Amino acids can be formed from inorganic materials like those found in the
atmosphere of early Earth (so says the Miller-Urey experiment)
Monomers of RNA can be made from these amino acids.
Long polymer chains can be formed from these monomers by using sticky clay as
a catalyst
Leftover material (mostly lipids) forms a pre-cell or vesicle this is a
membrane which surrounds, protects, and isolates the polymer chains of RNA
Because they are confined in a small space, the strands of RNA start to interact
with each other and replicate themselves (a form of reproduction)
Eventually, some of this RNA evolves to become the more complex, doublestranded DNA.
Describe seafloor spreading:
Magma oozes up through the crust at mid-ocean ridges
As the magma hits the water, it cools and becomes solid (creating a new sea
floor)
Ocean plates move toward continental plates and subduct beneath them, driving
the oceanic crust downwards (plate tectonics is driven by convection in the
mantle).

The ocean floor is constantly being replenished by these mid-ocean ridges

They are also home to black smokers; hydrothermal vents where life may have
arisen

How do we use radioactive elements to measure the age of rocks?

You need to know the half life of the element, the original abundance of the
element, and the current abundance of the parent and/or daughter element.
A half-life is the amount of time it takes for a radioactive element to decay
enough that half of the parent element is left. For example, after 3 half-lives, 1/8
of the original element will be left over.
Every radioactive decay process has a different half life. Depending on the age of
the rock you want to measure, you may use a different element as a tracer.
Also, some elements, like Argon, are not easily trapped in rocks. So if you want to
measure the age of a rock, you may want to use the potassium-argon decay, since
you will already know the original abundance of the daughter element (0).
Two types of radioactive decay are alpha decay (emission of a Helium nucleus)
and beta decay (a neutron turns to a proton and electron):

What is needed to form a strong magnetic field?

A conducting fluid (like molten metal or salt water)
Convective motion (like that in the mantle and outer core of the Earth)
Rapid rotation (the rotation of the Earth provides this)
The magnetic field of the Earth protects us from the Solar wind.

Biochemistry of Life
List types of extremophiles and why they are important for life in the Solar System:
4

Thermophiles: can survive extreme heat; likely found around hot springs and
hydrothermal vents (where life on Earth is thought to originate).
Halophiles: can survive extremely salty environments. An example is a
stromatolite one of the earliest known examples of complex life (3.5 billion
years old)
Endoliths life in rocks or in the pores of minerals. It is thought that life on early
Earth could have survived deep underground. Life on Mars may also be
underground.
Anaerobic organisms can survive without oxygen

Describe the process of translation and transcription:

Transcription:
o DNA is unzipped, and a messenger RNA strand reads off the code for a
single protein.
o junk DNA tells the mRNA when to start and stop reading the code.
o The mRNA leaves the nucleus
Translation
o The mRNA finds a ribosome, which is the factory where the protein chain
will be created.
o The mRNA is fed into the ribosome 3 letters at a time (where each set of 3
letters codes for a different amino acid)
o Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings amino acids to the ribosome and assembles
them according to the instructions from the mRNA.
o A chain of amino acids is thus produced which will later be folded to
create a protein
Describe the structure of DNA:
DNA is shaped like a double helix (twisted ladder)
The backbones (outside) of the helix are made of sugars and phosphates.
The bases (inside) of the helix are the letters of the genetic code
Each base pairs with a specific complementary base (A-T, G-C).
DNA can be unzipped so that one side of it can be read off by RNA
Some sequences in DNA do not code for proteins, but are junk DNA, used
to tell the RNA to start and stop reading code, or leftover mutations from
previous evolutionary stages.

Stellar Evolution and Habitability

Describe the p-p chain:
Overall, 4 protons (hydrogen atom) combine to create a helium atom
This is how the Sun produces energy

Describe the triple-alpha process:

Three helium atoms (alpha particles) combine to form Carbon.
Along the way, they produce Beryllium, which is extremely short lived.
In order to hit the Beryllium with a helium atom before the Beryllium decays, you
need very high temperatures.
Where do the elements come from?
Hydrogen and some helium come from the Big Bang
Other elements were created in the centers of stars and spread through the
universe when the stars die and expel their outer layers in a planetary nebula
Heavy elements like iron were created in the centers of the most massive stars
Elements heavier than iron were created during the explosive deaths of massive
stars (supernovae)